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CHAPTER FIVE
CLIMATE VARIABILITY

Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to
1. identify the different factors affecting climate
2. explain climatic classification
3. describe climate system’s five major components
4. identify how people adapted in various ways to the climate in which they live.
5. describe climate change, its causes, effects, mitigation and adaptation.
Introduction
Climate is the average weather in a given area over a longer period of time. A
description of a climate includes information on, e.g. the average temperature in
different seasons, rainfall, and sunshine. Also a description of the extremes is often
included.
Do you know what mitigation and adaptation measures can be taken to fight
climate change? When it comes to tackling climate change to prevent the impacts it
causes in the different systems of the planet, the human being applies two types of
measures: mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation measures are those actions that are
taken to reduce and curb greenhouse gas emissions, while adaptation measures are
based on reducing vulnerability to the effects of climate change. Mitigation,
therefore, attends to the causes of climate change, while adaptation addresses its
impacts.

5.1 Climate
The term climate refers to the long-term averages of insolation (solar
radiation absorbed by Earth), temperature, precipitation, cloud cover, air masses,
atmospheric pressure, winds, and cloud coverage. Of these, temperature and
precipitation are the most important factors in establishing climate type. A place may
have rain on one day, clear conditions for a week, and then have cloudy skies the next
day followed by a hailstorm. Daily weather variability in any given place may be quite
dramatic. Or the weather may be predictably uniform from day to day. The equatorial
regions exhibit this kind of weather: warm temperatures, afternoon showers, slightly
cooler nights, and then the repeat of the preceding day's weather.
Whether the daily weather occurrences at a place are extremely variable or
predictably uniform, it is the long-term averages of the weather factors that will be used
to determine the climate of a place. Scientists in early Greece devised a very simple and
straightforward climatic system for the Earth, as they knew it. The system was
composed of three zones or klimata. The zone occupied by the Greeks and other culture
groups living near the Mediterranean Sea was called the Temperate Zone. This zone had
temperature and precipitation values that made it ideal for human occupation.
To the south of the temperate zone was the Torrid Zone, an area simply too hot
and debilitating for humans to survive. At the time of the development of this climatic

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system, no one from the temperate zone had traveled very far to the south and certainly
not to the equatorial area. Consequently, a great deal of speculation centered on the
region and what manner of protection any inhabitants would have to ward off the
blistering rays of the sun. There was conjecture that a resident in this region would have
feet large enough to extend over his head umbrella fashion to block the sun's rays.
To the north of the Temperate Zone was the Frigid Zone, the unexplored area too
cold for humans to survive. As simplistic as this three-zone system may sound today, it
was nevertheless based on sound logic: Places to the south of the Greek homeland are
warmer and places to the north are colder. These are true observations. However, today
we can add immeasurably to the descriptions of our climatic systems and refine them to
take into account even subtle changes from place to place.

The climate of a place will be different when compared to another. The reasons
for these differences can be quite complex but there are some general factors that can
be identified as affecting climate.
5.2 Factors Affecting Climate
Different regions of the world have differences in
temperature, humidity and precipitation. You know that
these differences influence the lifestyle of the people living
under different climatic conditions. Solar radiation is
probably the most important element of climate. Solar
radiation first and foremost heats the Earth's surface which
in turn determines the temperature of the air above. The
receipt of solar radiation drives evaporation, so long as there
is water available. Heating of the air determines its stability,
which affects cloud development and precipitation. Unequal heating of the Earth's
surface creates pressure gradients that result in wind. All the characteristics of climate
can be traced back to the receipt of solar radiation.

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To understand different climatic conditions, let us discuss the factors which cause
the variations in the climate of a place or a region.

a. Latitude or Distance from the Equator

Latitude starting at the equator, latitude increases from 0° to 90° as you move
toward the North Pole or the South Pole. The amount of solar energy per unit of Earth’s
surface area depends on latitude. Figure 1 shows that locations close to the equator
receive more solar energy per unit of surface area annually than locations located farther
north or south. This is due mainly to the fact that Earth’s curved surface causes the angle
of the Sun’s rays to spread out over a larger area. Locations near the equator also tend
to have warmer climates than locations at higher latitudes. Polar regions are colder
because annually they receive less solar energy per unit of surface area. In the middle
latitudes, between 30° and 60°, summers are generally hot and winters are usually cold.
Therefore, lower the latitude higher is the temperature and vice versa. Philippines which
is near the equator is warmer than England which is far way from the equator.

b. Altitude or the Height from the mean sea level

Climate is also influenced by altitude. Recall that temperature decreases as altitude
increases in the troposphere. So, as you climb a tall mountain you might experience the
same cold, snowy climate that is near the poles. The figure shows the difference in
average temperatures between two cities in Colorado at different altitudes at the latitude.
The temperature decreases with
the height of a place. For a
vertical rise of 165 metres there is
an average decrease in
temperature at the rate of 1°C.
Thus the temperature decreases
with increase in height.

c. Continentally or the
Distance from the Sea
The water is a bad conductor
of heat i.e. it takes longer time to heat and longer time to cool. Due to this moderating
effect of the sea, places near the coast have low range of temperature and high humidity.
The places in the interior of the continent do not experience moderating effect of the
sea. These places have extreme temperatures. The places far from the sea have higher
range of diurnal (daily) and annual temperatures. Mumbai has relatively lower
temperature and higher rainfall than Nagpur, although both are almost situated on the
same latitude.

d. Nature of the Prevailing Winds

The on-shore winds bring the moisture from the sea and cause rainfall on the
area through which they pass. The off-shore winds coming from the land are dry and
help in evaporation. In India, the on-shore summer monsoon winds bring rains while
off-shore winter monsoon winds are generally dry.

e. Cloud Cover
In areas generally of cloudless sky as in deserts, temperature even under shade
are very high because of the hot day time sunshine. At night this heat radiates back from
the ground very rapidly. It results in a large diurnal range in temperature.

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f. Ocean Currents
Ocean waters move from one place to another partly as an attempt to equalize
temperature and density of water. Ocean currents are large movements of water
usually from a place of warm temperature to one of cooler temperature or vice-versa.
The warm ocean currents raise the temperature of the coast and sometimes bring rainfall,
while the cold currents
lower the temperature and create fog near the coast. The on-shore winds passing over a
warm current carry warm air to the interior and raise the temperature of the inland areas.
Similarly, the winds blowing over cold current carry cold air to the interior and create
fog and mist.

g. Rain Shadows
Mountains influence climate because they are barriers to prevailing winds. This
leads to unique precipitation patterns called rain shadows. An area of low rainfall on the
downwind slope (windward side)
of a mountain is called a rain
shadow, as shown in Figure 3.
Different amounts of precipitation
on either side of a mountain range
influence the types of vegetation
that grow. Abundant amounts of
vegetation grow on the side of the
mountain exposed to the
Figure 3 Rain shadows form on the downwind slope of a mountain.
precipitation. The amount of
vegetation on the downwind slope (leeward side) is sparse due to the dry weather.

h. Slope and the Aspect

The concentration of heat being more on the gentler slope raises the temperature of
air above them. Its lesser concentration along steeper slopes lowers the temperature. At
the same time, mountain slopes facing the sun are warmer than the slopes which
are away from the sun’s rays. The southern slopes of Himalaya are warmer than the
northern slopes.

i. The Nature of the Soil and Vegetation Cover

The nature of soil depends upon its texture, structure and composition. These,
qualities vary from soil to soil. Stony or sandy soils are good conductor of heat while
black clay soils absorb the heat of the sun’s rays quickly. The bare surface reradiates
the heat easily. The deserts are hot in the day and cold in the night. The forest areas have
lower range of temperature throughout the year in contrast to non-forested areas.

5.3 Classification of Climate

What is the climate of any particular region on Earth? This can be a difficult
question to answer because many factors affect climate. In 1918 German scientist
Wladimir Köppen (vlah DEE mihr • KAWP pehn) developed a system for classifying
the world’s many climates. Köppen classified a region’s climate by studying its
temperature, precipitation, and native vegetation. Native vegetation is often limited to
particular climate conditions. For example, you would not expect to find a warm-desert
cactus growing in the cold, snowy arctic. Köppen identified five climate types. A
modified version of Köppen’s classification system:

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A: Tropical. In this hot and humid zone, the average temperatures are greater
than 64°F (18°C) year-round and there is more than 59 inches of precipitation each
year.
There are three climate types in the tropical group: tropical wet; tropical
monsoon and dry.
1.Tropical Wet: Rainforests
Places with a tropical wet climate are also known as rainforests. These equatorial
regions have the most predictable weather on Earth, with warm temperatures and
regular rainfall. Annual rainfall exceeds 150 centimeters (59 inches), and the
temperature varies more during a day than it does over a year. The coolest temperatures,
about 20° to 23° Celsius (68°-73° Fahrenheit), occurs just before dawn. Afternoon
temperatures usually reach 30° to 33° Celsius (86°-91° Fahrenheit). Rainforests
experience very little seasonal change, meaning average monthly temperatures remain
fairly constant throughout the year. Tropical wet climates exist in a band extending
about 10° of latitude on either side of the Equator. This part of the globe is always under
the influence of the intertropical convergence zone. The ITCZ follows a pendulum-like
path during the course of a year, moving back and forth across the Equator with the
seasons. It moves north during summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and south during
the northern winter. Some tropical wet climates are wet throughout the year. Others
experience more rainfall during the summer or winter, but they never have especially
dry seasons. The U.S. state of Hawaii; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and Belém, Brazil, are
examples of areas with tropical wet climates.

2.Tropical Monsoon
Tropical monsoon climates are most found in southern Asia and West Africa. A
monsoon is a wind system that reverses its direction every six months. Monsoons
usually flow from sea to land in the summer, and from land to sea in the winter.
Summer monsoons bring large amounts of rainfall to tropical monsoon regions. People
living in these regions depend on the seasonal rains to bring water to their crops. India
and Bangladesh are famous for their monsoon climate patterns.

3. Tropical Wet and Dry: Savanna

Tropical wet and dry climates are sometimes called “savanna” climates after the
grass- land ecosystem defined by wet and dry periods.Tropical wet and dry climates sit
just outside the ITCZ, near the Equator. They have three seasons. One season is cool
and dry—when the warm, moist ITCZ is in the opposite hemisphere. Another season is
hot and dry as the ITCZ approaches. The last season is hot and wet as the ITCZ arrives
and the region experiences months as a tropical wet climate. Life in these tropical wet
and dry regions depends on the wet season’s rains. During years when rains are light,
people and animals suffer through drought. During especially rainy years, regions may
experience flooding. Havana, Cuba; Kolkata, India; and Africa’s vast Serengeti Plain
are in the wet and dry tropics.

B: Dry. These climate zones are so dry because moisture is rapidly evaporated from
the air and there is very little precipitation.
Regions lying within the dry climate group occur where precipitation is low. There
are two dry climate types: arid and semiarid. Most arid climates receive 10 to 30
centimeters (four to 12 inches) of rain each year, and semiarid climates receive enough
to support extensive grasslands. Temperatures in both arid and semiarid climates show
large daily and seasonal variations. The hottest spots in the world are in arid climates.
The temperature in the arid Death Valley National Park, California, U.S., reached 56.7°

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Celsius (134° Fahrenheit) on July 10, 1913—the highest temperature ever recorded.
Although rainfall is limited in all dry climates, there are a few parts of the world where
it never rains. One of the driest places on Earth is the Atacama Desert of Chile,on
the west coast of South America. Stretches of the Atacama may have never received
rain in recorded history. Semiarid regions, such as the Australian outback, usually
receive between 25 and 50 centimeters (10-20 inches) of rainfall every year. They are
often located between arid and
tropical climate regions.
Arid and semiarid climates can occur where the movement of warm, moist air is
blocked by mountains. Denver, Colorado, just east of the U.S. section of the Rocky
Mountains, has this type of dry climate, known as a “rain shadow.”

C: Temperate/ mild climates. In this zone, there are typically warm and humid
summers with thunderstorms and mild winters. Regions with mild and continental
climates are also called temperate regions. Both climate types have distinct cold seasons.
In these parts of the world, climate is influenced mostly by latitude and a region’s
position on the continent.

1.Mediterranean. Mediterranean climates have warm summers and short, mild,

rainy winters. Mediterranean climates are found on the west coasts of continents
between 30° and 40° latitude, and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.
Mediterranean summers feature clear skies, cool nights, and little rain.

2. Humid Subtropical. Humid subtropical climates are usually found on the

eastern sides of continents. In cities such as Savannah, Georgia, in the U.S.; Shanghai,
China; and Sydney, Australia, summers are hot and humid. Winter can be severely cold.
Precipitation is spread evenly through the year and totals 76 to 165 centimeters (30-65
inches). Hurricanes and other violent storms are common in these regions.

3.Marine West Coast Weather on both sides of a continent generally becomes

cooler as latitude increases. The marine west coast climate, a type of mild
climate typical of cities such as Seattle, Washington, in the U.S. and Wellington, New
Zealand, has a longer, cooler winter than the Mediterranean climate. Drizzle falls about
two-thirds of winter days, and temperatures average about 5° Celsius (41° Fahrenheit).

D. Continental. These regions have warm to cool summers and very cold winters.
In the winter, this zone can experience snowstorms, strong winds, and very cold
temperatures—sometimes falling below -22°F (-30°C). Areas with continental climates
have colder winters, longer-lasting snow, and shorter growing seasons. They are the
transition zones between mild and polar climates. Continental climates experience
extreme seasonal changes. The range of weather in continental climate regions makes
them among the most spectacular sites for weather phenomena. In autumn, for instance,
vast forests put on their annual show of brilliant color before shedding their leaves as
winter approaches. Thunderstorms and tornadoes, among the most powerful forces in
nature, form mostly in continental climates
There are three types of continental climate—warm summer, cool summer, and
subarctic. All these climates exist only in the Northern Hemisphere. Usually, continental
climates are found in the interior of continents.

1. Warm Summer

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Warm summer climate regions often have wet summer seasons, similar to
monsoon climates. For this reason, this climate type is also called humid continental.
Most of Eastern Europe, including Romania and Georgia, has warm summer climates.
2. Cool Summer
Cool summer climates have winters with low temperatures and snow. Cold winds,
sweeping in from the Arctic, dominate winter weather. People living in these climates
have grown accustomed to the harsh weather, but those unprepared for such cold may
suffer. Many of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte’s soldiers, for example, were used
to the mild Mediterranean climates of France. Thousands died in bitter cold as they
retreated from Russia’s cool summer climate in the winter of 1812.
3.Subarctic
North of regions with cool summer climates are regions with subarctic climates.
These regions, including northern Scandinavia and Siberia, experience very long, cold
winters with little precipitation. Subarctic climates are also called boreal climates
or taiga.

E: Polar. In the polar climate zones, it’s extremely cold. Even in summer, the
temperatures here never go higher than 50°F (10°C). The two polar climate types,
tundra and ice cap, lie within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles near the North and South
Poles.
1. Tundra. In tundra climates, summers are short, but plants and animals are
plentiful. Temperatures can average as high as 10° Celsius (50° Fahrenheit) in July.
Wildflowers dot the landscape, and flocks of migratory birds feed on insects and fish.
Whales feed on microscopic creatures in the region’s cold, nutrient-rich waters. People
have adapted to life on the tundra for thousands of years.
2. Ice Caps
Few organisms survive in the ice cap climates of the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperatures rarely rise above freezing, even in summer. The ever-present ice helps
keep the weather cold by reflecting most of the Sun’s energy back into the atmosphere.
Skies are mostly clear and precipitation is low. In fact, Antarctica, covered by an ice cap
1.6-kilometers (one-mile) thick, is one of the largest, driest deserts on Earth.

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5.4 Climate Systems

The climatic system most used in geography and climatology is the structure
devised by Vladimir Koppen, a German climatologist and botanist. Koppen worked
with his student Rudolph Geiger on the development of a climate map of the world first
introduced in 1928. Although the formal name of the system incorporates Geiger's name
(Koppen-Geiger), we know it today simply as the Koppen climatic system. Koppen's
system uses capital letters to designate latitudinal bands from the equator north and
south to the poles. A second, and in some cases a third, letter is added to distinguish
differences within a main category. The primary capital letter designators are as follows:
A Tropical climates
B Semideserts and dryland climates
C Humid mid-latitude climates
D Humid continental climates
E Polar climates
H Highlands
The “A” climates are found along the equator and are further designated as “Af,”
or tropical rainforest, and “Aw,” or savanna (tropical grasslands). The “B” climates lie
north and south of the “A” climates. The “B” climates are further designated as “BS,”
or steppe (dryland grasses) and “BW,” or deserts. The mid-latitude climate designated
with “C” has three subclimates. This is a tipoff that there is greater weather (and climate)
variability in the mid-latitudes than in any other region in the world. The “C” climate is
further designated as “Cs,” or Mediterranean climate, “Cfa” or humid subtropical, and
“Cfb,” or marine west coast.
It is interesting to note references to actual regions in the designations of some
subclimates. For instance, Mediterranean climate regions are found on the West Coast
of the United States, the coast of Chile, east of the Mediterranean Sea to Central Asia,
and along the southern coast of Australia. These places are so designated because the
climate found at their locations is identical to the climate of the Mediterranean region.
The “D” climates are next. They are designated as “Dfa,” or humid continental with a
hot summer, and “Dfb,” or humid continental with a very cold winter. The “E” climates
are found in the polar regions. “ET” refers to both the subarctic and tundra climates.
“EF” identifies the ice caps on both the arctic ocean and the extensive sheet ice that
covers the land area of antarctica. One major climatic region remains: the “H,” or
highlands climate. This climatic region is sometimes referred to in the geographical
literature as the undifferentiated highlands climate because the mountainous areas in
which it is found have such steep gradients that several climate types may exist over
relatively short distances.
Different parts of the world have different climates. Some parts of the world are
hot and rainy nearly every day. They have a tropical wet climate. Others are cold and
snow-covered most of the year. They have a polar climate. Between the icy poles and
the steamy tropics are many other climates that contribute to Earth’s biodiversity and
geologic heritage.
Climate is determined by a region’s climate system. A climate system has five
major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface,
and the biosphere.
1. Atmosphere. The atmosphere is the most variable part of the climate system.
The composition and movement of gases surrounding the Earth can change radically,
influenced by natural and human-made factors.

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2. Hydrosphere. Changes to the hydrosphere, which include variations

in temperature and salinity, occur at much slower rates than changes to the atmosphere.
3. Cryosphere. The cryosphere is another generally consistent part of the climate
system. Ice sheets and glaciers reflect sunlight, and the thermal conductivity of ice
and permafrost profoundly influences temperature. The cryosphere also helps regulate
6. Thermohaline circulation. This “ocean conveyor belt” has an enormous
influence on marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
5.Topography. Topography and vegetation influence climate by helping
determine how the Sun’s energy is used on Earth. The abundance of plants and the type
of land cover (such as soil, sand, or asphalt) impacts evaporation and ambient
temperature.
6.Biosphere. The biosphere, the sum total of living things on Earth, profoundly
influences climate. Through photosynthesis, plants help regulate the flow of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. Forests and oceans serve as “carbon sinks” that have a cooling
impact on climate. Living organisms alter the landscape, through both natural growth
and created structures such as burrows, dams, and mounds. These altered landscapes
can influence weather patterns such as wind, erosion, and even temperature.

5. 5 Climate Patterns
The patterns of climate on the Earth's surface are displaced by latitude north and
south from the equator to the poles. Tropical rainforests straddle the equator in South
America and Africa and extend to the coastal areas of Madagascar, India, Southeast
Asia, and Australia. This is a warm and wet climate throughout the year. A climograph
of the region would exhibit fairly even temperatures throughout the year and significant
rainfall in every month. The equatorial belt is the destination for the converging trade
wind coming from both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. These winds reach the
equator and are lifted to high elevations, where condensation occurs and rainfall is
produced in abundance.
The savanna regions lie astride the tropical rainforests. They are warm and
moist, but their rainfall is seasonal. Consequently, the moisture received in the savannas
will support grasslands and some trees but not the density found in the tropical
rainforests.
The “B” climates are dry. Their dryness may be due to their leeward locations
on mountainous terrain or a latitudinal location far from moisture-bearing winds. The
“B” climate produces either steppe (dryland grasses) vegetation or true desert. Bands of
steppe and desert are found in North Africa and the west coast and interior of southern
Africa and within the Rocky Mountain and Basin and Range Provinces in the United
States and Mexico. The “B” climate is also found in extensive areas of Central Asia,
northern China, and eastern Siberia. Nearly all of Australia is in the “B” climatic zones,
the interior of this continent being desert.
The “C” climates are found in large areas in the Northern Hemisphere and to a
lesser extend south of the equator. This fact is readily apparent with one glance at a
globe. South of the equator, the land areas begin to dissipate rapidly. There is room for
a bit of each of the Mediterranean, humid subtropical, and marine west coast climates
in southern South America and southern coastal Australia. The very southern tip
of South Africa has a mere touch of Mediterranean climate and a bit of the marine west
coast.
In the Northern Hemisphere, large expanses of humid subtropical are found in a
band from northern India to southern China and again in a large section of the
southeastern United States. The Mediterranean climatic zones, already discussed, are
found on the West Coast of the United States and along the Mediterranean Sea and east

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to Central Asia. Marine west coast climate is found on the west coast of the U.S and
extensively within the European littoral and the eastern and southern expanses of the
Scandinavian Peninsula.
The “D” climates do not occur in the Southern Hemisphere. In order for a
“continental” climate to develop, there must be a large land area within the midlatitudes.
This is simply not the case in the Southern Hemisphere. So, the “D” climate is unique
in that it exists in only the Northern Hemisphere where it is found in extensive areas of
North America and Asia. The “Dfb” continental climate has warm summers and very
cold winters. As such, the range in annual temperatures is greater than any other climate.
It is not uncommon for the temperatures in northern MINNESOTA to reach 90 degrees
F (32.2 degrees C) in summer and 35 degrees F below zero (-37 degrees C) in the winter.
The interior of eastern Siberia has even colder winters. Verkoyansk, a city in eastern
Siberia, is called the cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere with record winter
temperatures reaching 120 degrees F below zero (-84 degrees C).
The “E” climates are limited to the polar regions. In the Northern Hemisphere,
large expanses of subarctic and tundra climates may be seen. Tundra is a word that
designates a climate in which trees cannot grow. The boundary, then, between the
subarctic and the tundra to the north is the tree line. Beyond the tundra to the north is
the arctic ocean, ice-covered most of the year and carrying the climatic designation of
“ET” or ice cap. In the far polar reaches of the Southern Hemisphere, only a sliver of
tundra climate is seen on the Antarctic Peninsula as it juts into the atlantic ocean south
of Tierra del Forego. The only remaining climatic zone in the Southern Hemisphere is
the vast ice cap covering Antarctica, a sizeable “ET.”

5.6 Effects on Geography

The climates of the world influence human occupants in innumerable ways.
Combinations of temperature and precipitation will impact agricultural systems and
dictate the types of crops that can be efficiently grown. People living in the tundra will
dress quite differently than the resident on the shores of the black sea. And there will be
little use for snowplows in Miami, Florida; but there had better be a number of them on
hand when winter reaches Buffalo, New York.
However, the commenter on climate must resist the temptation to say that the
climate determines the kinds of activities that the human occupants may engage in. To
do so would be to invoke the short-lived geographical theory of
environmental determinism. This theory held sway in American geography during the
first two decades of the 20th century. Simply stated, environmental determinism held
that the environment, especially the climate, of a region determined the activities of the
human occupants. It left no room for advances in technology or the ingenuity of the
human occupants to overcome environmental limitations. This theory was eventually
put to rest in favor of a more flexible view of humans and their environment and the
realization that human-environment interaction is a two-way street.
One of the regions in which agricultural origins have been traced is the highland
area north and east of the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This highland area
contains a great number of individual microclimates in its valleys and slopes.
Variegated regions such as these allow for the growth of multitudes of plants within a
limited area. Strains of wheat and other grains grew in these physical recesses and were
eventually discovered by the wanderers and gatherers populating the region. When it
was realized that seeds from the plants in the ground would produce a new plant,
agriculture was originated.
Climate is explained best as the combination of primarily temperature and
precipitation over a long period of time. There are also examples of how the shape of

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climate regions can impact agricultural activity. The large and productive agricultural
region in North America has a unique areal combination of temperature and
precipitation. Temperature decreases from south to north in the vast interior basin of the
United States and southern Canada. Precipitation, on the other hand, increases in an east
to west direction from the rocky mountains to the eastern seaboard.
The result of these patterns is the creation of an almost infinite set of microclimates
with their own unique temperature and precipitation regime, an ideal setting for the
growing of a wide variety of crops. The Fertile Triangle in the old Soviet Union is quite
different. Although the region is larger than the one in North America, agricultural
productivity is much lower. A large part of the explanation lies in the relationship
between the temperature and precipitation zones. As in North America, temperature
decreases from south to north. But unlike the North American pattern, precipitation also
changes from north to south with the higher precipitation occurring in the south. The
result is an agricultural system that is limited to a narrow band where the temperature
and precipitation combination is ideal for the crops being grown.
There is another factor at work in this relationship. As we know, temperature and
precipitation patterns in the mid-latitudes can be quite variable. There may be years
of drought, times when the precipitation comes too early or too late, or there is too much
rain or not enough. If this happens within the relatively narrow band of agricultural land
in the old Soviet Union, significant losses can occur.
On the other hand, the primary North American agricultural region is displaced
over a wider latitudinal band. The likelihood that the entirety of this agricultural region
would be adversely affected by adverse temperature and precipitation conditions is
virtually nonexistent. There may be climatic problems in part of the region but not in its
entirety. The Central Valley in California is an exceptionally productive agricultural
region. This is explained in large part by its northsouth alignment and the variety of
temperature and precipitation combinations that are available. The Central Valley is the
main reason why California is the leading state in value and variety of agricultural
products produced.
Climates can change over time. There is geological evidence of these kinds of
changes. It is true as well that human activity can bring about climatic change. A case
in point is the demise of the tropical rainforest. The moisture that comes from the
vast forests through the process of evapotranspiration rises aloft and is transferred north
and south of the equator to the midlatitude regions. With the loss of moisture from the
rainforest, there is the possibility of climatic change in the region receiving the moisture.
Finally, continued melting of the pack ice on the Arctic Ocean and the great ice
sheets covering Antarctica have already increased the mean temperature of the Earth a
small amount. In time, considerable changes in climate could occur, not to mention the
possible flooding of populated places worldwide as ocean levels rise.

5.7 Influence of Climate

The enormous variety of life on Earth is largely due to the variety of climates that
exist and the climate changes that have occurred in the past. Climate has influenced the
development of cultures and civilizations. People everywhere have adapted in various
ways to the climates in which they live.

a.Clothing
Clothing, for example, is influenced by climate. Indigenous Arctic cultures of
Europe, Asia, and North America, for example, developed warm, durable, fur and
animal-skin clothing. This clothing was necessary for survival in the icy climate near
the North Pole. Many parkas worn by Arctic peoples are not only insulated, but

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waterproof. This combats both the frigid temperatures and precipitation found in polar
climates.
Lightweight, papery tapa cloth, on the other hand, is part of many cultures in the warm,
humid climates of Polynesia, in the South Pacific. Tapa cloth was traditionally made
from dried leaves, coconut fibers, and breadfruit bark. Tapa cloth is delicate and loses
strength when wet, which would be deadly near the poles but only inconvenient near the
Equator.
b.Shelter
Climate also influences how civilizations construct housing. For instance,
the ancient Anasazi people of southern North America built apartments into tall cliffs.
The sheltered, shady area kept residents cool in the hot, dry desert climate.
The yurt is a part of the identity of many cultures across the windy, semiarid steppe of
Central Asia. Yurts are a type of original “mobile home,” a portable, circular dwelling
made of a lattice of flexible poles and covered in felt or other fabric. Yurts protect
residents from fierce winds, and their portability makes them an ideal structure for
nomadic and seminomadic herding cultures on the grassland.
c.Agriculture
The development of agriculture was very dependent on climate. Ancient
agricultural civilizations, such as those in Mesopotamia and India, flourished where the
climate was mild. Communities could grow crops every season, and experiment with
different types of crops, livestock, and farming techniques. The mild, Mediterranean
climate in which the Roman Empire developed, for instance, allowed farmers
to cultivate crops, such as wheat, olives, grapes, barley, and figs. Livestock included
cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and even honeybees. Like the ancient Romans, ancient cultures
of the Amazon Basin in South America were also able to develop agricultural
practices. The chief domesticated trees in the Amazon were mostly harvested for food
and medicine: Brazil nuts, Inga ynga fruit (commonly known as “ice-cream beans”),
Amazon tree grapes, abiu (another tropical fruit), and cacao fruits (whose seeds are
known as cocoa beans).
Today, farmers are still in tune with the climate. They plant certain crops
according to the expected amount of rainfall and the length of the growing season. When
the weather does not follow the typical climate pattern, it can mean hard times for
farmers and higher food costs for consumers.

5.8 Climate Change

Climate change is a change in the usual weather found in a place. This could be
a change in how much rain a place usually gets in a year. Or it could be a change in a
place's usual temperature for a month or season. Climate change is also a change in
Earth's climate. This could be a change in Earth's usual temperature.
Climate change is the defining issue of our time and we are at a defining moment.
From shifting weather patterns that threaten food production, to rising sea levels that
increase the risk of catastrophic flooding, the impacts of climate change are global in
scope and unprecedented in scale. Without drastic action today, adapting to these
impacts in the future will be more difficult and costly.
Climate change is one of the most complex issues facing us today. It involves
many dimensions – science, economics, society, politics and moral and ethical questions
– and is a global problem, felt on local scales, that will be around for decades and
centuries to come. Carbon dioxide, the heat-trapping greenhouse gas that has driven
recent global warming, lingers in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, and the planet

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(especially the oceans) takes a while to respond to warming. So even if we stopped

emitting all greenhouse gases today, global warming and climate change will continue
to affect future generations. In this way, humanity is “committed” to some level of
climate change.
a. What's Happening & Why
Global Warming
Since the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century, human activity has begun to
impact climate. The current period of climate change is sometimes called “global
warming.”
Global warming is often associated with a runaway “greenhouse effect.” The
greenhouse effect describes the process of certain gases (including carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane, nitrous oxide (N2O), fluorinated gases, and ozone) trapping solar
radiation in a planet's lower atmosphere. Greenhouse gases let the sun’s light shine onto
Earth’s surface, but they trap the heat that reflects back up into the atmosphere. In this
way, they act like the glass walls of a greenhouse. The greenhouse effect is a natural
phenomenon and keeps Earth warm enough to sustain life. However, human activities
that include burning fossil fuels and cutting down forests release greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere at an unprecedented rate.
The current period of climate change has been documented by rising
temperatures, melting glaciers, and more intense weather phenomena.
Our planet’s temperature has risen about 1.1° C (2° F) since the late 19th century.
Sixteen of the last 17 warmest years on record have occurred in the 21st century.
According to NASA, not only was 2016 the warmest year on record, but eight of the 12
months that make up the year were the warmest on record for those respective months.
The current period of climate change is also associated with the
massive retreat of glaciers, ice sheets, and sea ice. Warmer temperatures have reduced
the number of glaciers of Montana’s Glacier National Park from 150 in 1850 to just 26
today. In 2017, one of the largest icebergs ever recorded entered the ocean as a huge
chunk of the Larsen C ice shelf broke off the Antarctic Peninsula. Warmer ocean
temperatures and warmer ambient air temperatures likely contributed to the fracturing
of the ice shelf and the massive Antarctic ice sheet associated with it. Finally, both the
extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly during the past several
decades. The famed Northwest Passage, the treacherous route connecting the North
Atlantic and North Pacific ocean basins, is now habitually free of ice and safe enough
for cruise ships to navigate.
Melting glaciers and ice sheets, as well as expansion of seawater as it warms,
have contributed to unprecedented sea level rise. Sea level rises at about 2.3 millimeters
(0.2 inch) every year, contributing to up to 900% more frequent flooding in coastal
areas. Increasing temperatures can change the climate impacts and even the
classification of a region. For instance, low-lying islands may be flooded as seawater
rises. The populations of island nations, such as Maldives or Comoros, have been forced
to contemplate becoming “climate refugees”—people forced to leave their homes
and migrate to a different region. Heat in the atmosphere may increase the interaction of
diverse weather systems. Unusually arid climates in a semiarid region
may prolong droughts, for instance. In regions with mild climates, the increased
atmospheric moisture associated with humid climates may increase the likelihood of
hurricanes and typhoons.
Climate change is also impacting organisms and species range. Organisms that
have adapted to one climate may have to migrate or adapt to warmer temperatures.

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Manatees, for instance, are marine mammals native to tropical waters. As temperatures
increase, manatees have been migrating as far north as New York City, New York. Polar
bear populations, on the other hand, are venturing farther south as Arctic sea ice
becomes more scarce.
Thousands of studies conducted by researchers around the world have
documented increases in temperature at Earth’s surface, as well as in the atmosphere
and oceans. Many other aspects of global climate are changing as well. High
temperature extremes and heavy precipitation events are increasing, glaciers and snow
cover are shrinking, and sea ice is retreating. Seas are warming, rising, and becoming
more acidic, and flooding is become more frequent along the U.S. coastline. Growing
seasons are longer, and large wildfires occur more frequently. Many species are moving
to new locations, and changes in the seasonal timing of important biological events are
occurring in response to climate change.These trends are all consistent with a warming
world and are expected to continue.
Many lines of evidence demonstrate that human activities, especially emissions
of heat-trapping greenhouse gases from fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and land-
use change, are primarily responsible for the climate changes observed in the industrial
era, especially over the last six decades. The atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide, the largest contributor to human-caused warming, has increased by about 40%
over the industrial era. This change has intensified the natural greenhouse effect, driving
an increase in global surface temperatures and other widespread changes in Earth’s
climate that are unprecedented in the history of modern civilization.
Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities will continue to affect Earth’s
climate for decades and even centuries. Humans are adding carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere at a rate far greater than it is removed by natural processes, creating a long-
lived reservoir of the gas in the atmosphere and oceans that is driving the climate to a
warmer and warmer state.
Beyond the next few decades, how much the climate changes will depend
primarily on the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere; how much of
those greenhouse gases are absorbed by the ocean, the biosphere, and other sinks; and
how sensitive Earth’s climate is to those emissions.
There are some basic well-established scientific links:
 The concentration of GHGs in the earth’s atmosphere is directly linked to the
average global temperature on Earth;
 The concentration has been rising steadily, and mean global temperatures along
with it, since the time of the Industrial Revolution;
 The most abundant GHG, accounting for about two-thirds of GHGs, carbon
dioxide (CO2), is largely the product of burning fossil fuels.
 The current warming trend is of particular significance because most of it is
extremely likely (greater than 95 percent probability) to be the result of human activity
since the mid-20th century and proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented over decades
to millennia.
 Earth-orbiting satellites and other technological advances have enabled
scientists to see the big picture, collecting many different types of information about our
planet and its climate on a global scale. This body of data, collected over many years,
reveals the signals of a changing climate.

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 The heat-trapping nature of carbon dioxide and other gases was demonstrated in
the mid-19th century. Their ability to affect the transfer of infrared energy through the
atmosphere is the scientific basis of many instruments flown by NASA. There is no
question that increased levels of greenhouse gases must cause the Earth to warm in
response.
 Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica, and tropical mountain glaciers
show that the Earth’s climate responds to changes in greenhouse gas levels. Ancient
evidence can also be found in tree rings, ocean sediments, coral reefs, and layers of
sedimentary rocks. This ancient, or paleoclimate, evidence reveals that current warming
is occurring roughly ten times faster than the average rate of ice-age-recovery warming.
The evidence for rapid climate change is compelling:
a. Global Temperature Rise
The planet's average surface temperature
has risen about 1.62 degrees Fahrenheit (0.9
degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a
change driven largely by increased carbon
dioxide and other human-made emissions into
the atmosphere. Most of the warming occurred
in the past 35 years, with the six warmest years on record taking place since 2014. Not
only was 2016 the warmest year on record, but eight of the 12 months that make up the
year — from January through September, with the exception of June — were the
warmest on record for those respective months.
b. Warming Oceans

The oceans have absorbed much of this

increased heat, with the top 700 meters (about
2,300 feet) of ocean showing warming of more
than 0.4 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969.

c. Shrinking Ice Sheets

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets
have decreased in mass. Data from
NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment show Greenland lost an
average of 286 billion tons of ice per year
between 1993 and 2016, while Antarctica
lost about 127 billion tons of ice per year
during the same time period. The rate of
Antarctica ice mass loss has tripled in the Flowing meltwater from the Greenland ice sheet
last decade.

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d. Glacial Retreat

Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere

around the world — including in the Alps,
Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and
Africa.

Flowing meltwater sheet

e. Decreased Snow Cover

Satellite observations reveal that

the amount of spring snow cover in
the Northern Hemisphere has
decreased over the past five decades
and that the snow is melting earlier.

f. Sea Level Rise

Global sea level rose about 8 inches

in the last century. The rate in the
last two decades, however, is nearly
double that of the last century and is
accelerating slightly every year.

Republic of Maldives: Vulnerable to sea level rise

g. Declining Arctic Sea Ice

Both the extent and thickness of

Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly
over the last several decades.
Image: Visualization of the 2012
Arctic sea ice minimum, the lowest
on record

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h. Extreme Events

The number of record high temperature

events in the United States has been
increasing, while the number of record low
temperature events has been decreasing,
since 1950. The U.S. has also witnessed
increasing numbers of intense rainfall
events.

i. Ocean Acidification
Since the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean
waters has increased by about 30
percent. This increase is the result of
humans emitting more carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere and hence more
being absorbed into the oceans. The
amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by
the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2 billion tons per year.
Global climate is changing and this is apparent across the United States in a wide
range of observations. The global warming of the past 50 years is primarily due to
human activities, predominantly the burning of fossil fuels. Some extreme weather and
climate events have increased in recent decades, and new and stronger evidence
confirms that some of these increases are related to human activities. Human-induced
climate change is projected to continue, and it will accelerate significantly if global
emissions of heat-trapping gases continue to increase. Impacts related to climate change
are already evident in many sectors and are expected to become increasingly disruptive
across the nation throughout this century and beyond.
 Climate change threatens human health and well-being in many ways, including
through more extreme weather events and wildfire, decreased air quality, and diseases
transmitted by insects, food, and water.
 Infrastructure is being damaged by sea level rise, heavy downpours, and extreme
heat; damages are projected to increase with continued climate change.
 Water quality and water supply reliability are jeopardized by climate change in
a variety of ways that affect ecosystems and livelihoods.
 Climate disruptions to agriculture have been increasing and are projected to
become more severe over this century.
 Climate change poses particular threats to Indigenous Peoples’ health,
wellbeing, and ways of life.
 Ecosystems and the benefits they provide to society are being affected by climate
change. The capacity of ecosystems to buffer the impacts of extreme events like fires,
floods, and severe storms is being overwhelmed.

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 Ocean waters are becoming warmer and more acidic, broadly affecting ocean
circulation, chemistry, ecosystems, and marine life.
Planning for adaptation (to address and prepare for impacts) and mitigation (to reduce
future climate change, for example by cutting emissions) is becoming more widespread,
but current implementation efforts are insufficient to avoid increasingly negative social,
environmental, and economic consequences.

5.9 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

Chances are you’ve heard the terms “mitigation” and “adaptation” used in a
climate context before. So, what’s the difference between these two approaches, and
why does knowing matter so much?
Mitigation – reducing climate change – involves reducing the flow of heat-
trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these
gases (for example, the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat or transport) or
enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests
and soil). The goal of mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with the
climate system, and “stabilize greenhouse gas levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow
ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, ensure that food production is not
threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner”.
Adaptation – adapting to life in a changing climate – involves adjusting to
actual or expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful
effects of climate change (like sea-level encroachment, more intense extreme weather
events or food insecurity). It also encompasses making the most of any potential
beneficial opportunities associated with climate change (for example, longer growing
seasons or increased yields in some regions).
Mitigating climate change is about reducing the release of greenhouse gas
emissions that are warming our planet. Mitigation strategies include retrofitting
buildings to make them more energy efficient; adopting renewable energy sources like
solar, wind and small hydro; helping cities develop more sustainable transport such as
bus rapid transit, electric vehicles, and biofuels; and promoting more sustainable uses
of land and forests.
About 1.4 billion people around the world rely on traditional fuels like coal and
wood to meet their basic energy needs. This is not only harmful to the environment; it
can also lead to premature deaths for millions of people, especially women and children.
By 2035, global energy demand is projected to grow by more than 50 percent, and even
faster in developing countries. All these new consumers need clean energy that will not
hurt them or the environment.
How much climate change? That will be determined by how our emissions
continue and also exactly how our climate system responds to those emissions. Despite
increasing awareness of climate change, our emissions of greenhouse gases continue
on a relentless rise. In 2013, the daily level of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere surpassed 400 parts per million for the first time in human history. The last
time levels were that high was about three to five million years ago, during the
Pliocene Epoch.
Throughout history, people and societies have adjusted to and coped with changes
in climate and extremes with varying degrees of success. Climate change (drought in
particular) has been at least partly responsible for the rise and fall of civilizations.
Earth’s climate has been relatively stable for the past 12,000 years and this stability has

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been crucial for the development of our modern civilization and life as we know it.
Modern life is tailored to the stable climate we have become accustomed to. As our
climate changes, we will have to learn to adapt. The faster the climate changes, the
harder it could be.
Climate change is a global issue, it is felt on a local scale. Cities and
municipalities are therefore at the frontline of adaptation. In the absence of national or
international climate policy direction, cities and local communities around the world
have been focusing on solving their own climate problems. They are working to build
flood defenses, plan for heatwaves and higher temperatures, install water-permeable
pavements to better deal with floods and stormwater and improve water storage and use.
Climate change is starting to be factored into a variety of development plans:
how to manage the increasingly extreme disasters we are seeing and their associated
risks, how to protect coastlines and deal with sea-level encroachment, how to best
manage land and forests, how to deal with and plan for reduced water availability, how
to develop resilient crop varieties and how to protect energy and public infrastructure.
Potential climate adaptations span a variety of sectors, from agricultural, to
coastal, to urban, and many more. Some strategies include:
 Building sea walls, elevating infrastructure, or retreating from low-lying coastal
areas altogether. In the U.S., for example, cities like Charleston, Houston, Miami, and
San Francisco already have billion-dollar investments planned to protect their sea-
bound populations.
 Reducing and recycling water use due to drought. For instance, Spain — which
has lost 20 percent of its fresh water in just the past 20 years — has made significant
changes to its national water policy.
 Favoring drought-tolerant crops like rice, cowpea, and maize, just as many
African countries have done in response to decreasing rain.
In a climate context, as the IPCC describes, mitigation is “human intervention to
reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases”.
In practice, mitigation can take a variety of forms, including:
 Replacing greenhouse gas-emitting fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas with
clean, renewable energies like solar, wind, and geothermal. With renewables becoming
“the cheapest form of new electricity generation across two thirds of the world” in 2019
(compared to in just 1 percent of the world five years ago), this measure has quickly
gone from a dream to an everyday reality.
 Replacing traditional internal-combustion vehicles with electric options (ideally
charged with renewable energy). Just like renewables, electric vehicles are looking
better than ever.
 Retrofitting old buildings to make them more energy efficient — a fast-growing
industry worth $300 billion globally.
 Planting trees and preserving forests so they can absorb and store more carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere. Just like the other strategies, in recent years tree planting
has seen unprecedented action by governments and private groups alike.

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References

May, S. (2017 ,Aug. 7), What Is Climate Change? Retrieved from

https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-
climate-change-k4.html
Climate Change:What's Happening & Why ( n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.global
change.gov/ climate-change/whats-happening-why

CHAPTER ACTIVITIES

Activity 5.0 Climate

Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of your correct answer and write it on the given
answer sheet.

1. What two factors are primarily used to describe climate?

a. temperature and density c. temperature and precipitation
b. precipitation and density d. winds and humidity
2. Earth’s climate system is powered mainly by energy from:
a.Tilt b.Solar Activity c.Latitude d.Precession
3. The farther you live from an ocean, the more likely your climate will be a
a. marine climate b. continental climate
c.tropical climate d. subtropical climate
4. What region receives the least amount of solar radiation?
a. Polar Region c. Temperate Region
b. Equatorial Region d. Tropical Region
7. The land on the ______ side of the mountain range is in the rain shadow.
a. Cold b. windward c. Cloud covered d. leeward
8. The land on the ______ side of the mountain range is in the rain shadow.
a. Cold b. windward c. Cloud covered d.leeward
9. How does higher altitude affect climate?
a. the higher you go above sea level, the colder it gets.
b. The further you get from the equator, the colder it gets.
c. The closer you get to the equator, the hotter it gets.
d. The process by which heat from the sun is trapped near Earth's surface.
10. Earth would be too cold to support life without _____________________.
a. global warming b.the greenhouse effect c. tropics d.seasons
11. Because convection cells are in place in the atmosphere and earth is spinning on
its axis, the global winds appear to curve. This is known as the __________.
a. Coriolis Effect b.Greenhouse Effect c.Climate Effect d.Atmosphere Effect
12. Prevailing winds affect a region’s climate by
a. controlling the amount of solar energy it receives.
b. affecting how much precipitation it receives.
c. causing more precipitation on one side of a mountain

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d. creating desert areas

13. The sun’s rays are least direct __________.
a. near the poles. b. in July. c.near the equator. d.far from the ocean.
12.Large bodies of water affect climate of the land next to them because
a. water heats up and cools more slowly than land
b.water heats up and cools faster than land
c.water and land cool at the same time
d.water and land heat at the same rate

Activity 5.1 Vocabulary Building

Sentence Completion : Use the words in the word box to complete the sentences
below. It may be necessary to change the form of the word.
The Causes of Global Warming
absorb greenhouse atmosphere greenhouse effect tilt the balance

clear forests greenhouse gases fossil fuels releases global warming

1. _________ refers to the gradual rise in the earth’s temperature as a result of human
activities.
2. A ________ is a glass building used to grow plants. It keeps the plants warm and
protects them from bad weather.
3. When too many _________ are released into the air, they trap the sun’s heat and cause
the earth to get warmer.
4. The ___________ refers to a build-up of gases in the air around the earth, which
causes the earth’s temperature to rise.
5. Fuels like coal and oil, formed from the remains of decayed plants and animals, are
called _______ .
6. The ________ is the layer of air and other gases that surround the Earth.
7. When you ________ , this means that you do something to change a situation so that
different parts are no longer equal.
8. When you ________ , this means that you cut down all the trees.
9. Burning _____ releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
10. Plants and trees _______ carbon dioxide from the air.

Activity 5.2 Ten Indicators of the warming world

Many aspects of the global climate are changing rapidly, and the primary drivers
of that change are human in origin. Evidence for changes in the climate system
abounds, from the top of the atmosphere to the depths of the oceans. Explain how
these indicators describe the warming world (250 words only)

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Activity 5.3 Poster making

Make a poster illustrating factors that influence climate. You can consult internet sites,
books and atlases and you can add photos, drawings , graphs and maps to the written
explanations

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CHAPTER FIVE
CLIMATE VARIABILITY

ANSWER SHEET
Name:___________________________ Course/Year/Section________________
Activity 5.0 Climate
Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of your correct answer and write it on the given
answer sheet.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Activity 5.1 Vocabulary Building

Sentence Completion : Use the words in the word box to complete the sentences below.
It may be necessary to change the form of the word.
1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.

Activity 5.2 Ten indicators of warming world

Many aspects of the global climate are changing rapidly, and the primary drivers of
that change are human in origin. Evidence for changes in the climate system abounds,
from the top of the atmosphere to the depths of the oceans. Explain how these
indicators describe the warming world (250 words only)

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Activity 5.2 Ten indicators of warming world

*Answer page

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Activity 5.3 Poster making

Make a poster illustrating factors that influence climate. You can consult internet sites,
books and atlases and you can add photos, drawings , graphs and maps to the written
explanations.
*write your explanation or interpretation and attach poster/picture here

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