CHAPTER ONE

⦁ INTRODUCTION
Periodic table consists of heavy metals to a notable portion with high density and atomic

weight. Among them, the majorities are found in the biosphere, such as in water, soils,

and rocks, and are also released into the surroundings from anthropogenic resources,

mostly commercial and industrial. The toxic principles of heavy metals have been known

for decades. However, recent experimental investigations show that some, including

nickel, copper, and zinc, are vital for humans and are widespread in nature (Azeh Engwa

et al., 2019). Manganese is found all over the world and makes about 0.1 percent of the

earth’s crust. However, heavy metals have such a number of undesirable repercussions on

the environment; for example, the conversion of mercury into methylmercury in the

presence of water creates sediments with high toxicity. Chromium is used extensively in

industry and can be carcinogenic. However, some heavy metals are involved in the

control of certain physiologic bodily functions. Naturally found vital heavy metals

penetrate into the body via food, air, and water, where they regulate numerous biological

activities (Abraham et al., 2017)

Most of the toxic heavy metals including lead, thallium, cadmium, and antimony, are

common in industrial operations and are substantial polluters of the environment.

Thallium has a more severe effect than other heavy metals, but is less abundant in nature.

It is a cause of alopecia in humans. The benefits of heavy metals are generally

outweighed by their hazards; for example, carcinogenicity is promoted by high exposure

to antimony and chromium lead poisoning causes intellectual abnormalities in children.

1
Mercury toxicity causes Minamata disease, while cadmium poisoning causes itai-itai

disease.

Heavy metals can also cause toxicity in certain organs of the human body, such as

nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, skin toxicity, and cardiovascular toxicity,

among other things. To avoid toxic effects, it is necessary for people to move away from

industrial areas where heavy metal emission is considerable.

Many treatment procedures have been developed to counteract the toxicity of heavy

metals. Natural products are being efficiently used to treat the adverse consequences.

Medicinal herbs and natural products for the treatment of various diseases have been

around for almost the entire survival of mankind. One of the most significant advantages

of traditional or plant-based medicine seems to be its perceived effectiveness, as well as

its low frequency of severe adverse responses and its relatively cheap cost.

Experimentally induced heavy metal toxicity in laboratory animals was significantly

reduced using a variety of medicinal herbs and natural products (Masindi et al., 2014).

1.1 SOURCES OF HEAVY METALS

Most prevalently, heavy metals can be found as hydroxides, oxides, sulphides, sulphates,

phosphates, silicates, carbonates, and organic matrix amongst others. They emanate from

natural and anthropogenic sources. However, anthropogenic sources have been classified

as the main source and route in which heavy metals are distribute to different

compartments of the environment. Transport media are mainly water, soil and air. Heavy

metal laddened fractions will be released to the atmosphere, aqua-sphere and the

2
terrasphere via those transport media. A process depicting different sources of heavy

metals and their trans-sphere migration is shown below.

1.3 NATURAL SOURCES HEAVY METAL

Naturally, heavy metals can emanate from the following processes: leaching, weathering,

volcanic eruptions, decomposition, and seismic activities amongst others. A schematic

configuration demonstrating the process flow of heavy metals and their trans-sphere migration in

a natural process.

1.3.1 Weathering

Weathering refers to a process, which breaks down rocks, soil, and minerals via their

contact with the atmosphere, water, and living organisms. Weathering is an onsite

process and it does not involve the movement of weathered materials. Specifically,

weathering can be a physical, biological, and chemical process. Physical weathering

entails the breakdown of heavy metals containing minerals via direct contact with micro-

climatic conditions such as heat, water, ice and pres 151 sure. On the other hand, chemical

weathering entails the reaction of chemicals in 152 the rocks with micro-climatic

conditions leading to the release of heavy metals from the host rock to the surrounding

environment. Both physical and chemical weathering can occur concomitantly or

subsequently in any given system. To be precise, a macule process which entails the

physical abrasion of soil or rock par1ticles by their movement of their surface leading to a

reduction in their respective sizes hence increasing surface area, and making them more

susceptible to chemi158 cal reactions and chemical attacks. Biological process entails the

breaking down of rocks and soil molecules in the quest for nutrients for plants growth or

3
for microorganisms to survive. The abstraction of nutrient leaves the rock vulnerable to

other reactions. Breaking of rocks by plant roots to anchor a tree also lead to rocks

disintegration and weathering (Hou et al., 2019).

Minerals will therefore, be broken down into minute molecules and get converted to

secondary minerals in certain circumstances. Minerals from the weathered rocks

comprise problematic heavy metals that are of paramount concern in the environment.

Colloidal chemistry has denoted that, heavy metals exist as abundant trace elements in

the earth crust with the concentration of metals ranging from ppm to ppb. This also

communicates to their toxicity 170 since these elements are valuable to living organisms,

however, to a certain extent or limit. Moreover, due to geochemical processes, heavy

metals are released from the surrounding geologies, lithologies and strata to the

environment. This also depends on a number of factors such as the physical activities

taking place in the weathered area, micro-organisms to aid in the leaching processes, and

the chemistry of the rock being attacked by aqueous medium. Natural weathering of bed

rock has often resulted in the release of these metals into the environment and led to the

enrichment of soil particles with heavy metals. Other natural processes that result in the

release of heavy metals are volcanic eruptions, decaying of vegetation, comets, erosion

due to insufficient soil cover and heavy rainfall (Nriagu, 2011).

1.3.2 Leaching

Leaching is the release of heavy metals from soil matrices using different leachants. A

Leachant can be water, acid, base and other organic compounds. In most instances, rainfall

and rocks fractures on the surface, the leachable fraction get into contact with aqueous

4
media hence leading to the leaching of metals from the surrounding geology. This also

depends on a number of factors such as the pH of the leaching solution, the buffering

minerals, solubility and susceptibility of the rocks (Park et al., 2019).

5
Chemical processing industry and metallurgical processes, leaching has a numerous

applications, including separation of metal from ore using acid, and other leachants. Leaching

is influenced by desorption, complexation processes as affected by pH, redox, dissolved

organic matter and microbiological processes. The process itself is universal, as any material

exposed to contact with water will leach components from its surface or its interior depending

on the porosity of the material considered hence water is a universal solvent.

1.3.3 Volcanic Eruption

Volcanic eruption is a natural process. It leads to the emission of particles to the earth surface.

In most instances, the ash from volcanic eruptions also contain heavy metals that are toxic to

the environment and living organisms. They usually get transported to the environment during

rainfall since they will be washed off to the environment. Volcanic dust which is a component

of volcanic ash that get ejected during volcanic eruptions. They usually fly under the influence

of wind, and then falls onto the ground during rainfall and when conditions are favorable.

Volcano is formed from the dissolution of metals from the earth crust hence the resultant

product is rich in heavy metals. According to the literature, volcano ash can contain Pb, Zn, Cu,

Cd, Cr, Fe, and Al amongst other contaminants. The trace metals contained in the volcanic dust

falling onto ground migrate to the soil where they dissolve in water depending on redox,

temperature and pH and they then get adsorbed by soil particles (Nriagu, 2011).

1.3.4 Seismic Activities

Seismic activities such as earthquakes lead to the release of heavy metals into the environment.

During earthquake the underground geology, get fractured hence exposing oxidisable and

reactive materials to oxidizing conditions. During rainfall and underground leakages, water will

react with fractured components of the soil hence leading to the release of heavy metals to the

environment. 6
1.3.5 Decaying of Organic Matter

Living organisms absorb metals and other chemicals as their nutrients. These nutrients or

metals are essential for their growth. To a certain extent, plant can phyto- remediate the soil

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Research

This report aims to provide a clear explanation of the toxic consequences of heavy to

human and the impact on the environment.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 EFFECT OF HEAVY METALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Heavy metals naturally occur in the environment and are vital for survival, but they may

become hazardous when they accumulate in organisms. A few of the most frequent heavy

metals that contaminate the environment include mercury, cadmium, arsenic, chromium,

nickel, copper, and lead. Cadmium is released into the atmosphere as a result of natural

or manmade activities and animals and humans can be exposed to it differently.

Cadmium pollution of the aquatic environment occurs through absorption, industrial

waste, and surface runoff into sediments soil and sediments. People can be poisoned by

cadmium via ingesting food, breathing air, or drinking water rich in the metal. Cadmium

does not have any attributes that are helpful for plant growth and metabolic processes

(Saleh, 2018).

Heavy metals naturally occur in the environment and are vital for survival, but they may

become hazardous when they accumulate in organisms. A few of the most frequent heavy

metals that contaminate the environment include mercury, cadmium, arsenic, chromium,

nickel, copper, and lead (Hazrat et al., 2019).

Heavy metals are naturally present in our environment. They are present in the

atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Although these heavy metals are

present in the ecosystem, their exposure to humans is through various anthropogenic

activities of man. In the earth crust, these heavy metals are present in ores which are

recovered during mining activities as minerals. In most ores heavy metals such as arsenic,
iron, lead, zinc, gold, nickel, silver and cobalt exist as sulfides while others such as
manganese, aluminum, selenium gold, and antimony exist as oxides. Certain heavy
8
metals such as copper, iron and cobalt can exist both as sulfide and oxide ores. Some
sulfides may contain two or more heavy metals together such as chalcopyrite, (CuFeS 2)
which contains both copper and iron. During these mining activities, heavy metals are
released from the ore and scattered in open in the environment; left in the soil,
transported by air and water to other areas. Furthermore, when these heavy metals are
used in the industries for various industrial purposes, some of these elements are released
into the air during combustion or into the soil or water bodies as effluents. More so, the
industrial products such as paints, cosmetics, pesticides, and herbicides also serve as
sources of heavy metals. Heavy metals may be transported through erosion, run-off or
acid rain to different locations on soils and water bodies. As

reviewed from, the sources of specific heavy metals are described below.

Arsenic

Arsenic is the 20th most abundant element on earth and the 33rd on the periodic table.

The inorganic forms such as arsenite and arsenate compounds are lethal to humans and

other organisms in the environment. Humans get in contact with arsenic through several

means which include industrial sources such as smelting and microelectronic industries.

Drinking water may be contaminated with arsenic which is present in wood preservatives,

herbicides, pesticides, fungicides and paints.

Cadmium is released into the atmosphere as a result of natural or manmade activities and

animals and humans can be exposed to it differently. Cadmium pollution of the aquatic

9
environment occurs through absorption, industrial waste, and surface runoff into

sediments soil and sediments. People can be poisoned by cadmium via ingesting food,

breathing air, or drinking water rich in the metal. Cadmium does not have any attributes

that are helpful for plant growth and metabolic processes (Hayat et al., 2018).

Mercury is an extremely hazardous heavy metal that may be found in biosphere. Due to

human activities, it has also become a widespread contaminant and is increasing in the

atmosphere. Mercury converts to the highly toxic methylmercury when in contact with

aquatic sediments (Gworek et al., 2020). Methylmercury enters the human body through

the food chain via fish, seafood, and wildlife, which become contaminated after ingestion

of toxic microorganisms. It penetrates the circulation after being absorbed into the human

body and causes a variety of neurological problems (Rice et al., 2014). Lead is a non-

biodegradable metal that is available in nature and found in relatively low amounts.

Atmospheric lead levels are increasing continuously because of the human activities

including manufacturing, mining, and fossil fuel burning. Lead is toxic to the human

body when exposed to amounts greater than the optimum. Children are at higher risk of

lead poisoning; when they come into contact with dust laden with environmental lead, the

severity of poisoning increases (Loh et al., 2016).

Manganese, the most plentiful of the toxic heavy metals, is found in various oxidation

states in nature. During combustion of methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl

(MMT), an additive in gasoline, manganese oxides are emitted into the air. Although

manganese is required for a variety of physiological activities, excessive consumption

results in substantial toxicity (Loranger and Zayed, 1995, O’Neal and Zheng, 2015).

Mercury is an extremely hazardous heavy metal that may be found in biosphere. Due to

human activities, it has also become a widespread contaminant and is increasing in the

10
atmosphere. Mercury converts to the highly toxic methylmercury when in contact with

aquatic sediments. Methylmercury enters the human body through the food chain via

fish, seafood, and wildlife, which become contaminated after ingestion of toxic

microorganisms. It penetrates the circulation after being absorbed into the human body

and causes a variety of neurological problems.

Lead is a non-biodegradable metal that is available in nature and found in relatively low

amounts. Atmospheric lead levels are increasing continuously because of the human

activities including manufacturing, mining, and fossil fuel burning. Lead is toxic to the

human body when exposed to amounts greater than the optimum. Children are at higher

risk of lead poisoning; when they come into contact with dust laden with environmental

lead, the severity of poisoning increases.

Manganese, the most plentiful of the toxic heavy metals, is found in various oxidation

states in nature. During combustion of methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl

(MMT), an additive in gasoline, manganese oxides are emitted into the air. Although

manganese is required for a variety of physiological activities, excessive consumption

results in substantial toxicity.

Chromium is a cancerous and toxic element. In the environment, it exists in two stable

oxidation states: chromium (III) and chromium (IV) (VI). Chromium (III) is a less

hazardous form of chromium (VI). They can interconvert to each other during industrial

operations. However, conversion of chromium (VI) to chromium (III) is less harmful to

the environment because the latter is lower in toxicity. Chromium is used in many

industries that pose a threat to regional climates. In comparison to natural chromium

emissions from the environment, ferrochrome industry emissions are at the highest level.

(Sarah et al., 2019).

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Cobalt is found in abundance across the environment, such as vegetation, soils, rocks, and

water and is utilized to make alloys. Although its rate of discharge is low, it is highly

dangerous to humans. Cobalt affects the human body in both beneficial and harmful

aspects. The little amounts of cobalt usually have no negative consequences, but massive

discharges into the environment can cause fatalities. Nickel is a naturally abundant

element and has extensive industrial uses. It is emitted from both natural and

anthropogenic sources into the atmosphere. It has many adverse effects on humans, and

causes allergies, nasal and lung cancer, and kidney and cardiovascular diseases owing to

the inhalation of contaminated air.

Copper is recognized as a vital micronutrient for living organisms. It has a role in normal

physiological functions of plants, such as formation of chlorophyll, photosynthesis, and

carbohydrate and protein metabolism. Copper deficiency alters important metabolic

processes, and elevated exposure causes toxicity.

1. Soil Contamination: Heavy metals can accumulate in soil through various sources

such as industrial activities, mining, and the use of contaminated fertilizers or pesticides.

This contamination can have long-lasting effects on soil quality, reducing its fertility and

inhibiting the growth of plants. It can also lead to the bioaccumulation of heavy metals in

crops, potentially posing health risks to humans and animals that consume them.

2. Water Pollution: Heavy metals can enter water bodies through industrial

discharges, runoff from contaminated soil, and improper disposal of waste. Once in

water, they can persist for a long time and accumulate in aquatic ecosystems. Heavy

metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, and arsenic are particularly toxic to aquatic life,

12
causing reduced reproductive success, impaired growth, and even death. Contaminated

water can also pose risks to human health if used for drinking or irrigation.

3. Air Pollution: Industrial activities, incineration, and vehicle emissions can release

heavy metals into the air in the form of particulate matter or gases. These pollutants can

travel long distances and settle onto soil and water surfaces, contributing to soil and

water contamination. In addition, inhalation of airborne heavy metals can be harmful to

human health, causing respiratory problems and other health issues.

4. Biodiversity Loss: Heavy metal pollution can disrupt ecosystems and lead to the

loss of biodiversity. Many organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, are

sensitive to heavy metals and cannot tolerate high concentrations. This can result in a

decline in populations, loss of species diversity, and disruption of ecological processes

such as nutrient cycling.

5. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification: Heavy metals have the ability to

accumulate in the tissues of organisms, leading to bioaccumulation and biomagnification

along the food chain. This means that organisms at higher trophic levels, such as

predators, can accumulate higher concentrations of heavy metals than those lower in the

food chain. This bioaccumulation can pose significant risks to predators, including

humans, that consume contaminated organisms.

13
14
2.2 EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS IN HUMANS

2.2.1 Neurotoxicity

As an essential element, manganese is involved in several physiological functions of the

body. Its acute exposure exerts potential neuroprotective action by reducing apoptotic

cellular death but exposure to a large quantity may induce harmful conditions alike

neurological complications, such as alzheimer and parkinson disease which leads to

apoptotic cell death and alteration of homeostasis (Abraham et al. 2017). Homeostasis of

the cellular Mn relies on sufficient intake, storage, as well as excretion via different cell

receptors and ion channels. The receptors associated with metal up taking are

downregulated by homeostatic pathways in terms of excessive Mn exposure, whereas

those engaging in its discharge from this cell become up-regulated. However, ongoing

Mn accumulation leads to the increased formation of ROS, which contributes to

mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial dysfunctions result in the discharge of

cytochrome c, stimulating the apoptosis precursor caspase-9, by which caspase-3 cleaves.

The cleaved caspase-3 fragment binds to a pro-apoptotic protein, PKCd (protein kinase C

delta). The proteolytic cleavage of PKCd induced by Caspase-3 contributes to DNA

fragmentation, as well as apoptosis.

The central nervous system suffers from cognitive impairment when arsenic is consumed.

It’s also linked to a number of neurological illnesses, including neurodevelopmental

changes, and leads to excessive of neurodegenerative diseases. Arsenic poisoning also

causes changes in synaptic transmission and neurotransmitter balance. Additionally, the

neurotoxic effects of arsenic are attributed to induce multiple apoptotic mechanisms.

Firstly, arsenic and its methylated metabolites facilitates caspase- induced apoptosis in

neural cells via the MAPK signaling pathways that include the ERK 2, JNK, or p38;

15
follow the intrinsic mitochondrial-apoptotic mechanisms. Besides, arsenic initiates

intracellular calcium upturn that arbitrates apoptosis. On the contrary, cellular apoptosis

can be mediated by activation of autophagy via the stimulation of the AMPK as well as

inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Autophagy is referred to a

homeostatic manner where double-membraned autophagosome erupt cellular constituents

to be eventually degraded when fused with lysosomes (Santos et at., 2012).

2.2.2 Nephrotoxicity

Nephrotoxicity induced by cadmium leads to intense clinical symptoms such as

glucosuria, Fanconi-like syndrome, phosphaturia, and aminoaciduria. The proximal

tubular epithelium is affected by direct exposure to the kidneys, resulting in a significant

level of cadmium in urine, aminoaciduria, 32-microglobulinuria, and glucosuria, as well

as impaired renal tubular phosphate reabsorption. Renal tubular acidosis, renal failure,

and hypercalciuria can all result from excessive exposure. Lead has deleterious effects in

all organs, but it has the greatest influence on the kidneys. Acute lead nephropathy causes

proximal tubular dysfunction, resulting in Fanconi-like syndrome. Chronic lead

nephropathy can be characterized by hyperplasia, interstitial fibrosis, and atrophy of the

tubules, renal failure, and glomerulonephritis (Aggarwal et al., 2007).

Acute exposure of the kidneys to mercury causes acute tubular necrosis, and has many

clinical symptoms, such as acute dyspnea, altered mental status, abdominal pain, profuse

salivation, tremors, vomiting, chills, and hypotension. In contrast, chronic exposure to

mercury causes injury to the epithelium and necrosis in the pars recta of the proximal

tubule. Tubular failure, higher urine excretion of albumin and retinol-binding protein, and

a nephritic state with a characteristic of membranous nephropathy are all symptoms of

mercury-induced chronic kidney injury. Thallium sulfate excretion via the kidneys is
16
delayed and can take up to two months after consumption. Toxic injury to the kidneys is

indicated by albuminuria and hematuria. However, thallium poisoning does not cause

gross diminishment of renal function.

2.2.3 Skin toxicity

The skin, the body’s outermost organ, serves as a barrier against different contaminants.

Contact with chromium causes a variety of acute and chronic severe dermatological

consequences, including contact dermatitis, systemic contact dermatitis, and skin cancer.

Contact dermatitis is a common skin disorder characterized by delayed hypersensitivity

as a result of recurrent dermal contact with allergens. Systemic contact dermatitis is a

kind of dermatitis induced by systemic exposure to an allergen, which causes the skin to

become sensitive through direct dermal contact at first. Many skin infections are caused

by mercury and mercury containing compounds, including such acrodynia (pink disease),

a common dermatological ailment in which the skin becomes pink when exposed to

heavy metals, particularly mercury. People tattooed with the red pigments cadmium

sulfide and mercury sulfide may have inflammation restricted to specific areas typically

within six months after getting tattooed. Moderate swelling, scaling, vesiculation, and

irritation are symptoms of acute contact dermatitis caused by mercury-containing

substances. According to several studies, mercury poisoning is the most prevalent cause

of dermatological problem. (Abraham, 2017).

2.2.4 Reproductive and developmental toxicity

Arsenic is a known reproductive toxin in humans, and it causes abnormalities in

experimental animals, particularly neural tube anomalies. Inorganic arsenic impairs male

reproduction by reducing the weights of the testes, the accessory sex organs, and the

number of sperm in the epididymis. Aside from affecting sperm production, inorganic
17
arsenic exposure also causes variations in testosterone and gonadotropin levels, as well as

disturbances in the steroidogenesis process. In females, arsenic consumption is associated

with an increased incidence of endometrial cancer. Endometrial angiogenesis, which is

critical for embryo development, is then impaired by arsenic exposure during pregnancy.

Symptoms of endometriosis, subfertility, prematurity, sterility, and spontaneous abortions

are all caused by these conditions (Sadorsky, 2014).

Several studies conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO) have found that

more than 10% of women are at risk of infertility because of their exposure to heavy

metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, and other pollutants, which are the most

common environmental contaminants that can cause reproductive disorders. According to

a study conducted by the WHO, the condition of infertility is mostly more prevalent in

women than in men. Ovulation disturbances are a frequent cause of subfertility in

women. Ovulation disturbances are characterized by irregular or absent menstrual cycles,

and they may be corrected with the use of reproductive hormones. The risk of infertility

in women elevated as a result of increasing levels of toxin exposure

18
 CHAPTER THREE

⦁ Conclusion

Most heavy metals exist in the environment and occur naturally. Some toxic heavy metals

are emitted into the environment from anthropogenic sources. Exposure of the human

body to heavy metals is either environmental, because the metal already exists in nature,

or through foreign sources. The routes of ingestion may be different. It is necessary to

understand how the heavy metals penetrate the body and the severity of toxicity and rate

of fatality. After our comprehensive review, we conclude that the oral route is a common

means of ingestion of heavy metals. Excessive levels cause significant damage to every

organ of the body and can display neurological defects, respiratory disorder. Below is a

table indicating the recommended limit for heavy metals in portable water and their side

effects.

Table 1 Recommended Limits for Heavy Metals in Potable Water and their toxic effects.
Heavy Chronic health limit Health effects
metal (μg/L)
WHO EPA DWS (Ayangbenro and Babalola 2017,
(UN (EPA (DWS EPA 2009,
2007) 2009) 2015) Tchounwou et al. 2012, Verma
and Dwivedi 2013)
As 10 10 10 Cancer (skin, bladder, liver,
kidney), cardiovascular disease,
nervous system problems
Cd 3 5 3 Renal dysfunction, cadmium
pneumonitis, bone disease, kidney
disease
Cr 50 100 50 Dermatitis, male reproductive
system damage, lung cancer
Cu 2000 1300 2000 Anemia, liver and kidney damage.
Pb 10 15 10 Loss of memory, high blood
pressure, short attention span

19
 Hg 1 2 6 Blindness, dementia,
gastrointestinal problems, kidney
damage, decreased fertility
Ni 70 – 70 Increased risk of cancer (lung,
nasal), kidney failure, and
cardiovascular diseases
Se 10 50 30 Liver damage, hair or nail loss,
numbness on fingers or toes
Zn 3000 5000 5000 Anemia, kidney and liver failure,
prostate cancer
t3.2 t3.3 t3.4 t3.5 t3.6 t3.7 t3.8 t3.9 t3.10 t3.11 t

20
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