DR Nokuthula FB Buthelezi's Book

‘’Life of a Rastafarian Woman’’
Rastafarian Empress
Dr. Nokuthula FB Buthelezi
Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 1

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Dedication
I dedicate this book to my family and my friends. A special feeling of gratitude to my loving parents
Dr M.D. Buthelezi and Mrs Mary Buthelezi for words of encouragement and push for tenacity ring in
my ears. My special friends Gcino’s, Mpume and Ezra have never left my side and are very special.
I also dedicate this book to many of my Rastafarian Friends, Facebook friends and church family
who have supported me throughout the process. I ill always appreciate all they have done,
especially Ras…… for helping me develop my technology skills. Prof. Antonnie Olivier for many
hours of proofreading, and Prof. Ansie Kitching for helping me master the leader dots.
I also dedicate this work and give special attention to my best friends Sabina Buthelezi (late granny)
and Dalukuthula Buthelezi (late brother), and my most wonderful son’s Tshepiso and Thabiso for
always being there for me throughout the entire writing of the book. Both of you have been my best
cheerleaders.
Lastly to all Buthelezi Clan, this little book is the first-fruit of that literary and philosophical teachings
which I have been receiving from you for the last 46 years, and as an expression of gratitude I beg
to dedicate it to you boShenge as well. I hope you will receive it in the same spirit as you always do
to me.
Your affectionate daughter

Nokuthula

Table of Contents:
Chapter 1
Step One
Chapter 2
Step Two
Chapter 3
Step Three
Chapter 4
Step Four
Chapter 5
Step Five
Chapter 6
Step Six
Chapter 7
Next Steps
____________________________________________________________________________
Resources:
Parts of a Book - Table of Contents

Foreword [Optional]:
This is written by someone other than the author. Generally an influencer or well-known person in
the topic/niche that the book is about.
____________________________________________________________________________
Resources:
All About Forewords
Introduction:

Following the 8-Point Structure
You should aim to approach your introduction with the following in mind:
● Who is your ideal target reader and what words do they use to describe the problem you’re
looking to solve for them? If you’re not about this, head back to the research phase on
Amazon and dig a little deeper into using the search function. You need to understand what
your target reader is saying.
● You MUST share something about you. Whether that’s your personal story, why you
decided to write this book etc. You cannot get away from this, particularly if you’re looking to
build any time of business with or from your book. People connect with people.
● No matter what you decided to cover in your introduction, it should ALWAYS aim to cover
what the problem is, a brief summary of the solution you’re covering in the book and who the
book is for and who the book is not for.
1.) Identify the problem
2.) Present the solution
3.) Reassert your credibility
4.) Show them the benefits again
5.) Give them proof
6.) Make a promise (the bigger the better)
7.) Warn them against waiting
8.) Prompt them to read (call to action)

Chapter 1
Abstract:
It is a well-known fact that little work has been done on the female in Rastafari. Nettleford (1970)
and Kitzinger (1969, 252) suggest that this is because males more readily declare to be Rastafari.
Kitzinger takes this point further and argues that Rastafari males do not consider females to be
integral to the movement based on her observation that "leadership, status, prophecy and healing"
rest with the male. She also suggests that Rastafari is a direct response to the matriarchal relations
common to the Jamaican peasantry. Hence, she believes that Rastafari social structure is male
dominated, and the dogma is mother denying (Kitzinger 1969, 260).
Although Kitzinger submits evidence for her observations, her conclusions are not generally
acceptable to the Rastafari community. Her observations of Rastafari male and female relationships
seem based on the Western theory of gender equality, which requires equal participation in the
rituals of one's culture.
Perhaps it is the result of observations of the kind made by Kitzinger that has led to the growing
view among Rastafari people that we ought to be examined from within. Stephen G. McDonald
argues that this examination should be undertaken by those who have experienced the movement
as a process (McDonald n.d.). Leahcim T. Semaj (1980), in setting out the characteristic of cultural
science, which is defined as the total study of a people, argues in favor of the following principles:
1. The primacy of self-knowledge.

2. No restrictions on issues and methodology.
3. No scientific colonization, that is, research of the people should also be for the people.
The importance of this view should not be underrated by scholars insensitive to the attempts of the
observed to become their own observers. It is a development in the field of research that, if not
articulated by traditional scholars, is recognized by them. Certainly, Owens's taped recordings of
Rastafarians on Rastafari and Yawney's research methods, which were essentially to secure entry
into Rastafari "livity" in order to experience the culture from within, are evidence enough (Owens
1976; Yawney 1978).
I subscribe to this school of thought. I am therefore writing from the base of a solid grounding into
Rastafari and a continuous Rastafari livity

Introduction
When most people hear the word Rastafari, the first things that go to mind are men with dreadlocks,
smoking ganja, reggae music, and men with dreadlocks smoking ganja hearing reggae music. In
other words – Bob Marley. However, Rastafarianism is a very serious philosophy; a part religion,
part sociopolitical movement, and full lifestyle.
While some people claim to be Rastafari just as an excuse to smoke weed, there are many firm
believers and followers, and the public idea of Rastafarianism is often quite inaccurate. There can
be no denying the fact that Rastafari is a patriarchal movement. The male is at the head, having
responsibility for conducting rituals, for interpreting events of significance to the community, and for
the care and protection of the family as well as the community. Rastafari is based on the Bible; it
therefore follows that its structure in philosophy would pattern that which unfolds in the Bible.
The Bible is a sacred Book to most Rastafarians. It is an important source of guidance and
inspiration (Yawney 1978, 99). To understand Rastafari attitudes toward females it is necessary to
understand the role of females in the Bible.
The first female character is Eve, who when tempted by the devil in the Garden of Eden became
Adam's temptress. Next is Sarai, who when asked by her husband to pose as his sister in order to
safeguard his life did so unquestioningly. Following Sarai is Rebekal, who schemed against her
husband to ensure that her favorite son would receive his blind father's blessing. Rachel and Leah,
both sisters, vied with each other for their husband's affection, each relying on her fertility to win
favor in his eyes. Potiphar's wife attempted to seduce Joseph; thwarted in her attempts to do so,
she reported that he had attempted to rape her.
As the Bible stories unfold, a clear pattern for the role of the woman emerges. The stories are told
primarily about the males, with females only being treated peripherally whole. One unfortunate
part of Rastafari is their negative attitude toward females. Most people and Rasta’s believe that
females are not equal to men. They believe that a good woman must always respect men and do
what they ask. This is very contrary to much of their other beliefs about people being equal. It is a
well-known fact that little work has been done on the female in Rastafari.

What is Rastafari?
Rastafari, sometimes called Rastafarianism, is a religion that developed in Jamaica during

the 1930s. It is classified as both a new religious movement and a social movement by scholars of
religion. There is no central authority in control of the movement and much diversity exists among
practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas.
Rastafari beliefs are based on a specific interpretation of the Bible. Central is a monotheistic belief
in a single God, referred to as Jah, who is deemed to partially reside within each individual. Rastas
accord key importance to Haile Selassie, the emperor of Ethiopia between 1930 and 1974; many
regard him as the Second Coming of Jesus and Jah incarnate, while others see him as a human
prophet who fully recognised Jah's presence in every individual. Rastafari is Afrocentric and
focuses attention on the African diaspora, which it believes is oppressed within Western society, or
"Babylon". Many Rastas call for this diaspora's resettlement in Africa, a continent they consider
the Promised Land, or "Zion". Some practitioners extend these views into black supremacism.
Rastas refer to their practices as "livity". Communal meetings are known as "groundations", and are
typified by music, chanting, discussions, and the smoking of cannabis, the latter regarded as
a sacrament with beneficial properties. Rastas emphasize what they regard as living "naturally",
adhering to ital dietary requirements, wearing their hair in dreadlocks, and
following patriarchal gender roles.
Rastafari originated among impoverished and socially disenfranchised Afro-Jamaican communities
in 1930s Jamaica. Its Afrocentric ideology was largely a reaction against Jamaica's then-
dominant British colonial culture. It was influenced by both Ethiopianism and the Back-to-Africa
movement promoted by black nationalist figures such as Marcus Garvey. The religion developed
after several Protestant Christian clergymen, most notably Leonard Howell, proclaimed that Haile
Selassie's crowning as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930 fulfilled a Biblical prophecy. By the 1950s,
Rastafari's countercultural stance had brought the movement into conflict with wider Jamaican
society, including violent clashes with law enforcement. In the 1960s and 1970s, it gained increased
respectability within Jamaica and greater visibility abroad through the popularity of Rastafari-
inspired reggae musicians, most notably Bob Marley. Enthusiasm for Rastafari declined in the
1980s, following the deaths of Haile Selassie and Marley, but the movement survived and has a
presence in many parts of the world.
The Rastafari movement is decentralised and organised on a largely sectarian basis. There are
several denominations, or "Mansions of Rastafari", the most prominent of which are
the Nyahbinghi, Bobo Ashanti, and the Twelve Tribes of Israel, each offering a different
interpretation of Rastafari belief. There are an estimated 700,000 to 1,000,000 Rastafari across the
world. The largest population is in Jamaica, although small communities can be found in most of the
world's major population centres. Most Rastafari are of black African descent, and some groups
accept only black members.

● Teaching
● Next Steps/Action Steps/ Reflection Questions
● Transition

Chapter 2
Step Two
In this chapter, you’re getting the reader to start moving through your process.
Remember, the more actionable content you provide, the easier it will be your reader to
implement.
What other things can you include here to help the reader understand what you’re sharing with
them?
Chapter Outline:
Beliefs
Rastas refer to the totality of their religion's ideas and beliefs as "Rastalogy".Edmonds
described Rastafari as having "a fairly cohesive worldview"; however, the scholar Ernest
Cashmore thought that its beliefs were "fluid and open to interpretation".Within the movement,
attempts to summarise Rastafari belief have never been accorded the status of
a catechism or creed[ Rastas place great emphasis on the idea that personal experience and
intuitive understanding should be used to determine the truth or validity of a particular belief or
practice. No Rasta, therefore, has the authority to declare which beliefs and practices
are orthodox and which are heterodox. The conviction that Rastafari has no dogma "is so strong
that it has itself become something of a dogma", according to the sociologist of religion Peter B.
Clarke.
Rastafari is deeply influenced by Judeo-Christian religion, and shares many commonalities
with Christianity. The scholar Michael Barnett observed that its theology is "essentially Judeo-
Christian", representing "an Afrocentralized blend of Christianity and Judaism".Some followers
openly describe themselves as Christians. Rastafari accords the Bible a central place in its
belief system, regarding it as a holy book, and adopts a literalist interpretation of its
contents. According to the anthropologist Stephen D. Glazier, Rasta approaches to the Bible
result in the religion adopting an outlook very similar to that of some forms of Protestantism.
Rastas regard the Bible as an authentic account of early black African history and of their place
as God's favoured people. They believe the Bible to be key to understanding both the past and
the present and for predicting the future, while also regarding it as a source book from which

they can form and justify their beliefs and practices. Rastas commonly perceive the final book of
the Bible, the Book of Revelation, as the most important part, because they see its contents as
having particular significance for the world's present situation.
Contrary to scholarly understandings of how the Bible was compiled, Rastas commonly believe
it was originally written on stone in the Ethiopian language of Amharica. They also believe that
the Bible's true meaning has been warped, both through mistranslation into other languages
and by deliberate manipulation by those seeking to deny black Africans their history. They also
regard it as cryptographic, meaning that it has many hidden meanings. They believe that its true
teachings can be revealed through intuition and meditation on the "book within" which allows
them to commune with God. Because of what they regard as the corruption of the Bible, Rastas
also turn to other sources that they believe shed light on black African history. Common texts
used for this purpose include Leonard Howell's 1935 work The Promised Key, Robert Athlyi
Rogers' 1924 book Holy Piby, and Fitz Balintine Pettersburg's 1920s work, the Royal
Parchment Scroll of Black Supremacy. Many Rastas also treat the Kebra Nagast, a 14th-
century Ethiopian text, as a source through which to interpret the Bible
● Recap what they just learned in the previous step. You might like to gently remind them
that they need to take action on that step BEFORE they move onto this step!
● Story
● Teaching
● Transition

Chapter 3
Step Three
In this chapter, you’re getting the reader to start moving through your process even more.
This might be a good time to acknowledge that the reader may be struggling at this point,
particularly if they are learning something new. Give them some ideas on how to stay focused
and not get overwhelmed.
This might be a great time to introduce a free tool or template to support them as they progress
through your book.
Chapter Outline:
● Story
● Teaching
● Transition

Chapter 4
Step Four
By now, you’re reader is well and truly into your process. They should hopefully have
implemented what they’ve been learning so far and have had a few quick wins.
This is a great time to remind them how amazing they are and that you’re impressed with their
progress… particularly if they’ve gotten this far without giving up!
Consider mentioning any further resources you have… maybe mentioning your paid product, if it
supports them further. Don’t overdo this. Remember, value first.
Your book is like a first date. You’re wining and dining the reader throughout the book. At no
point are you talking about marriage, right?! Only include links to paid products if it’s a great fit
and is a natural progression just like moving to a second date. Don’t scare your reader with a
‘marriage proposal’ this early!
Chapter Outline:
● Story
● Teaching
● Transition

Chapter 5
Step Five
You’re getting close to the end of your book. These last couple of chapters should be moving your
reader close to victory.
They should have a very clear understanding of where they are in the process and be ready to take
the next steps.
Chapter Outline:
● Recap what they just learned in the previous step. You might like to gently remind them that
they need to take action on that step BEFORE they move onto this step!
Role of Females and the Bible
There can be no denying the fact that Rastafari is a patriarchal movement. The male is at the head,
having responsibility for conducting rituals, for interpreting events of significance to the community,
and for the care and protection of the family as well as the community. Rastafari is based on the
Bible; it therefore follows that its structure in philosophy would pattern that which unfolds in the Bible.
The Bible is a sacred Book to most Rastafarians. It is an important source of guidance and inspiration
(Yawney 1978, 99). To understand Rastafari attitudes toward females it is necessary to understand
the role of females in the Bible.
The first female character is Eve, who when tempted by the devil in the Garden of Eden became
Adam's temptress. Next is Sarai, who when asked by her husband to pose as his sister in order to
safeguard his life did so unquestioningly. Following Sarai is Rebekal, who schemed against her
husband to ensure that her favorite son would receive his blind father's blessing. Rachel and Leah,
both sisters, vied with each other for their husband's affection, each relying on her fertility to win favor
in his eyes. Potiphar's wife attempted to seduce Joseph; thwarted in her attempts to do so, she
reported that he had attempted to rape her.
As the Bible stories unfold, a clear pattern for the role of the woman emerges. The stories are told
primarily about the males, with females only being treated peripherally when they have relevance to a
particular event. Even Miriam, recognized by scholars of the Bible as the first prophetess, is referred
to in snatches as her actions gained significance to Moses. Perhaps Ruth, the ancestress of David

and Jesus, and Esther, who directly affected the course of history for the Israelites, are the only
exceptions in that entire books are devoted to them.
For the Rastafari male, it is significant that the first female mentioned in the Bible is unfavorably
mentioned, which is interpreted as a clear warning against potential evil in the female. Though the
interpretation is widely held by Rastafari males, their response differs. Some brethren are
sympathetic in their response, arguing that the evil was in the devil and that Eve was the victim.
It was also natural for her to want to share with Adam. Adam is seen to have succumbed to weakness
where he should have held fast to his knowledge of what was right. This interpretation is more
protective of the female. The male is responsible for shielding and guiding the female away from sin.
Gradually, with sufficient tutelage the female can be expected to distinguish the sinful from the
righteous on her own.
The other attitude is more judgmental. It argues that the female is impure and must be kept from
corrupting the male. It is also implied wherever this attitude is manifested that females should not get
together because of the potential for sinful thinking and practices. The female then must be guided,
instructed, and restricted by the male.
It is difficult to identify the strength of these beliefs from subgroup to subgroup. It is easier to identify
as a characteristic of age groups. In general, the younger group of Rastafari males tend to be more
understanding and manifest behaviors associated with the sympathetic interpretation. The elder
brethren tend to manifest more of the attitudes associated with the judgmental interpretation. An
interesting point to note is that some brethren articulate the protective interpretation but require
behavior associated with the judgmental approach.

The Doctrine on Females
Rastafari articulates specific views on females. These views have been translated into a code of
behavior that governs all important group rituals. In general, Rastafari males accept that:
Females are not called to Rastafari except through a male. Only a man can make a woman "sight"
Rastafari. She therefore cannot be a leader in any Rastafari ritual.
Males are the physical and spiritual head of the female as well as of the family. The female must seek
the man's guidance in all things spiritual. He also accepts the responsibility for "balancing" her
thoughts.
A female cannot experience the "highest heights" of Rastafari if she is without a king man or head
⚫ A woman is deemed unclean whenever she menstruates (that is, whenever she is having her
period).
From these premises came certain behavioral restrictions or taboos:
The female cannot share a chalice of the males. This excludes her from experiencing the communal
nature of the culture in a direct way. The female should always have her head covered when praying
(I Corinthians 115-6). Because she is always expected to be receptive to spiritual instruction,
it follows that the head should always be covered. An "unclean" female cannot approach a ritual
gathering of males (for example, at binghis) nor should she prepare meals for any males during any
time she is designated "unclean."
A woman is expected to be obedient and receptive to guidance as well as have a willingness to learn.
The male/female role in Rastafari is further strengthened by the fact that the "I" is seen to have come
under the influence of Babylon and therefore stands in need of cleansing. The interaction between
Jah and man cleanses the man and he in turn cleanses the female.
The Rastafari beliefs regarding the female are clearly based on the Bible and fall in line with the
premise that Rastafari is a patriarchal movement. "Reasoning’s," the traditional way of sharing
information, views, or interpreting the Bible, take place primarily among the males. They take the
responsibility for sharing relevant information with females. However, females are not restricted from
reasoning together, particularly at important rituals or celebrations. In this way there is intellectual
stimulation and the female is, through one means or another, every bit as informed as the male.
“Reasoning’s”, the traditional cementing views, or interpreting the Bible, take place take place
primarily among males.

Not all of the doctrine regarding females is upheld by all the males. Furthermore, how a belief impacts
on a particular family unit varies from household to household. Daughters (Rastafari women) have
reported varying degrees of freedom based on the interpretation of the family head.
It is possible that the beliefs and practices common to Rastafari male/ female relationships do not
differ so drastically from that of the Jamaican peasantry. Further research may not only reveal this to
be the case but, as Yawney suggests, may also reveal traditional West Indian standards in intra-sex
social relations (Yawney 1978, 120).
Other Factors Affecting the Role of Daughters
Although the Bible obviously played a large part in determining the attitude of male to female in
Rastafari, other factors seemed to have had a reinforcing effect on attitudes and expectations of
female behavior. Rastafari, it must be noted, was first articulated by males. As it evolved, the
movement was regarded as a cult of outcasts whose members bordered on the ridiculous, if not the
insane. Females would, of necessity, be wary of involvement with a male without any obvious
prospects. One of the reasons that females marry in the Jamaican culture is to advance socially and
economically. A woman “advances" herself by choosing a mate who can move her up a rung or two
on the social ladder. Both Dinah and Mabel² make their way out of the Dungle³ (ghetto) through the
establishment of relationships with males somewhat better off than themselves (Patterson 1971). This
fact alone puts the Rastafari male at a disadvantage. Rastafari adherents were drawn from the lower
socioeconomic group in the society and therefore had no significant prospects. This, coupled with the
belief that individuals should work for themselves rather than others, made their income unstable. The
unstable economics of the Rastafari male may well explain the temporary nature of relationships
established in the early years. The fact that researchers have documented repeatedly the Rastaman's
belief that a woman is not a Rasta "in heart" and comes and goes as she pleases (Kitzinger 1969,
252) is evidence enough.
● Story
● Teaching
● Transition

Chapter 6
Step Six
The final chapter in your process!
The reader is excited to get to this point. This is where you should include a couple of stories, ways
they can expand on what they’ve just learned and a clear indication that you intend to share clear
next steps for them in the final chapter.
Chapter Outline:
● Recap what they just learned in the previous step. You might like to gently remind them that
they need to take action on that step BEFORE they move onto this step!
● Story
● Teaching
● Transition

Chapter 7
Next Steps
This is the official last chapter in your book. It’s the place where you provide clear next steps for your
reader.
This could be some type of 30-day challenge. A 30-day action plan. Maybe a 7-day checklist.
Whatever you decide, it should be another opportunity for your reader to get on your email list!
Talk about what you have to offer here too, but use words like “whenever you’re ready, here’s some
more ways we can work together.”
Whatever it is, this is the time to tell your reader exactly what they need to do to make the steps
they’ve just taken come to life.
Chapter Outline:
● Recap what they just learned in the book. This should be a summary.
● Story
● Teaching
● Transition
Rastafari Culture
Many people throughout the world have a hard time understanding what it means to be a Rasta. For
some their troubles in understanding Rasta’s come because they look as Rastafari as only a religion.
When one does this they run into many problems. This is because Rastafari is much more than a
religion. It is a way of life, a social movement, as well as a mindset. Another reason why western

people have a hard time understanding Rastafari is because the movement lacks the structure that
the western world is used to.
A lot of people’s understanding of Rasta’s only goes as far as to think that Rasta’s are people that live
in Jamaica, smoke weed, and have Dreadlocks. These people do not begin to think what is behind
the movement. The idea that Rastafari is strictly Jamaican is also very wrong. Since the origination of
Rastafari, the Rasta movement has expanded far beyond the island of Jamaica. Rasta’s now live all
over the world. There are Rasta cultures in all parts of Europe, Asia, New Zealand, United States,
and especially Africa.
The Development of Rastafari
Marcus Garvey, Jamaican Black Nationalist and Separatist, ca. 1920. In August 1920, his ‘Universal
Negro Improvement Association,’ claimed 4 million members and 25,000 attended its Madison
Square Gardens
The Rastafari movement stems from the teachings of the great Jamaican leader and motivator of
masses, Marcus Garvey told the African people of the world to unite and to return to African, the
homeland. Garvey’s vision was for the
“Blacks to overcome their feelings of inferiority and build upon their own unique and evolving culture,
and ultimately return to Africa to redeem their homeland and to build a future”(Dubb. Pg2)
Garvey’s vision and ability to unite people made the Jamaican people enlightened to what was going
on in the world. Garvey created the U.N.I.A. and the Negro World newspaper, which helped to inform
the Jamaicans of what was going on in the African world. Garvey told his followers, “Look towards
Africa for the crowning of a black king – he shall be the redeemer”. Garvey often used many biblical
terms in his teaching to free his movement from the oppression of the “White Man”, whether he meant
them to be taken literally is unclear, but what is clear is that many Jamaicans took them literally. An
event that would happen in 1930 would be as important to a Rasta’s as the birth of Christ is to a
Christian.
In 1930 a man named Tafari Makonne or Ras Tafari (Ras meaning king) claimed himself Emperor of
Ethiopia Haile Selassie I as well as the traditional titles “King of Kings, Lord of Lords, and Conquering
Lion of the Tribe Judah. To some Jamaican people this meant that Garvey’s prophecy had been

fulfilled. These people tuned to the Bible and through literal translation of the documents found much
correlation into what had taken place. An important correlation to the Bible is the fact that Selassie
claimed to be a direct descendent of King David. By Selassie claiming his relation to David, he had
made a coalition to Revelation 5:2-5. To some Jamaicans this meant their Messiah had arrived.
ETHIOPIA – CIRCA 1958: A stamp printed in Ethiopia shows image of Emperor Haile Selassie with
the inscription in Amharic, series, circa 1958
In Jamaica some people such as Leonard P. Howell, J.N. Hibert, and Archibald Dunkle, began to
spread the word of the Messiah coming to save the African people. To Dunkle Howell, and Hibert
Haile, Selassie became their living god. The people who listened to this soon began to call
themselves Rastafarians. To these new Rasta’s, Ethiopia became their Zion, and Haile Selassie their
Messiah. The Rastafari religion would continue to follow this trend of interpreting the Bible literally
which lead to practices that make the Rastafari religion unique from any other.
What it means to be Rasta
The beliefs of the Rastafarian are often misunderstood. To many, anyone who has dreads, smokes
ganja, and plays Reggae music is a Rasta. There is much more than those three elements to being a
Rasta. Rastafari is more than just a religion. It is a movement and a way of life. The Rasta life style is
one of peace, or at least it seeks to be one of peace. I say this because throughout the world the
Rasta are oppressed and harassed and Rasta’s sometimes are forced to turn to violence for survival.
It is important when reading this section of the paper that one understands that the Rastafari has no
set book of rules. The Rasta way of life that is laid out here is not true for all Rasta’s. What is said in
this section is the basic beliefs of Rasta and not all Rasta’s follow these customs exactly.
Ganja Smoking
One of the first aspects of Rastafari that come to mind when people hear of Rastafari is their use of
marijuana. The smoking Ganja for a Rasta is a special experience. They use the Ganja to help
enlighten their mind so they can correctly reason the ways of the world. The Ganja is always smoked
in a ritual way. Before smoking the plant the Rasta will say a prayer to Jah (God) or to Haile Selassie
I. The Rasta call them reasoning sessions when they use Ganja for Nyabinghi. A Nyabinghi session
is much different from a casual marijuana smoking session that western people take part in. People in
the west smoke marijuana for social and entertainment reasons. In the west smoking the weed may
lead to a silly time of laughing and horse play. This differs greatly from what takes place during a
Nyabinghi. A Nyabinghi is a taken very seriously. Acting silly would be considered disrespectful to a
Rasta. Before Rasta smoke the ritual plant, they say a prayer to their god Haile Selassie.

Unfortunately for the Rasta, the smoking of Ganja has become one of the Rasta biggest struggles.
This is due to the fact that Ganja smoking is illegal in almost every country in the world with the
exception of two. Throughout the world, from South Africa to Jamaica the Rasta are constantly at
court with the government trying to fight for the legalization of Ganja for religious purposes. In every
country that Rasta’s have gone to court to fight for this religious right they have lost. The countries
that they have tried to fight for the right to smoke Ganja in include: Great Britain, United States, South
African, Jamaica, and more. Many Rasta’s throughout the world have ended up in jail because of the
smoking of their religious plant.
The Rasta’s use of Ganja stems back to the beginning of Rastarafi in Jamaica. In 1941 one of the
early teachers of Rastafari, Leonard P. Howell, set up a Rasta community of sixteen hundred Rasta’s.
This community was named Pinnacle. At Pinnacle, Howell grew Ganja as a cash crop. It was during
this time that Rasta discovered the properties of Ganja that helped their reasoning process. The
Rasta soon turned to the Bible and found reverence to the use of this holy plant. From this Ganja was
born into the Rastafari culture.
Dreadlocks.
Dreadlocks are another well-known part of Rastafari. The origin of the dreadlock traces back to
ancient Africa, originating in eastern Africa,
“The hairstyle was worn by warriors in Kenya, and a Hairstyle of ancient Kemet and Nubia. However
in Jamaica, in post slavery and Eurocentric culture, the Hairstyle was deemed in the early years as
“Dreadful”(Dubb pg.3).
The name dreadlock comes from the locks of hair deemed dreadful as Dubb explained. The Rasta’s
also believe that they should not put sharp metal objects to their head. This comes again from
interpreting the Bible literally. Due to this belief they do not believe it is right to shave or comb their
hair. Another belief that led to the dreadlocks among Rasta’s is that the wearing of the Dread
resembles the main of a lion. The lion is significant because the lion is the respected king of the
animal kingdom, as well as humble animal. Both of these traits the Rasta believes are divine and
important to the “Black Man”. Haile Selassie I also was called “the conquering Lion of the Tribe of
Judah”, this makes the wearing of the dread connected to the Rasta god. The dreadlock is also a
natural state of the African person hair, and by being natural the Rasta feels they are more connected
to Jah.

The wearing of the dread first appeared in the Rasta Community at the original Rasta community of
Pinnacle. At Pinnacle Howell was growing Ganja as a cash crop and the police where constantly
raiding the farms. Because of this and other border problems at the Rasta community, Howell was
forced to create a group of guards to protect the area. These guards grew their hair long in the form
of ancient African warriors and became known as “locks men”. With this and the reasons given in the
previous paragraph, the Dreadlock became the hairstyle of the Rasta.
Just like the smoking of Ganja, the dreadlock hairstyle has led many problems for the Rasta. In the
early days of Rastafari, Rasta who wore their hair in dread form where brutalized by the police for no
reason. This pushed many Rasta into the bush of Jamaica so that they could live in peace. Things
have not gotten a whole lot better for dreadlocked people. In Jamaica and other parts of the world
children who have dreads are not allowed to attend some schools. Just like the Ganja issue the, the
dreadlock school issue is constantly being fought in courts throughout the Rasta world. It came up
lately in a South African school where a young child was not given the right to go to school because
of her dreads and the issue had to be fought in court.
The Rasta Diet.
The Rastafari diet is something that is often overlooked by many people who do not know a great
deal about Rastafari. The Rasta has a very interesting belief in their thoughts about dead beings. The
Rasta’s do not like being around any animal that is dead. This idea stems into their diet. The Rasta
believes that it is wrong to eat animals that have died because then you are turning your body into a
cemetery. This does not mean that a Rasta will not eat dairy products. Most Rasta’s have no problem
with the consumption of milk because it does not come from a dead animal. Although most Rasta’s
will not eat animal meat, many Rasta’s will eat fish. However the Rasta will not eat shellfish. This
stems from more readings in the Bible. Some but not all Rasta will go as far as to not to eat fruit that
has been altered from its original form. This means they would not eat fruit that has been peeled, cut,
or smashed. There is also a large number of Rasta that will not eat any processed food.
Rasta Dialect
The dialect of the Rasta reflects their beliefs in many ways. “If you really want to know how Rasta’s
think, listen to them Talk” (Hicholas pg.37). Rasta’s take their speech very seriously. Rasta’s are
often trying to make their speech sound very powerful and grateful. The Rasta’s speech reflects how
they often think literally. Their speech uses a literal translation of words, just like their beliefs use a
literal translation of biblical readings. Their speech reflects their protest against oppression, as well as
their protest against authority. When the Rasta’s speech is analyzed, it shows how the Rasta’s are
always trying to think positively.

The Rastafarian rhetoric changes the English language in a way that helps them make more sense of
the world, as well as to protest against what the Rasta believe to be unjust. Rasta will often change
word from a negative meaning to a positive meaning. The changing of the word understand to “over
stand” is an example of this. To “over stand” means to fully and entirely have a grasp of a concept.
This Rasta reasoning for this is that something that is under is worse than something that is over it, so
they change “under” to “over”. A Rasta might say “I and I, must not just understand but over stand,
seen”. A Rasta will almost never use a negative term. They will always replace it with something
positive. This is a great reflection on how the Rasta always sees things positively.
Another interesting concept of the Rasta’s language is their concept of I and I. The letter “I” is in
almost every part of their language. It is in the name of their Religion “Rastafari”, and it is part of their
gods title Selassie I. The Rasta use the word to connect themselves to god, to show that that god is
always part of them. A Rasta will never “I am going there” instead it would be “I and I am going there”.
The Rasta does this to show that god is part of him, and that he is not separate from any other
person. “I” is also used to replace letters of powerful words. This too is reflected in the word “you” not
being part of the Rasta language. The Rasta believes that first there was just “I” and then the devil
came and created “you”.
The Rasta’s Social Thought.
The Rasta believes in peace and they are constantly trying to preach down violence. This preaching
down of violence is often hard for Rasta’s to do because most Rasta live in poor areas where peace
is often unattainable. The Rasta fear world wars, and especially nuclear war. This want for world
peace is heard often in the Rasta’s Reggae music.
One of the most important parts of Rasta thought is the protest against authority and structure. The
Rasta’s refer to the authorities that rule the world as Babylon. Babylon is connected to the devil and
is ruled by the oppressive “white man”. This rejection of authority can be seen in how Rastafari has
no rules like many other religions do. There is not one thing that Rasta has to do to be a Rasta
because that would defeat the whole purpose of being a Rasta. The Rasta’s reject the Pope very
much. “Burn the Pope. Burn the Pope man….The Pope is a vampire, wants our blood. Selassie I is
the head. The Pope is the devil” (Lewis pg. 45). This quote of a Jamaican Rasta is an example of how
the Rasta’s feel about organized religion and the Pope.
Rasta’s economic beliefs are anti-capitalism. The Rasta’s believe that Capitalism is part of Babylon.
Rasta’s believe what is yours is also your neighbors. This does not mean that Rasta’s would approve
of Communism. To a Rasta Communism would be too structured. They would also reject the idea of
a leader telling them what to do. Most Rasta’s also do not believe in paying taxes. Because of this
most Rasta’s do not take part in the formal economy. Instead they both live in a place where they can

survive on what they can grow or they take part in the informal economy and survive through street
vending. Some Rasta’s survive by selling Ganja, or other illegal substances.
One unfortunate part of Rastafari is their negative attitude toward females. Most Rasta’s believe that
females are not equal to men. They believe that a good woman must always respect men and do
what they ask. This is very contrary to much of their other beliefs about people being equal. Rasta
men often beat their wives for being lazy. Rasta men believe that being naked is good because you
are closer to god in your natural state. However Rasta’s believe that women should not show off their
bodies. Rasta’s belief of sexual contact also differs from men to women. Rasta men often have many
different partners, while it is wrong for Rasta women to give more than a hand shake to more than
one man.
Rastafari in Ethiopia.
For many Rasta’s moving back to Ethiopia is their dream. Fortunately for some this dream has come
true. In 1963 Emperor Haile Selassie I gave 500 hectares of land to any African that wished to return
to Ethiopia. The land that was given is located in the small southern Ethiopian town of Shasemene.
The small town of Shasemene has a population of 13,000. The people living in this town are 90%
Christian and 10% Muslim. The town has many visitors because it is a cross roads of the three
largest Ethiopian cities. Prostitution is very common in this town and many women make good money
through this business. Other than prostitution there is little contact between the sexes. The town’s
economic base is in trade and farming. The staple crops are maize, beans, potatoes, wheat, barley
and injera (a local grain used in traditional Ethiopian breads).
Separate from this economy the Rasta’s have set up a commune that lies three miles outside of the
main market of Shashemene. The town has grown from the original 12 Rasta’s to two hundred
families. Almost all of the Rasta’s living in the town have come from Jamaica. For the most part the
only ones who have not are Ethiopian woman who have intermarried with the Rasta’s. The Rasta’s
who live here are members of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The Twelve Tribes is the most organized
form of Rastafari that there is. The origin of the group is in Jamaica and has branches in Brooklyn,
NY. The Twelve Tribes tend to be more radical in their beliefs than other Rasta’s. They believe
strongly in the return of all Rasta’s to Africa.
The Rasta’s compound is made up of houses that are made out of mud, straw, clay and loose
concrete mix. The structure of these houses is very strong, but none of the houses are more than one
story. This is because the Rasta’s of this area believe that building their houses over one story would
be invading Gods area. The walls of these houses are also very porous because the Rasta’s say that
is so they can breathe while inside.

The Rasta’s that live in the compound at Shashemene are able to live without being controlled by any
kind of state. Their economy is completely informal. This is able to work because the land is very
fertile and they can grow almost all they need to survive. What they can’t grow they get from the
trading at the market and other funding that comes from Jamaica and other organizations. Because of
this the people of the compound are completely free and truly live with no other person governing
their actions. There is no class order in the compound. Work projects are done by the most skilled
person in that field, being in charge of the project.
Life for women in the Rasta compound at Shashemene is not great. In fact it is more oppressive than
in other areas of Rastafari culture. Women are often severely beaten for taking too long to go to the
market. The men often time how long it takes to go to the market and come back without wasting time
to talk or any other pleasure. If the woman does not return in this pre planed time they are often
beaten.
“She showed me scars she bore from such a beating when she was punished for lingering too long in
the daily market. Her husband had carefully timed her trips to the market and lateness aroused
suspicions of infidelity” (Lewis pg. 112)
This is grossly unfair for when men go to the market they spend much time lingering around, smoking
Ganja, listening to the BBC to see what is happening in the world as well as discussing their view of
world politics of other Rasta’s.
The daily life for a man living in the Twelve Tribe compound is much different than that of the women.
The men spend most of their time involved in activities that are not related to work. They will spend
much of their time smoking and discussing Rasta world views, as well painting pictures of Haile
Selasie I. Most Rasta’s living on the compound do not do much work in the fields. Newcomers to the
compound do most of the work that is done in the field. Most of these new comers do not stay long in
the community because they are worked too hard by the older members. An Ethiopian women who
lived in the compound for a while claims:
The newcomers, she claimed, are exploited and overworked through a process which the brethren
call education. If they do remain it is because the brethren put fear in their hearts that the Twelve
Tribes in Jamaica will shoot them should they leave. To return to Babylon is forbidden and
sacrilegious (Lewis 112).

Most of the money that the members of the compound receive comes from the money that has been
donated by people who live in Jamaica.
Different people that live in Shashemene perceive the Rasta’s differently. Some people reject the
Rasta’s because their way of life is in conflict with the rest of the community, while others find the
Rasta’s to be a harmless group that does nothing to hurt the community. However, there are very few
among the villagers that feel that the Rasta’s do anything positive for the struggling town.
There are a few reasons that some people in the town do not like the Rasta’s. One of these is that
even though the Rasta’s preach anti-violence, people in the village claim that they are very quick to
pull out a knife when they disagree with each other. A second complaint about the Rasta’s is that they
are lazy and sell cloth at the market that was given to them as charity. A third complaint about the
Rasta’s is one that is universal throughout every place that Rasta live. This is the complaint about
their use of Ganja.
“All they do is smoke marijuana, which the Ethiopian farmers here grow for them. Some people in the
town don’t like this, as our children have also started to use this drug. We like them as they integrate
and there is a lot of inter-marriage, but the marijuana has to stop,” says 27-year-old mechanic Adbul
Onduka. (Bhalla).
A fourth complaint out Rasta’s is simply that their religious beliefs clash with those of other Muslim
and Christian beliefs.
The Rasta’s that are currently living in Shashemene welcome any African that wants to come to live
in their community to come. They say their community can handle any amount of people that want to
come back to African. The Rasta’s believe that they will someday turn the town of Shashemene into
the most important city in Africa. They claim that someday it will be a thriving African city that will be
able to defeat the oppression of the “White Man”. As of now the Rasta’s have done little to nothing to
improve Shashemene.
Note: The amount of chapters per book varies greatly. Use your best judgement and create as many
chapters as is necessary to get your point across.

Acknowledgments [optional]:
If you’ve got people to thank, those who’ve helped you along the way,
feel free to drop those here!
You can make it short and sweet, or write a page of them if there have been
several people to assist you.
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Author Bio
Nokuthula F.B. Buthelezi has had a love for the written word since she was a little girl. She
has always had a diary or journal and expresses herself best through writing. She often
jokes, "Whenever one argues, I often want to say hey, let me take five to write my rebuttal!”
Nokuthula writes because she loves to share her knowledge with the world, inspiring hope
and a way forward to doing what you love, one person at a time.
Nokuthula resides in beautiful KwaZulu-Natal Province in Zululand in a place called

Nongoma with her two boys. She writes nonfiction books about health and wellness,
entrepreneurship, and mindset while helping creative entrepreneurs navigate the tricky
waters of starting and growing a successful online business.

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The role of women in Rastafari
Rastafari has certain rules that apply only to women.
Whilst early Rastafarians probably followed these rules strictly, women tend to have more
freedom in modern Rastafarian society.
 Women are known as Queens
 The main role of women is to look after their King
 Women are regarded as subordinate to men
 Women are regarded as housekeepers and child bearers
 Women must not commit infidelity
 Women are not called to Rastafari except through their husbands
 Women cannot be leaders
 Men are the spiritual head of the family
 Women must not cook for their husbands when menstruating
 Women must not wear makeup, dress in promiscuous clothing, or use chemicals in their hair
 Women must not use birth control, as it is regarded as a European tactic to suppress the
development of the African population. This builds on the Old Testament prophecy that 'The
seeds of Israel shall be numberless'
 Women must also abstain from abortion which is regarded as murder
 Women must cover their hair to pray, in keeping with the Biblical teaching in 1 Corinthians
11:5: "And any woman who prays or proclaims God's message in public worship with nothing
on her head disgraces her husband..."

A Rastafarian woman from birth, Empress enjoys sharing her faith and passion for Rastafari through
writing. She attributes her knowledge and awareness to the creator, and inspires those in her community
and online to study Rastafari culture as way of self-awareness. Empress enjoys blogging, song writing,
and writing poetry, about the Rastafarian religion, culture, and life meditation. Empress has written Rasta
books for all levels including, beginner, and intermediate and advanced. Some of her book titles include;
- Rasta Way of Life
- Life as a Rasta Woman
- Convert to Rastafari
- Jah Rastafari Prayers
- How to Become a Rasta
Empress believes anybody can live as Rasta. All it takes is love for the creator and a personal
commitment to become a better person towards, the planet and humanity at large. Empress lives in
America with her Rastafari Husband and Son. You can visit her online at...
Rastafari is an awareness – If you are seeking a set of rituals to embrace, Rastafari is not for you.
Rastafari is of the heart, an energy that is loving free-flowing, and values freedom, nature at all
times.
RESPECT FOR YOUR

KINGMAN
As a Rastafari Empress Respect for your Rasta man is of the utmost importance. This
means no yelling at your Kingman, or not letting him speak and say his peace. Also when in
public a true Rastafari Empress will not disagree with her Kingman but only support him to
show others that you are a loving and united front. Can you imagine Empress Menen
disagreeing with King Selassie I in public? I think not. Treat your Kingman in the same
manner. Always show your Kingman you will do whatever he asks of you because you love
him in the same light that Jah loves him.

CLOTHING AND ATTIRE
A Rastafari Empress is always mindful of

how she is dressing. She avoids clothing that is revealing, or too tight to the body. We are
sure to cover our buttocks area, and not to wear shirts or dresses which accentuate the bust
line. As spiritual Role Models of Royalty, a Rastafari Empress must dress modest yet
feminine at all times. Comfort is also a big priority for Empress, Rastafari Empress Wear flat
shoes
What are the dietary restrictions of Rastafarians?, long skirts, and clothing that is
versatile for both in and outdoor activities and includes the Rastafari colors of Red Yellow
and Green.
NATURAL VS.
UNNATURAL
APPEARANCE
Most Rastafari Empress choose not to wear makeup. If you are an Empress who
chooses to wear makeup, be sure to choose colors that are natural and down to earth. This
means no red lipstick, no eye shadow, and maybe eyeliner on very special occasions only.
Rastafari Empress who are embracing the faith deep do not wear any Jewelry. However
many Rastafari Empress do wear Jewelry but only of Natural fibers such as wood, or shell,
we call this “Rasta jewelry.” As Empress we embrace a natural appearance to Salute the
Most High and let our natural beauty shine out to the world.

EMBRACE AFRICAN
CULTURE
As a Rastafari Empress, one of your jobs is to Embrace African Culture, and to teach the
Rastafari Livity to your children. We understand Rastafari is an awareness. We want our
children to have the same wisdom and understanding as well. Things such as…
 Respect for other nations and cultures

 Keeping the commandments of Jah
 Clean and Righteous thinking
 That Jah the creator resides in all living things
 This is how a Rasta woman embraces the Rasta Way of Life
Definition
Two Rastafari street vendors in Zeerust, South Africa; they are wearing and selling items that display
their commitment to the religion
Rastafari has been described as a religion, meeting many of the proposed definitions for what
constitutes a religion, and is legally recognised as such in various countries Multiple scholars of
religion have categorized Rastafari as a new religious movement, while some scholars have also
classified it as a sect, a cult, and a revitalization movement. Having arisen in Jamaica, it has been
described as an Afro-Jamaican religion, and more broadly an Afro-Caribbean religion.

Although Rastafari focuses on Africa as a source of identity, it is a product of creolization processes
in the Americas, described by the Hispanic studies scholars Margarite Fernández Olmos and
Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert as "a Creole religion, rooted in African, European, and Indian practices
and beliefs". The scholar Ennis B. Edmonds also suggested that Rastafari was "emerging" as a world
religion, not because of the number of its adherents, but because of its global spread. Many Rasta’s
nevertheless reject descriptions of Rastafari as a religion, instead referring to it as a "way of life", a
"philosophy”, or a "spirituality".
Emphasizing its political stance, particularly in support of African nationalism and pan-Africanism,
some academics have characterized Rastafari as a political movement, a "politico-religious"
movement, or a protest movement. It has alternatively been labelled a social movement, or more
specifically as a new social movement, and a cultural movement. Many Rasta’s or Rastafarians—as
practitioners are known—nevertheless dislike the labelling of Rastafari as a "movement”. In 1989, a
British Industrial Tribunal concluded that—for the purposes of the Race Relations Act 1976—
Rastafarians could be considered an ethnic group because they have a long, shared heritage which
distinguished them from other groups, their own cultural traditions, a common language, and a
common religion.
Rastafari has continuously changed and developed, with significant doctrinal variation existing among
practitioners depending on the group to which they belong. It is not a unified movement, and there
has never been a single leader followed by all Rastafari. It is thus difficult to make broad
generalisations about the movement without obscuring the complexities within it.]The scholar of
religion Darren J. N. Middleton suggested that it was appropriate to speak of "a plethora of Rasta
spiritualities" rather than a single phenomenon.
The term "Rastafari" derives from "Ras Tafari Makonnen", the pre-regnal title of the late Haile
Selassie, the former Ethiopian emperor who occupies a central role in Rasta belief. The term "Ras"
means a duke or prince in the Ethiopian Semitic languages; "Tafari Makonnen" was Selassie's
personal name. It is unknown why the early Rastas adopted this form of Haile Selassie's name as the
basis of the term for their religion. As well as being the religion's name, "Rastafari" is also used for the
religion's practitioners themselves. Many commentators—including some academic sources and some
practitioners—refer to the movement as "Rastafarianism".However, the term is disparaged by many
Rastafari, who believe that the use of -ism implies religious doctrine and institutional organisation, things
they wish to avoid.
Beliefs
The Liberty Bell Temple in Los Angeles

Rastas refer to the totality of their religion's ideas and beliefs as "Rastalogy".Edmonds described Rastafari
as having "a fairly cohesive worldview"; however, the scholar Ernest Cashmore thought that its beliefs
were "fluid and open to interpretation".Within the movement, attempts to summarise Rastafari belief have
never been accorded the status of a catechism or creed. Rastas place great emphasis on the idea that
personal experience and intuitive understanding should be used to determine the truth or validity of a
particular belief or practice. No Rasta, therefore, has the authority to declare which beliefs and practices
are orthodox and which are heterodox. The conviction that Rastafari has no dogma "is so strong that it has
itself become something of a dogma", according to the sociologist of religion Peter B. Clarke.
Rastafari is deeply influenced by Judeo-Christian religion, and shares many commonalities
with Christianity. The scholar Michael Barnett observed that its theology is "essentially Judeo-Christian",
representing "an Afrocentralized blend of Christianity and Judaism".Some followers openly describe
themselves as Christians. Rastafari accords the Bible a central place in its belief system, regarding it as a
holy book, and adopts a literalist interpretation of its contents. According to the anthropologist Stephen D.
Glazier, Rasta approaches to the Bible result in the religion adopting an outlook very similar to that of
some forms of Protestantism Rastas regard the Bible as an authentic account of early black African
history and of their place as God's favoured people. They believe the Bible to be key to understanding
both the past and the present and for predicting the future, while also regarding it as a source book from
which they can form and justify their beliefs and practices. Rastas commonly perceive the final book of the
Bible, the Book of Revelation, as the most important part, because they see its contents as having
particular significance for the world's present situation.
Contrary to scholarly understandings of how the Bible was compiled, Rastas commonly believe it was
originally written on stone in the Ethiopian language of Amharic. They also believe that the Bible's true
meaning has been warped, both through mistranslation into other languages and by deliberate
manipulation by those seeking to deny black Africans their history. They also regard it as cryptographic,
meaning that it has many hidden meanings.They believe that its true teachings can be revealed through
intuition and meditation on the "book within" which allows them to commune with God. [ Because of what
they regard as the corruption of the Bible, Rastas also turn to other sources that they believe shed light on
black African history. Common texts used for this purpose include Leonard Howell's 1935 work The
Promised Key, Robert Athlyi Rogers' 1924 book Holy Piby, and Fitz Balintine Pettersburg's 1920s work,
the Royal Parchment Scroll of Black Supremacy.[53] Many Rasta’s also treat the Kebra Nagast, a 14th-
century Ethiopian text, as a source through which to interpret the Bible.
Jah and Jesus of Nazareth

Rasta’s are monotheists, worshipping a singular God whom they call Jah. The term "Jah" is a shortened
version of "Jehovah", the name of God in English translations of the Old Testament. Rastafari holds
strongly to the immanence of this divinity; as well as regarding Jah as a deity, Rasta’s believe that Jah is
inherent within each individual. This belief is reflected in the aphorism, often cited by Rasta’s, that "God is
man and man is God”, and Rasta’s speak of "knowing" Jah, rather than simply "believing" in him. In
seeking to narrow the distance between humanity and divinity, Rastafari embraces mysticism.
Jesus is an important figure in Rastafari. However, practitioners reject the traditional Christian view of
Jesus, particularly the depiction of him as a white European, believing that this is a perversion of the truth.
They believe that Jesus was a black African, and that the white Jesus was a false god. Many Rasta’s
regard Christianity as the creation of the white man;[ they treat it with suspicion out of the view that the
oppressors (white Europeans) and the oppressed (black Africans) cannot share the same God. [ Many
Rasta’s take the view that the God worshipped by most white Christians is actually the Devil, and a
recurring claim among Rasta’s is that the Pope is Satan or the Antichrist Rasta’s therefore often view
Christian preachers as deceivers and regard Christianity as being guilty of furthering the oppression of
the African diaspora[ frequently referring to it as having perpetrated "mental enslavement".

Haile Selassie
Haile Selassie, the Emperor of Ethiopia between 1930 and 1974. He is of central importance to
Rasta’s, many of whom regard him as the Second Coming of Jesus and thus God incarnate in human
form.
From its origins, Rastafari was intrinsically linked with Haile Selassie, the Emperor of Ethiopia from
1930 to 1974. He remains the central figure in Rastafari ideology, and although all Rasta’s hold him in
esteem, precise interpretations of his identity differ. Understandings of how Haile Selassie relates to
Jesus vary among Rasta’s. Many, although not all, believe that the Ethiopian monarch was
the Second Coming of Jesus ! Legitimizing this by reference to their interpretation of the nineteenth
chapter of the Book of Revelation By viewing Haile Selassie as Jesus, these Rasta’s also regard him
as the messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, the manifestation of God in human form, and "the living
God". Some perceive him as part of a Trinity, alongside God as Creator and the Holy Spirit, the latter
referred to as "the Breath within the temple". Rasta’s who view Haile Selassie as Jesus argue that both
were descendants from the royal line of the Biblical king David, while Rasta’s also emphasize the fact that
the Makonnen dynasty, of which Haile Selassie was a member, claimed descent from the Biblical
figures Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
Other Rasta’s see Selassie as embodying Jesus' teachings and essence but reject the idea that he was
the literal reincarnation of Jesus. Members of the Twelve Tribes of Israel denomination, for instance, reject
the idea that Selassie was the Second Coming, arguing that this event has yet to occur. From this
perspective, Selassie is perceived as a messenger or emissary of God rather than a manifestation of God
himself. Rasta’s holding to this view sometimes regard the deification of Haile Selassie as naïve or
ignorant, in some cases thinking it as dangerous to worship a human being as God. There are various
Rasta’s who went from believing that Haile Selassie was both God incarnate and the Second Coming of
Jesus to seeing him as something distinct.
On being crowned, Haile Selassie was given the title of "King of Kings and Lord of Lords, Conquering Lion
of the Tribe of Judah”. Rasta’s use this title for Haile Selassie alongside others, such as "Almighty God",
"Judge and Avenger", "King Alpha and Queen Omega", "Returned Messiah", "Elect of God", and "Elect of
Himself" Rasta’s also view Haile Selassie as a symbol of their positive affirmation of Africa as a source of
spiritual and cultural heritage
While he was emperor, many Jamaican Rasta’s professed the belief that Haile Selassie would never die.
The 1974 overthrow of Haile Selassie by the military Derg and his subsequent death in 1975 resulted in a
crisis of faith for many practitioners. Some left the movement altogether. Others remained, and developed
new strategies for dealing with the news. Some Rasta’s believed that Selassie did not really die and that
claims to the contrary were Western misinformation. To bolster their argument, they pointed to the fact that
no corpse had been produced; in reality, Haile Selassie's body had been buried beneath his palace,

remaining undiscovered there until 1992. Another perspective within Rastafari acknowledged that Haile
Selassie's body had perished, but claimed that his inner essence survived as a spiritual force. A third
response within the Rastafari community was that Selassie's death was inconsequential as he had only
been a "personification" of Jah rather than Jah himself.
During his life, Selassie described himself as a devout Christian. In a 1967 interview, Selassie was asked
about the Rasta belief that he was the Second Coming of Jesus, to which he responded: "I have heard of
this idea. I also met certain Rastafarians. I told them clearly that I am a man, that I am mortal, and that I
will be replaced by the oncoming generation, and that they should never make a mistake in assuming or
pretending that a human being is emanated from a deity. His grandson Ermias Sahle Selassie has said
that there is "no doubt that Haile Selassie did not encourage the Rastafari movement”. Critics of Rastafari
have used this as evidence that Rasta theological beliefs are incorrect, although some Rasta’s take
Selassie's denials as evidence that he was indeed the incarnation of God, based on their reading of
the Gospel of Luke.
Afrocentrism and views on race
The eastern African nation of Ethiopia is given great prominence in Rasta doctrine.
According to Clarke, Rastafari is "concerned above all else with black consciousness, with rediscovering
the identity, personal and racial, of black people". The Rastafari movement began among Afro-
Jamaicans who wanted to reject the British colonial culture that dominated Jamaica and replace it with a
new identity based on a reclamation of their African heritage. Its emphasis is on the purging of any belief
in the inferiority of black people, and the superiority of white people, from the minds of its
followers. Rastafari is therefore Afrocentric, equating blackness with the African continent, and endorsing
a form of Pan-Africanism.
Practitioners of Rastafari identify themselves with the ancient Israelites—God's chosen people in the Old
Testament—and believe that black Africans broadly or Rasta’s more specifically are either the
descendants or the reincarnations of this ancient people. This is similar to beliefs in Judaism,[ although
many Rasta’s believe that contemporary Jews status as the descendants of the ancient Israelites is a
false claim. Rasta’s typically believe that black Africans are God's chosen people, meaning that they made
a covenant with him and thus have a special responsibility. Rastafari espouses the view that this, the true
identity of black Africans, has been lost and needs to be reclaimed.
There is no uniform Rasta view on race. Black supremacy was a theme early in the movement, with the
belief in the existence of a distinctly black African race that is superior to other racial groups. While some
still hold this belief, non-black Rasta’s are now widely accepted in the movement Rastafari's history has
opened the religion to accusations of racism. Cashmore noted that there was an "implicit potential" for
racism in Rasta beliefs but he also noted that racism was not "intrinsic" to the religion. Some Rasta’s have
acknowledged that there is racism in the movement, primarily against Europeans and Asians. Some Rasta
sects reject the notion that a white European can ever be a legitimate Rasta. Other Rasta sects believe

that an "African" identity is not inherently linked to black skin but rather is about whether an individual
displays an African "attitude" or "spirit".
Babylon and Zion
Rastafari teaches that the black African diaspora are exiles living in "Babylon", a term which it applies
to Western society. For Rasta’s, European colonialism and global capitalism are regarded as
manifestations of Babylon,[ while police and soldiers are viewed as its agents. The term "Babylon" is
adopted because of its Biblical associations. In the Old Testament, Babylon is the Mesopotamian city
where the Israelites were held captive, exiled from their homeland, between 597 and 586 BCE; Rasta’s
compare the exile of the Israelites in Mesopotamia to the exile of the African diaspora outside Africa. In
the New Testament, "Babylon" is used as a euphemism for the Roman Empire, which was regarded as
acting in a destructive manner that was akin to the way in which the ancient Babylonians acted. Rasta’s
perceive the exile of the black African diaspora in Babylon as an experience of great suffering, with the
term "suffering" having a significant place in Rasta discourse.
A map of Ethiopia, the "Zion" of the Rasta’s

Rasta’s view Babylon as being responsible for both the Atlantic slave trade which removed enslaved
Africans from their continent and the ongoing poverty which plagues the African diaspora. Rasta’s turn to
Biblical scripture to explain the Atlantic slave trade, believing that the enslavement, exile, and exploitation
of black Africans was punishment for failing to live up to their status as Jah's chosen people. Many
Rasta’s, adopting a Pan-Africanist ethos, have criticized the division of Africa into nation-states, regarding
this as a Babylonian development, and are often hostile to capitalist resource extraction from the
continent. Rasta’s seek to delegitimize and destroy Babylon, something often conveyed in the
Rasta aphorism "Chant down Babylon”. Rasta’s often expect the white-dominated society to dismiss their
beliefs as false, and when this happens they see it as confirmation of the correctness of their faith.
Rasta’s view "Zion" as an ideal to which they aspire. As with "Babylon", this term comes from the Bible,
where it refers to an idealized Jerusalem. Rasta’s use "Zion" either for Ethiopia specifically or for Africa
more broadly, the latter having an almost mythological identity in Rasta discourse. Many Rasta’s use the
term "Ethiopia" as a synonym for "Africa" thus, Rasta’s in Ghana for instance described themselves as
already living within "Ethiopia". Other Rasta’s apply the term "Zion" to Jamaica or they use it to describe a
state of mind.
In portraying Africa as their "Promised Land", Rasta’s reflect their desire to escape what they perceive as
the domination and degradation that they experience in Babylon .During the first three decades of the
Rastafari movement, it placed strong emphasis on the need for the African diaspora to be repatriated to
Africa. To this end, various Rasta’s lobbied the Jamaican government and United Nations to oversee this
resettlement process. Other Rasta’s organized their own transportation to the African continent. Critics of
the movement have argued that the migration of the entire African diaspora to Africa is implausible,
particularly as no African country would welcome this.

By the movement's fourth decade, the desire for physical repatriation to Africa had declined among
Rasta’s, a change influenced by observation of the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia. Rather, many Rasta’s
saw the idea of returning to Africa in a metaphorical sense, entailing the restoration of their pride and self-
confidence as people of black African descent. The term "liberation before repatriation" began to be used
within the movement. Some Rasta’s seek to transform Western society so that they may more comfortably
live within it rather than seeking to move to Africa. There are nevertheless many Rasta’s who continue to
emphasize the need for physical resettlement of the African diaspora in Africa.
Salvation and paradise

Rastafari is a millenarian movement, espousing the idea that the present age will come to an apocalyptic
end. Many practitioners believe that on this Day of Judgement, Babylon will be overthrown with Rasta’s
being the chosen few who survive the upheaval. With Babylon destroyed, Rasta’s believe that humanity
will be ushered into a "new age”. This is conceived as being a millennium of peace, justice, and happiness
in which the righteous shall live in Africa, now a paradise. In the 1980s, many Rasta’s believed that the
Day of Judgment would happen around the year 2000. A view then common in the Rasta community was
that the world's white people would wipe themselves out through nuclear war, with black Africans then
ruling the world, something that they argued was prophesied in the Book of Daniel.
Rasta’s do not believe that there is a specific afterlife to which individuals go following bodily death. They
believe in the possibility of eternal life, and that only those who shun righteousness will actually die. The
scholar of religion Leonard E. Barrett observed some Jamaican Rasta’s who believed that those
practitioners who did die had not been faithful to Jah. He suggested that this attitude stemmed from the
large numbers of young people that were then members of the movement, and who had thus seen only
few Rasta’s die. Another Rasta view is that those who are righteous will undergo reincarnation, with an
individual's identity remaining throughout each of their incarnations. In keeping with their views on death,
Rasta’s eschew celebrating physical death and often avoid funerals, also repudiating the practice
of ancestor veneration that is common among traditional African religions.
Morality, ethics, and gender roles

A Rasta in Barbados, wearing a Rasta cap decorated in the Rastafari colors: green, gold, red and black
Most Rasta’s share a pair of fundamental moral principles known as the "two great commandments": love
of God and love of neighbor. Many Rasta’s believe that to determine whether they should undertake a
certain act or not, they should consult the presence of Jah within themselves.
Rastafari promotes the idea of "living naturally", in accordance with what Rasta’s regard as nature's laws.
It endorses the idea that Africa is the "natural" abode of black Africans, a continent where they can live
according to African culture and tradition and be themselves on a physical, emotional, and intellectual
level. Practitioners believe that Westerners and Babylon have detached themselves from nature through
technological development and thus have become debilitated, slothful, and decadent. Some Rasta’s
express the view that they should adhere to what they regard as African laws rather than the laws of
Babylon, thus defending their involvement in certain acts which may be illegal in the countries that they
are living in, for example defending the smoking of cannabis as a religious sacrament. In emphasizing this
Afrocentric approach, Rastafari expresses overtones of black nationalism.
The scholar Maureen Warner-Lewis observed that Rastafari combined a "radical, even revolutionary"
stance on socio-political issues, particularly regarding race, with a "profoundly traditional" approach to
"philosophical conservatism" on other religious issues. Rasta’s typically look critically upon modern
capitalism with its consumerism and materialism .They favor small-scale, pre-industrial and agricultural
societies. Some Rasta’s have promoted activism as a means of achieving socio-political reform, while
others believe in awaiting change that will be brought about through divine intervention in human affairs. In
Jamaica, Rasta’s typically do not vote, derogatorily dismissing politics as "politricks", and rarely involve
themselves in political parties or unions. The Rasta tendency to believe that socio-political change is
inevitable opens the religion up to the criticism from the political left that it encourages adherents to do
little or nothing to alter the status quo. Other Rasta’s do engage in political activism; the Ghanaian Rasta
singer-songwriter Rocky Dawuni for instance was involved in campaigns promoting democratic elections,
while in Grenada, many Rasta’s joined the People's Revolutionary Government formed in 1979.
Gender roles and sexuality
Rastafari promotes what it regards as the restoration of black manhood, believing that men in the African
diaspora have been emasculated by Babylon. It espouses patriarchal principles including the idea that
women should submit to male leadership. External observers—including scholars such as Cashmore and
Edmonds —have claimed that Rastafari accords women an inferior position to men. Rastafari women
usually accept this subordinate position and regard it as their duty to obey their men; the academic
Maureen Rowe suggested that women were willing to join the religion despite its restrictions because they
valued the life of structure and discipline it provided. Rasta discourse often presents women as morally
weak and susceptible to deception by evil, and claims that they are impure while menstruating.]Rastas
legitimise these gender roles by citing Biblical passages, particularly those in the Book of Leviticus and in
the writings of Paul the Apostle.

The Rasta Shop, a store selling items associated with Rastafari in the U.S. state of Oregon
Rasta women usually wear clothing that covers their head and hides their body contours. ] Trousers are
usually avoided in favor of long skirts. Women are expected to cover their head while praying, and in some
Rasta groups this is expected of them whenever in public. Rasta discourse insists this female dress code
is necessary to prevent women from attracting men and presents it as an antidote to the sexual
objectification of women in Babylon. Rasta men are permitted to wear whatever they choose. Although
men and women took part alongside each other in early Rasta rituals, from the late 1940s and 1950s the
Rasta community increasingly encouraged gender segregation for ceremonies. This was legitimized with
the explanation that women were impure through menstruation and that their presence at the ceremonies
would distract male participants.
As it existed in Jamaica, Rastafari did not promote monogamy. Rasta men are permitted multiple female
sex partners, while women are expected to reserve their sexual activity for one male partner. Marriage is
not usually formalized through legal ceremonies but is a common-law affair although many Rasta’s are
legally married. Rasta men refer to their female partners as "queens", or "empresses",] while the males in
these relationships are known as "kingmen".Rastafari places great importance on family life and the
raising of children,] with reproduction being encouraged. The religion emphasizes the place of men in
child-rearing, associating this with the recovery of African manhood. Women often work, sometimes while
the man raises the children at home. Rastafari typically rejects feminism, although since the 1970s
growing numbers of Rasta women have called for greater gender equity in the movement. The scholar
Terisa E. Turner for instance encountered Kenyan feminists who were appropriating Rastafari content to
suit their political agenda. Some Rasta women have challenged gender norms by wearing their hair
uncovered in public and donning trousers.
Rastafari regards procreation as the purpose of sex, and thus oral and anal sex are usually forbidden.
Both contraception and abortion are usually censured, and a common claim in Rasta discourse is that
these were inventions of Babylon to decrease the black African birth-rate. Rasta’s typically express hostile
attitudes to homosexuality, regarding homosexuals as evil and unnatural; this attitude derives
from references to same-sex sexual activity in the Bible. Homosexual Rasta’s probably conceal their
sexual orientation because of these attitudes. Rasta’s typically see the growing acceptance of birth control
and homosexuality in Western society as evidence of the degeneration of Babylon as it approaches its
apocalyptic end.
Practices
Main article: Livity (spiritual concept)
Rasta’s refer to their cultural and religious practices as "livity".Rastafari does not place emphasis on
hierarchical structures. It has no professional priesthood, with Rasta’s believing that there is no need for a
priest to act as mediator between the worshipper and divinity. It nevertheless has "elders", an honorific title
bestowed upon those with a good reputation among the community. Although respected figures, they do
not necessarily have administrative functions or responsibilities. When they do oversee ritual meetings,
they are often responsible for helping to interpret current events in terms of Biblical scripture. Elders often
communicate with each other through a network to plan movement events and form strategies.

Grounding
A group of Rasta’s in Liberia celebrating Marcus Garvey's birthday

The term "grounding" is used among Rasta’s to refer to the establishment of relationships between
like-minded practitioners. Groundings often take place in a commune or yard, and are presided over
by an elder. The elder is charged with keeping discipline and can ban individuals from attending. The
number of participants can range from a handful to several hundred. Activities that take place at
groundings include the playing of drums, chanting, the singing of hymns, and the recitation of poetry.
Cannabis, known as ganja, is often smoked. Most groundings contain only men, although some
Rasta women have established their own all-female grounding circles.
One of the central activities at groundings is "reasoning”. This is a discussion among assembled
Rasta’s about the religion's principles and their relevance to current events. These discussions are
supposed to be non-combative, although attendees can point out the fallacies in any arguments
presented. Those assembled inform each other about the revelations that they have received through
meditation and dream. Each contributor is supposed to push the boundaries of understanding until
the entire group has gained greater insight into the topic under discussion. In meeting together with
like-minded individuals, reasoning helps Rasta’s to reassure one another of the correctness of their
beliefs. Rastafari meetings are opened and closed with prayers. These involve supplication of God,
the supplication for the hungry, sick, and infants, and calls for the destruction of the Rasta’s' enemies,
and then close with statements of adoration.[
Princes shall come out of Egypt, Ethiopia shall stretch forth her hand unto God. Oh thou God of
Ethiopia, thou God of divine majesty, thy spirit come within our hearts to dwell in the parts of
righteousness. That the hungry be fed, the sick nourished, the aged protected, and the infant cared
for. Teach us love and loyalty as it is in Zion.
— Opening passage of a common Rasta prayer

The largest groundings were known as "groundations" or "grounations" in the 1950s, although they were
subsequently re-termed "Nyabinghi Issemblies".The term "Nyabinghi" is adopted from the name of a
mythical African queen. Nyabinghi Issemblies are often held on dates associated with Ethiopia and Haile
Selassie. These include Ethiopian Christmas (7 January), the day on which Haile Selassie visited Jamaica
(21 April), Selassie's birthday (23 July), Ethiopian New Year (11 September), and Selassie's coronation
day (2 November). Some Rastas also organise Nyabinghi Issemblies to mark Jamaica's Emancipation
Day (1 August) and Marcus Garvey's birthday (17 August).
Nyabinghi Issemblies typically take place in rural areas, being situated in the open air or in temporary
structures—known as "temples" or "tabernacles"—specifically constructed for the purpose. Any elder
seeking to sponsor a Nyabinghi Issembly must have approval from other elders and requires the adequate
resources to organize such an event. The assembly usually lasts between three and seven days. During

the daytime, attendees engage in food preparation, ganja smoking, and reasoning, while at night they
focus on drumming and dancing around bonfires. Nyabinghi Issemblies often attract Rastas from a wide
area, including from different countries. They establish and maintain a sense of solidarity among the Rasta
community and cultivate a feeling of collective belonging Unlike in many other religions, rites of
passage play no role in Rastafari; on death, various Rasta’s have been given Christian funerals by their
relatives, as there are no established Rasta funeral rites.
Use of cannabis
The principal ritual of Rastafari is the smoking of ganja, also known as marijuana or cannabis. Among the
names that Rasta’s give to the plant are callie, Iley, "the herb", "the holy herb", "the grass", and "the
weed". Cannabis is usually smoked during groundings although some practitioners also smoke it
informally in other contexts. Some Rasta’s smoke it almost all of the time, something other practitioners
regard as excessive, and many practitioners also ingest cannabis in a tea, as a spice in cooking, and as
an ingredient in medicine. However, not all Rasta’s use ganja; abstainers explain that they have already
achieved a higher level of consciousness and thus do not require it.
A flowering cannabis plant; the smoking of which is considered a Biblically sanctioned sacrament by Rasta’s
In Rastafari, cannabis is considered a sacrament. Rasta’s argue that the use of ganja is promoted in the
Bible, specifically in Genesis, Psalms, and Revelation. They regard it as having healing properties,
eulogize it for inducing feelings of "peace and love", and claim that it cultivates a form of personal
introspection that allows the smokers to discover their inner divinity. Some Rasta’s believe that cannabis
smoke serves as an incense that counteracts immoral practices in society.
Rasta’s typically smoke cannabis in the form of a large, hand-rolled cigarette known as a spliff. This is
often rolled together while a prayer is offered to Jah; the spliff is lit and smoked only when the prayer is
completed. At other times, cannabis is smoked in a water pipe referred to as a chalice: styles
include kutchies, chillums, and steamers. The pipe is passed in a counter-clockwise direction around the
assembled circle of Rastas.
There are various options that might explain how cannabis smoking came to be part of Rastafari. By the
8th century, Arab traders had introduced cannabis to Central and Southern Africa. In the 19th century,
enslaved Bakongo people arrived in Jamaica, where they established the religion of Kumina. In Kumina,
cannabis was smoked during religious ceremonies in the belief that it facilitated possession by ancestral
spirits. The religion was largely practiced in south-east Jamaica's Saint Thomas Parish, where a prominent
early Rasta, Leonard Howell, lived while he was developing many of Rastafari's beliefs and practices; it
may have been through Kumina that cannabis became part of Rastafari. A second possible source was

the use of cannabis in Hindu rituals. Hindu migrants arrived in Jamaica as indentured servants from British
India between 1834 and 1917, and brought cannabis with them. A Jamaican Hindu priest, Laloo, was one
of Howell's spiritual advisors, and may have influenced his adoption of ganja. The adoption of cannabis
may also have been influenced by the widespread medicinal and recreational use of cannabis among
Afro-Jamaicans in the early 20th century. Early Rastafarians may have taken an element of Jamaican
culture which they associated with their peasant past and the rejection of capitalism and sanctified it by
according it Biblical correlates.
In many countries—including Jamaica—cannabis is illegal and by using it, Rasta’s protest the rules and
regulations of Babylon. In the United States, for example, thousands of practitioners have been arrested
because of their possession of the drug. Rasta’s have also advocated for the legalization of cannabis in
those jurisdictions where it is illegal; in 2015, Jamaica decriminalized personal possession of marijuana up
to two ounces and legalized it for medicinal and scientific purposes. In 2019, Barbados legalized Rastafari
use of cannabis within religious settings and pledged 60 acres (24 ha) of land for Rastafari to grow it.
Music
A Rasta playing a batá drum

Rastafari music developed at reasoning sessions, where drumming, chanting, and dancing are all
present. Rasta music is performed to praise and commune with Jah and to reaffirm the rejection of
Babylon. Rasta’s believe that their music has healing properties, with the ability to cure colds, fevers, and
headaches. Many of these songs are sung to the tune of older Christian hymns, but others are original
Rasta creations.
The bass-line of Rasta music is provided by the akete, a three-drum set, which is accompanied
by percussion instruments like rattles and tambourines. A syncopated rhythm is then provided by
the fundeh drum. In addition, a peta drum improvises over the rhythm. The different components of the
music are regarded as displaying different symbolism; the bassline symbolizes blows against Babylon,
while the lighter beats denote hope for the future.
As Rastafari developed, popular music became its chief communicative medium. During the
1960s, ska was a popular musical style in Jamaica, and although its protests against social and political
conditions were mild, it gave early expression to Rasta socio-political ideology. Particularly prominent in
the connection between Rastafari and ska were the musicians Count Ossie and Don Drummond.[253] Ossie

was a drummer who believed that black people needed to develop their own style of music; he was
heavily influenced by Burru, an Afro-Jamaican drumming style. Ossie subsequently popularized this new
Rastafari ritual music by playing at various groundings and granulations around Jamaica, with songs like
"Another Moses" and "Babylon Gone" reflecting Rasta influence. Rasta themes also appeared in
Drummond's work, with songs such as "Reincarnation" and "Tribute to Marcus Garvey".
1968 saw the development of reggae in Jamaica, a musical style typified by slower, heavier rhythms than
ska and the increased use of Jamaican Patois.[257] Like calypso, reggae was a medium for social
commentary, although it demonstrated a wider use of radical political and Rasta themes than were
previously present in Jamaican popular music. Reggae artists incorporated Rasta ritual rhythms, and also
adopted Rasta chants, language, motifs, and social critiques. Songs like The Wailers' "African Herbs man"
and Peter Tosh's "Legalize It" referenced cannabis use, while tracks like The Melodians' "Rivers of
Babylon" and Junior Byles' "Beat Down Babylon" referenced Rasta beliefs in Babylon. Reggae gained
widespread international popularity during the mid-1970s, coming to be viewed by black people in many
different countries as music of the oppressed. Many Rasta’s grew critical of reggae, believing that it had
commercialized their religion. ] Although reggae contains much Rastafari symbolism, and the two are
widely associated, the connection is often exaggerated by non-Rasta. Most Rasta’s do not listen to reggae
music, and reggae has also been utilized by other religious groups, such as Protestant Evangelicals. Out
of reggae came dub music; dub artists often employ Rastafari terminology, even when not Rasta’s
themselves.
Language and symbolism

Rasta’s typically regard words as having an intrinsic power, seeking to avoid language that contributes to
servility, self-degradation, and the objectification of the person. Practitioners therefore often use their own
form of language, known commonly as "dread talk", "Iyaric", and "Rasta talk". Developed in Jamaica
during the 1940s, this use of language fosters group identity and cultivates particular values. Adherents
believe that by formulating their own language they are launching an ideological attack on the integrity of
the English language, which they view as a tool of Babylon. The use of this language helps Rasta’s
distinguish and separate themselves from non-Rasta’s, for whom—according to Barrett—Rasta rhetoric
can be "meaningless babbling”. However, Rasta terms have also filtered into wider Jamaican speech
patterns.
Rasta’s regularly use the three colors of the Ethiopian flag for their movement, although they often
add black to this tricolor, symbolizing the black skin of the African people
Rasta’s make wide use of the pronoun "I”. This denotes the Rasta view that the self is divine, and
reminds each Rasta that they are not a slave and have value, worth, and dignity as a human
being. For instance, Rasta’s use "I" in place of "me", "I and I" in place of "we", "I-ceive" in place of
"receive", "I-sire" in place of "desire", "I-rate" in place of "create", and "I-men" in place of "Amen”.
Rasta’s refer to this process as "InI Consciousness" or "Isciousness".Rasta’s typically refer to Haile
Selassie as "Haile Selassie I", thus indicating their belief in his divinity. Rasta’s also typically believe
that the phonetics of a word should be linked to its meaning. For instance, Rasta’s often use the word
"downpression" in place of "oppression" because oppression bears down on people rather than lifting
them up, with "up" being phonetically akin to "opp-".Similarly, they often favour "livicate" over

"dedicate" because "ded-" is phonetically akin to the word "dead". In the early decades of the
religion's development, Rasta’s often said "Peace and Love" as a greeting, although the use of this
declined as Rastafari matured.
Rasta’s often make use of the colors red, black, green, and gold. Red, gold, and green were used in
the Ethiopian flag, while, prior to the development of Rastafari, the Jamaican black nationalist activist
Marcus Garvey had used red, green, and black as the colors for the Pan-African flag representing
his United Negro Improvement Association. According to Garvey, the red symbolized the blood of
martyrs, the black symbolized the skin of Africans, and the green represented the vegetation of the
land, an interpretation endorsed by some Rasta’s. The colour gold is often included alongside
Garvey's three colors; it has been adopted from the Jamaican flag, and is often interpreted as
symbolizing the minerals and raw materials which constitute Africa's wealth. Rasta’s often paint these
colors onto their buildings, vehicles, kiosks, and other items, or display them on their clothing, helping
to distinguish Rasta’s from non-Rasta’s and allowing adherents to recognize their co-religionists.
As well as being used by Rasta’s, the colour set has also been adopted by Pan-Africanists more
broadly, who use it to display their identification with Afrocentricity; for this reason it was adopted on
the flags of many post-independence African states. Rasta’s often accompany the use of these three
or four colors with the image of the Lion of Judah, also adopted from the Ethiopian flag and
symbolizing Haile Selassie.
Diet
An ital breakfast; ackee, plantain, boiled food, breadfruit, and mango-pineapple juice
Rasta’s seek to produce food "naturally", eating what they call ital, or "natural" food. This is often
grown organically, and locally. Most Rasta’s adhere to the dietary laws outlined in the Book of
Leviticus, and thus avoid eating pork or crustaceans. Other Rasta’s remain vegetarian, or vegan, a
practice stemming from their interpretation of Leviticus. Many also avoid the addition of additives,
including sugar and salt, to their food. Rasta dietary practices have been ridiculed by non-Rasta’s; in
Ghana for example, where food traditionally includes a high meat content, the Rasta’s' emphasis on
vegetable produce has led to the joke that they "eat like sheep and goats". In Jamaica, Rasta
practitioners have commercialized ital food, for instance by selling fruit juices prepared according to
Rasta custom.
Rastafarians typically avoid food produced by non-Rasta’s or from unknown sources. Rasta men
refuse to eat food prepared by a woman while she is menstruating, and some will avoid food
prepared by a woman at any time. Rasta’s also generally avoid alcohol, cigarettes, and hard drugs
such as heroin and cocaine, presenting these substances as unnatural and dirty and contrasting them
with cannabis. Rasta’s also often avoid mainstream scientific medicine and will reject surgery,
injections, or blood transfusions. Instead they utilize herbal medicine for healing, especially teas and
poultices, with cannabis often used as an ingredient.

Appearance
A man with dreadlocks in São Paulo, Brazil

Rasta’s use their physical appearance as a means of visually demarcating themselves from non-
Rasta’s. Male practitioners will often grow long beards, and many Rasta’s prefer to wear African
styles of clothing, such as dashikis, rather than styles that originated in Western countries. However,
it is the formation of hair into dreadlocks that is one of the most recognizable Rasta symbols. Rasta’s
believe that dreadlocks are promoted in the Bible, specifically in the Book of Numbers, and regard
them as a symbol of strength linked to the hair of the Biblical figure of Samson. They argue that their
dreadlocks mark a covenant that they have made with Jah, and reflect their commitment to the idea
of 'naturalness'. They also perceive the wearing of dreads as a symbolic rejection of Babylon and a
refusal to conform to its norms regarding grooming aesthetics. Rasta’s are often critical of black
people who straighten their hair, believing that it is an attempt to imitate white European hair and thus
reflects alienation from a person's African identity. Sometimes this dreadlocked hair is then shaped
and styled, often inspired by a lion's mane symbolizing Haile Selassie, who is regarded as "the
Conquering Lion of Judah"
Rasta’s differ on whether they regard dreadlocks as compulsory for practicing the religion. Some
Rasta’s do not wear their hair in dreadlocks; within the religion they are often termed "clean face"
Rasta’s with those wearing dreadlocked hair often called "locks men”. Some Rasta’s have also joined
the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Christian organization to which Haile Selassie
belonged, and these individuals are forbidden from putting their hair in dreadlocks by the Church. In
reference to Rasta hairstyles, Rasta’s often refer to non-Rasta’s as "baldheads", or "comb some”,
while those who are new to Rastafari and who have only just started to grow their hair into dreads are
termed "nubbies".Members of the Bobo Ashanti sect of Rasta’s conceal their dreadlocks within
turbans, while some Rasta’s tuck their dreads under a Rasta cap or tam headdress, usually colored
green, red, black, and yellow. Dreadlocks and Rastafari-inspired clothing have also been worn for
aesthetic reasons by non-Rastas. For instance, many reggae musicians who do not adhere to the
Rastafari religion wear their hair in dreads.
A Rasta man wearing a rastacap in Jamaica

From the beginning of the Rastafari movement in the 1930s, adherents typically grew beards and tall
hair, perhaps in imitation of Haile Selassie. The wearing of hair as dreadlocks then emerged as a
Rasta practice in the 1940s; there were debates within the movement as to whether dreadlocks
should be worn or not, with proponents of the style becoming dominant There are various claims as
to how this practice was adopted. One claim is that it was adopted in imitation of certain African
nations, such as the Maasai, Somalis, or Oromo, or that it was inspired by the hairstyles worn by
some of those involved in the anti-colonialist Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. An alternative explanation
is that it was inspired by the hairstyles of the Hindu sadhus.
The wearing of dreadlocks has contributed to negative views of Rastafari among non-Rasta’s, many
of whom regard it as wild and unattractive. Dreadlocks remain socially stigmatized in many societies;
in Ghana for example, they are often associated with the homeless and mentally ill, with such
associations of marginality extending onto Ghanaian Rasta’s. In Jamaica during the mid-20th century,
teachers and police officers used to forcibly cut off the dreads of Rasta’s. In various countries,
Rasta’s have since won legal battles ensuring their right to wear dreadlocks: in 2020, for instance,
the High Court of Malawi ruled that all public schools must allow their students to wear dreadlocks.
History
Rastafari developed out of the legacy of the Atlantic slave trade, in which over ten million enslaved
Africans were transported to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries. Under 700,000 of these
slaves were settled in the British Jamaica .The British government abolished slavery in the Caribbean
island in 1834 although racial prejudice remained prevalent across Jamaican society.
Ethiopianism, Back to Africa, and Marcus Garvey
Marcus Garvey, a prominent Black Nationalist theorist who heavily influenced Rastafari and is
regarded as a prophet by many Rasta’s.
Rastafari owed much too intellectual frameworks arising in the 19th and early 20th centuries. One key
influence on Rastafari was Christian Revivalism, with the Great Revival of 1860–61 drawing many
Afro-Jamaicans to join churches. Increasing numbers of Pentecostal missionaries from the United
States arrived in Jamaica during the early 20th century, climaxing in the 1920s.
Further contributing significantly to Rastafari's development were Ethiopianism and the Back to
Africa ethos, both traditions with 18th-century roots. In the 19th century, there were growing calls for
the African diaspora located in Western Europe and the Americas to be resettled in Africa, with some
of this diaspora establishing colonies in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Based in Liberia, the black
Christian preacher Edward Wilmot Blyden began promoting African pride and the preservation of
African tradition, customs, and institutions. Also spreading throughout Africa was Ethiopianism, a

movement that accorded special status to the east African nation of Ethiopia because it was
mentioned in various Biblical passages. For adherents of Ethiopianism, "Ethiopia" was regarded as
a synonym of Africa as a whole.
Of significant influence on Rastafari was the Jamaican activist Marcus Garvey, who spent much of his
adult life in the US and Britain. Garvey supported the idea of global racial separatism and called for
part of the African diaspora to relocate to Africa. His ideas faced opposition from civil rights activists
like W. E. B. Du Bois who supported racial integration, and as a mass
movement, Garveyism declined in the Great Depression of the 1930s. A rumor later spread that in
1916, Garvey had called on his supporters to "look to Africa" for the crowning of a black king; this
quote was never verified. However, in August 1930, Garvey's play, Coronation of an African King,
was performed in Kingston. Its plot revolved around the crowning of the fictional Prince Cudjoe of
Sudan, although it anticipated the crowning of Haile Selassie later that year. Rasta’s hold Garvey in
great esteem, with many regarding him as a prophet. Garvey knew of Rastafari, but took a largely
negative view of the religion; he also became a critic of Haile Selassie, calling him "a great coward"
who rules a "country where black men are chained and flogged".
Haile Selassie and the early Rasta’s: 1930–1949

Haile Selassie was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930, becoming the first sovereign
monarch crowned in Sub-Saharan Africa since 1891 and first Christian one since 1889. A number of
Jamaica's Christian clergymen claimed that Selassie's coronation was evidence that he was the black
messiah that they believed was prophesied in the Book of Revelation the Book of Daniel and
Psalms. Over the following years, several street preachers—most notably Leonard Howell, Archibald
Dunkley, Robert Hinds, and Joseph Hibbert—began claiming that Haile Selassie was the returned
Jesus. They first did so in Kingston, and soon the message spread throughout 1930s
Jamaica, especially among poor communities who were hit particularly hard by the Great Depression.
Clarke stated that "to all intents and purposes this was the beginning" of the Rastafari movement.
Emperor Haile Selassie in 1942, a year after he re-took control of Ethiopia

Howell has been described as the "leading figure" in the early Rastafari movement. He preached that
black Africans were superior to white Europeans and that Afro-Jamaicans should owe their allegiance to
Haile Selassie rather than to George V, King of Great Britain and Ireland. The island's British authorities
arrested him and charged him with sedition in 1934, resulting in his two-year imprisonment. Following his
release, Howell established the Ethiopian Salvation Society and in 1939 established a Rasta community,
known as Pinnacle, in Saint Catherine Parish. Police feared that Howell was training his followers for an
armed rebellion and were angered that it was producing cannabis for sale. They raided the community on
several occasions and Howell was imprisoned for a further two years. Upon his release he returned to
Pinnacle, but the police continued with their raids and shut down the community in 1954; Howell himself
was committed to a mental hospital.

In 1936, Italy invaded and occupied Ethiopia, and Haile Selassie went into exile. The invasion brought
international condemnation and led to growing sympathy for the Ethiopian cause. [ In 1937, Selassie
created the Ethiopian World Federation, which established a branch in Jamaica later that decade In 1941,
the British drove the Italians out of Ethiopia and Selassie returned to reclaim his throne. Many Rasta’s
interpreted this as the fulfilment of a prophecy made in the Book of Revelation.
Growing visibility: 1950–1969

Rastafari's main appeal was among the lower classes of Jamaican society. For its first thirty years,
Rastafari was in a conflictual relationship with the Jamaican authorities. Jamaica's Rasta’s expressed
contempt for many aspects of the island's society, viewing the government, police, bureaucracy,
professional classes, and established churches as instruments of Babylon. Relations between
practitioners and the police were strained, with Rasta’s often being arrested for cannabis
possession. During the 1950s the movement grew rapidly in Jamaica itself and also spread to other
Caribbean islands, the United States, and the United Kingdom.
In the 1940s and 1950s, a more militant brand of Rastafari emerged. The vanguard of this was the House
of Youth Black Faith, a group whose members were largely based in West Kingston. Backlash against the
Rastas grew after a practitioner of the religion allegedly killed a woman in 1957. In March 1958, the first
Rastafarian Universal Convention was held in the settlement of Back-o-Wall, Kingston. Following the
event, militant Rastas unsuccessfully tried to capture the city in the name of Haile Selassie. Later that year
they tried again in Spanish Town. The increasing militancy of some Rastas resulted in growing alarm
about the religion in Jamaica.[ According to Cashmore, the Rastas became "folk devils" in Jamaican
society. In 1959, the self-declared prophet and founder of the African Reform Church, Claudius Henry,
sold thousands of tickets to Afro-Jamaicans, including many Rastas, for passage on a ship that he claimed
would take them to Africa. The ship never arrived and Henry was charged with fraud. In 1960 he was
sentenced to six years imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the government. Henry's son was
accused of being part of a paramilitary cell and executed, confirming public fears about Rasta violence. [
One of the most prominent clashes between Rasta’s and law enforcement was the Coral Gardens
incident of 1963, in which an initial skirmish between police and Rasta’s resulted in several deaths and led
to a larger roundup of practitioners. Clamping down on the Rasta movement, in 1964 the island's
government implemented tougher laws surrounding cannabis use.
At the invitation of Jamaica's government, Haile Selassie visited the island for the first time on 21 April
1966, with thousands of Rasta’s assembled in the crowd waiting to meet him at the airport. The event was
the high point of their discipleship for many of the religion's members. Over the course of the 1960s,
Jamaica's Rasta community underwent a process of routinisation, with the late 1960s witnessing the
launch of the first official Rastafarian newspaper, the Rastafarian Movement Association's Rasta Voice.
The decade also saw Rastafari develop in increasingly complex ways, as it did when some Rastas began
to reinterpret the idea that salvation required a physical return to Africa, instead interpreting salvation as
coming through a process of mental decolonisation that embraced African approaches to life.
Whereas its membership had previously derived predominantly from poorer sectors of society, in the
1960s Rastafari began attracting support from more privileged groups like students and professional
musicians. The foremost group emphasizing this approach was the Twelve Tribes of Israel, whose
members came to be known as "Uptown Rasta’s".[Among those attracted to Rastafari in this decade were
middle-class intellectuals like Leahcim Semaj, who called for the religious community to place greater
emphasis on scholarly social theory as a method of achieving change. Although some Jamaican Rasta’s
were critical of him, many came under the influence of the Guyanese black nationalist academic Walter
Rodney, who lectured to their community in 1968 before publishing his thoughts as the
pamphlet Groundings. Like Rodney, many Jamaican Rasta’s were influenced by the U.S.-based Black
Power movement. After Black Power declined following the deaths of prominent exponents such
as Malcolm X, Michael X, and George Jackson, Rastafari filled the vacuum it left for many black youth.[

International spread and decline: 1970–present
In the mid-1970s, reggae's international popularity exploded. The most successful reggae artist was Bob
Marley, who—according to Cashmore—"more than any other individual, was responsible for introducing
Rastafarian themes, concepts and demands to a truly universal audience". Reggae's popularity led to a
growth in "pseudo-Rastafarians", individuals who listened to reggae and wore Rasta clothing but did not
share its belief system. Many Rasta’s were angered by this, believing it commercialized their religion. [
Reggae musician Bob Marley did much to raise international awareness of the Rastafari movement in the 1970s.
Through reggae, Rasta musicians became increasingly important in Jamaica's political life during the
1970s. to bolster his popularity with the electorate, Jamaican Prime Minister Michael Manley employed
Rasta imagery and courted and obtained support from Marley and other reggae musicians. [384] Manley
described Rasta’s as a "beautiful and remarkable people “and carried a cane, the "rod of correction",
which he claimed was a gift from Haile Selassie. Following Manley's example, Jamaican political parties
increasingly employed Rasta language, symbols, and reggae references in their campaigns while Rasta
symbols became increasingly mainstream in Jamaican society. This helped to confer greater legitimacy on
Rastafari, with reggae and Rasta imagery being increasingly presented as a core part of Jamaica's cultural
heritage for the growing tourist industry. In the 1980s, a Rasta, Barbara Makeda Blake Hannah, became a
senator in the Jamaican Parliament.
Enthusiasm for Rastafari was likely dampened by the death of Haile Selassie in 1975 and that of Marley in
1981. During the 1980s, the number of Rasta’s in Jamaica declined, with Pentecostal and
other Charismatic Christian groups proving more successful at attracting young recruits. Several publicly
prominent Rasta’s converted to Christianity, and two of those who did so—Judy Mowatt and Tommy
Cowan—maintained that Marley had converted from Rastafari to Christianity, in the form of the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church, during his final days. The significance of Rastafari messages in reggae also declined
with the growing popularity of dancehall, a Jamaican musical genre that typically foregrounded lyrical
themes of hyper-masculinity, violence, and sexual activity rather than religious symbolism.
The mid-1990s saw a revival of Rastafari-focused reggae associated with musicians like Anthony B, Buju
Banton, Luciano, Sizzla, and Capleton. From the 1990s, Jamaica also witnessed the growth of organised
political activity within the Rasta community, seen for instance through campaigns for the legalisation of
cannabis and the creation of political parties like the Jamaican Alliance Movement and the Imperial
Ethiopian World Federation Incorporated Political Party, none of which attained more than minimal
electoral support.[ In 1995, the Rastafari Centralization Organization was established in Jamaica as an
attempt to organise the Rastafari community.
Organisation
Rastafari is not a homogeneous movement and has no single administrative structure, nor any single
leader.[ A majority of Rasta’s avoid centralized and hierarchical structures because they do not want to
replicate the structures of Babylon and because their religion's ultra-individualistic ethos places emphasis

on inner divinity. The structure of most Rastafari groups is less like that of Christian denominations and is
instead akin to the cellular structure of other African diasporic traditions like Haitian Vodou,
Cuban Santería, and Jamaica's Revival Zion. Since the 1970s, there have been attempts to unify all
Rasta’s, namely through the establishment of the Rastafari Movement Association, which sought political
mobilization. In 1982, the first international assembly of Rastafari groups took place in Toronto, Canada.
This and subsequent international conferences, assemblies, and workshops have helped to cement global
networks and cultivate an international community of Rasta’s.
Mansions of Rastafari
A stylized Rastafari motif, depicting the Lion of Judah

Sub-divisions of Rastafari are often referred to as "houses" or "mansions", in keeping with a passage from
the Gospel of John (14:2): as translated in the King James Bible, Jesus states "In my father's house are
many mansions".The three most prominent branches are the House of Nyabinghi, the Bobo Ashanti, and
the Twelve Tribes of Israel, although other important groups include the Church of Haile Selassie I, Inc.,
and the Fulfilled Rastafari. By fragmenting into different houses without any single leader, Rastafari
became more resilient amid opposition from Jamaica's government during the early decades of the
movement.
Probably the largest Rastafari group, the House of Nyabinghi is an aggregate of more traditional and
militant Rasta’s who seek to retain the movement close to the way in which it existed during the 1940s.
They stress the idea that Haile Selassie was Jah and the reincarnation of Jesus. The wearing of
dreadlocks is regarded as indispensable and patriarchal gender roles are strongly emphasized, while,
according to Cashmore, they are "vehemently anti-white".Nyabinghi Rasta’s refuse to compromise with
Babylon and are often critical of reggae musicians like Marley, whom they regard as having collaborated
with the commercial music industry
The Bobo Ashanti sect was founded in Jamaica by Emanuel Charles Edwards through the establishment
of his Ethiopia Africa Black International Congress (EABIC) in 1958. The group established a commune
in Bull Bay, where they were led by Edwards until his death in 1994. The group hold to a highly rigid ethos.
Edwards advocated the idea of a new trinity, with Haile Selassie as the living God, himself as the Christ,
and Garvey as the prophet. Male members are divided into two categories: the "priests" who conduct
religious services and the "prophets" who take part in reasoning sessions. It places greater restrictions on
women than most other forms of Rastafari; women are regarded as impure because of menstruation and
childbirth and so are not permitted to cook for men. The group teaches that black Africans are God's
chosen people and are superior to white Europeans, with members often refusing to associate with white
people. Bobo Ashanti Rasta’s are recognizable by their long, flowing robes and turbans. [

The headquarters of the Twelve Tribes of Israel group in Shashemene, Ethiopia
The Twelve Tribes of Israel group was founded in 1968 in Kingston by Vernon Carrington. He proclaimed
himself the reincarnation of the Old Testament prophet Gad and his followers call him "Prophet Gad",
"Brother Gad", or "Gadman".It is commonly regarded as the most liberal form of Rastafari and the closest
to Christianity. Practitioners are often dubbed "Christian Rasta’s" because they believe Jesus is the only
savior; Haile Selassie is accorded importance, but is not viewed as the second coming of Jesus. The
group divides its members into twelve groups according to which Hebrew calendar month they were born
in; each month is associated with a particular colour, body part, and mental function. Maintaining
dreadlocks and an ital diet are considered commendable but not essential, while adherents are called
upon to read a chapter of the Bible each day. Membership is open to individuals of any racial background
The Twelve Tribes peaked in popularity during the 1970s, when it attracted artists, musicians, and many
middle-class followers—Marley among them resulting in the terms "middle-class Rasta’s" and "uptown
Rasta’s" being applied to members of the group. Carrington died in 2005, since which time the Twelve
Tribes of Israel have been led by an executive council As of 2010, it was recorded as being the largest of
the centralized Rasta groups It remains headquartered in Kingston, although it has followers outside
Jamaica; the group was responsible for establishing the Rasta community in Shashamane, Ethiopia.
The Church of Haile Selassie, Inc., was founded by Abuna Foxe and operated much like a mainstream
Christian church, with a hierarchy of functionaries, weekly services, and Sunday schools. In adopting this
broad approach, the Church seeks to develop Rastafari's respectability in wider society. Fulfilled Rastafari
is a multi-ethnic movement that has spread in popularity during the 21st century, in large part through
the Internet The Fulfilled Rastafari group accept Haile Selassie's statements that he was a man and that
he was a devout Christian, and so place emphasis on worshipping Jesus through the example set forth by
Haile Selassie.] The wearing of dreadlocks and the adherence to an ital diet are considered issues up to
the individual.
Demographics
Born in the ghettos of Kingston, Jamaica, the Rastafarian movement has captured the imagination of
thousands of black youth, and some white youth, throughout Jamaica, the Caribbean, Britain, France,
and other countries in Western Europe and North America. It is also to be found in smaller numbers
in parts of Africa—for example, in Ethiopia, Ghana, and Senegal—and in Australia and New Zealand,
particularly among the Maori.
As of 2012, there were an estimated 700,000 to 1,000,000 Rasta’s worldwide. They can be found in many
different regions, including most of the world's major population centres. [427] Rastafari's influence on wider
society has been more substantial than its numerical size,[428] particularly in fostering a racial, political, and
cultural consciousness among the African diaspora and Africans themselves.[427] Men dominate Rastafari.
[429]
In its early years, most of its followers were men, and the women who did adhere to it tended to remain

in the background.[429] This picture of Rastafari's demographics has been confirmed by ethnographic
studies conducted in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.[430]
The Rasta message resonates with many people who feel marginalised and alienated by the values and
institutions of their society.[431] Internationally, it has proved most popular among the poor and among
marginalised youth.[432] In valorising Africa and blackness, Rastafari provides a positive identity for youth in
the African diaspora by allowing them to psychologically reject their social stigmatisation. [431] It then
provides these disaffected people with the discursive stance from which they can challenge capitalism and
consumerism, providing them with symbols of resistance and defiance.[431] Cashmore expressed the view
that "whenever there are black people who sense an injust disparity between their own material conditions
and those of the whites who surround them and tend to control major social institutions, the Rasta
messages have relevance."[433]
Conversion and deconversion[edit]

Rastafari is a non-missionary religion.[434] However, elders from Jamaica often go "trodding" to instruct new
converts in the fundamentals of the religion.[435] On researching English Rastas during the 1970s,
Cashmore noted that they had not converted instantaneously, but rather had undergone "a process of
drift" through which they gradually adopted Rasta beliefs and practices, resulting in their ultimate
acceptance of Haile Selassie's central importance.[436] Based on his research in West Africa, Neil J.
Savishinsky found that many of those who converted to Rastafari came to the religion through their pre-
existing use of marijuana as a recreational drug.[437]
Rastas often claim that—rather than converting to the religion—they were actually always a Rasta and
that their embrace of its beliefs was merely the realisation of this.[438] There is no formal ritual carried out to
mark an individual's entry into the Rastafari movement,[439] although once they do join an individual often
changes their name, with many including the prefix "Ras".[54] Rastas regard themselves as an exclusive
and elite community, membership of which is restricted to those who have the "insight" to recognise Haile
Selassie's importance.[440] Practitioners thus often regard themselves as the "enlightened ones" who have
"seen the light".[441] Many of them see no point in establishing good relations with non-Rastas, believing that
the latter will never accept Rastafari doctrine as truth.[442]
Some Rastas have left the religion. Clarke noted that among British Rastas, some returned to
Pentecostalism and other forms of Christianity, while others embraced Islam or no religion.[443] Some
English ex-Rastas described disillusionment when the societal transformation promised by Rastafari failed
to appear, while others felt that while Rastafari would be appropriate for agrarian communities in Africa
and the Caribbean, it was not suited to industrialised British society.[443] Others experienced disillusionment
after developing the view that Haile Selassie had been an oppressive leader of the Ethiopian people.
[443]
Cashmore found that some British Rastas who had more militant views left the religion after finding its
focus on reasoning and music insufficient for the struggle against white domination and racism. [444]
Regional spread[edit]
Although it remains most concentrated in the Caribbean,[445] Rastafari has spread to many areas of the
world and adapted into many localised variants.[446] It has spread primarily in Anglophone regions and
countries, largely because reggae music has primarily been produced in the English language. [432] It is thus
most commonly found in the Anglophone Caribbean, United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia
and New Zealand, and Anglophone parts of Africa.[447]
Jamaica and the Americas[edit]

A practitioner of Rastafari in Jamaica
Barrett described Rastafari as "the largest, most identifiable, indigenous movement in Jamaica." [5] In the
mid-1980s, there were approximately 70,000 members and sympathisers of Rastafari in Jamaica. [448] The
majority were male, working-class, former Christians aged between 18 and 40. [448] In the 2011 Jamaican
census, 29,026 individuals identified as Rastas.[449] Jamaica's Rastas were initially entirely from the Afro-
Jamaican majority,[450] and although Afro-Jamaicans are still the majority, Rastafari has also gained
members from the island's Chinese, Indian, Afro-Chinese, Afro-Jewish, mulatto, and white minorities.
[451]
Until 1965 the vast majority were from the lower classes, although it has since attracted many middle-
class members; by the 1980s there were Jamaican Rastas working as lawyers and university professors.
[452]
Jamaica is often valorised by Rastas as the fountain-head of their faith, and many Rastas living
elsewhere travel to the island on pilgrimage.[453]
Both through travel between the islands,[454] and through reggae's popularity,[455] Rastafari spread across the
eastern Caribbean during the 1970s. Here, its ideas complemented the anti-colonial and Afrocentric views
prevalent in countries like Trinidad, Grenada, Dominica, and St Vincent. [456] In these countries, the early
Rastas often engaged in cultural and political movements to a greater extent than their Jamaican
counterparts had.[457] Various Rastas were involved in Grenada's 1979 New Jewel Movement and were
given positions in the Grenadine government until it was overthrown and replaced following the U.S.
invasion of 1983.[458] Although Fidel Castro's Marxist–Leninist government generally discouraged foreign
influences, Rastafari was introduced to Cuba alongside reggae in the 1970s. [459] Foreign Rastas studying in
Cuba during the 1990s connected with its reggae scene and helped to further ground it in Rasta beliefs.
[460]
In Cuba, most Rastas have been male and from the Afro-Cuban population.[461]
Rastafari was introduced to the United States and Canada with the migration of Jamaicans to continental
North America in the 1960s and 1970s.[462] American police were often suspicious of Rastas and regarded
Rastafari as a criminal sub-culture.[463] Rastafari also attracted converts from within several Native
American communities[446] and picked up some support from white members of the hippie subculture, which
was then in decline.[464] In Latin America, small communities of Rastas have also established in Brazil,
Panama, and Nicaragua.[447]
Africa[edit]
Some Rastas in the African diaspora have followed through with their beliefs about resettlement in Africa,
with Ghana and Nigeria being particularly favoured.[465] In West Africa, Rastafari has spread largely through
the popularity of reggae,[466] gaining a larger presence in Anglophone areas than their Francophone
counterparts.[467] Caribbean Rastas arrived in Ghana during the 1960s, encouraged by its first post-
independence president, Kwame Nkrumah, while some native Ghanaians also converted to the religion.
[468]
The largest congregation of Rastas has been in southern parts of Ghana, around Accra, Tema, and
the Cape Coast,[122] although Rasta communities also exist in the Muslim-majority area of northern Ghana.
[469]
The Rasta migrants' wearing of dreadlocks was akin to that of the native fetish priests, which may have
assisted the presentation of these Rastas as having authentic African roots in Ghanaian society.
[470]
However, Ghanaian Rastas have complained of social ostracism and prosecution for cannabis

possession, while non-Rastas in Ghana often consider them to be "drop-outs", "too Western", and "not
African enough".[471]
A Rasta street vendor in South Africa's Eastern Cape

A smaller number of Rastas are found in Muslim-majority countries of West Africa, such as Gambia and
Senegal.[472] One West African group that wear dreadlocks are the Baye Faal, a Mouride sect
in Senegambia, some of whose practitioners have started calling themselves "Rastas" in reference to their
visual similarity to Rastafari.[473] The popularity of dreadlocks and marijuana among the Baye Faal may
have been spread in large part through access to Rasta-influenced reggae in the 1970s. [474] A small
community of Rastas also appeared in Burkina Faso.[475]
In the 1960s, a Rasta settlement was established in Shashamane, Ethiopia, on land made available by
Haile Selassie's Ethiopian World Federation.[476] The community faced many problems; 500 acres were
confiscated by the Marxist government of Mengistu Haile Mariam.[476] There were also conflicts with local
Ethiopians, who largely regarded the incoming Rastas, and their Ethiopian-born children, as foreigners.
[476]
The Shashamane community peaked at a population of 2,000, although subsequently declined to
around 200.[476]
By the early 1990s, a Rasta community existed in Nairobi, Kenya, whose approach to the religion was
informed both by reggae and by traditional Kikuyu religion.[477] Rastafari groups have also appeared in
Zimbabwe,[478]Malawi[479] and in South Africa;[480] in 2008, there were at least 12,000 Rastas in the country.
[481]
At an African Union/Caribbean Diaspora conference in South Africa in 2005, a statement was released
characterising Rastafari as a force for integration of Africa and the African diaspora. [482]
Europe[edit]
The English Rasta Benjamin Zephaniah is a well-known poet.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Rastas were among the thousands of Caribbean migrants who settled in the
United Kingdom,[483] leading to small groups appearing in areas of London such as Brixton[484] and Notting
Hill in the 1950s.[462] By the late 1960s, Rastafari had attracted converts from the second generation of
British Caribbean people,[462] spreading beyond London to cities
like Birmingham, Leicester, Liverpool, Manchester, and Bristol.[485] Its spread was aided by
the gang structures that had been cultivated among black British youth by the rudeboy subculture,[486] and
gained increasing attention in the 1970s through reggae's popularity. [487] According to the 2001 United

Kingdom Census there are about 5000 Rastafari living in England and Wales.[488] Clarke described
Rastafari as a small but "extremely influential" component of black British life. [448]
Rastafari also established itself in various continental European countries, among them the Netherlands,
Germany,[489] Portugal, and France, gaining a particular foothold among black migrant populations but also
attracting white converts.[490] In France for instance it established a presence in two cities with substantial
black populations, Paris and Bordeaux,[491] while in the Netherlands, it attracted converts within
the Surinamese migrant community.[492]
Australasia and Asia[edit]
Rastafari attracted membership from within the Maori population of New Zealand,[493] and the Aboriginal
population of Australia.[492] Rastafari has also established a presence in Japan,[494] and in Israel, primarily
among those highlighting similarities between Judaism and Rastafari.[495]

See also[edit]
 List of Rastafarians
 Abrahamic religions
References[edit]
Biblical citations[edit]
1. ^ Luke 14:11
2. ^ Daniel 2:31–32
3. ^ Genesis 1:29
4. ^ Psalms 18:8
5. ^ Revelation 22:2
6. ^ Leviticus 11:41–42
7. ^ Numbers 6:5–6
8. ^ Revelation 5:2–3; Revelation 19:16
9. ^ Daniel 7:3
10. ^ Psalms 68:31
11. ^ Revelation 19:11–19
Citations[edit]
1. ^ Gjerset 1994, pp. 75, 76; Loadenthal 2013, p. 3.
2. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 216.
3. ^ Mhango 2008, pp. 223, 225–226.
4. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 11; Edmonds 2012, p. 92; Sibanda 2016, p. 182.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barrett 1997, p. viii.
6. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 240; Cashmore 1983, p. 6.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 92.
8. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 183.
9. ^ Hansing 2001, p. 733; Hansing 2006, p. 62.
10. ^ Soumahoro 2007, p. 43.
12. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 71–72.
13. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 188; Bedasse 2010, p. 267; Edmonds 2012, p. 92; Glazier 2012, p. 614; Chawane
2014, p. 214.
14. ^ Loadenthal 2013, p. 6.
15. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 214.
16. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 502; Loadenthal 2013, p. 4; Chawane 2014, p. 218; Williams 2017, p. 477.
17. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 240; Watson 1973, p. 189; Ifekwe 2008, p. 106; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert
2011, p. 187.
18. ^ Watson 1974, p. 329; Salter 2005, p. 8.
19. ^ Watson 1973, p. 189; Campbell 1988, p. 78; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 501; King 2002, p. 136.
20. ^ Chevannes 1990, p. 143.
21. ^ Lake 1994, p. 253.
22. ^ Banton 1989, p. 153; Cashmore 1989, pp. 158–160.
23. ^ King 2002, p. 13.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b Barnett 2005, p. 75.
25. ^ Simpson 1985, p. 291.

26. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 881; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 194.
27. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 49; Bedasse 2010, p. 961.
28. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 158.
29. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 82; Ifekwe 2008, p. 111; Edmonds 2012, p. 32; Chawane 2014, p. 217.
30. ^ Jump up to:a b Barrett 1997, p. 82.
31. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 218.
32. ^ Forsythe 1980, p. 64; Simpson 1985, p. 291; Barrett 1997, pp. 2, 103; King 1998, p. 51; Middleton 2006,
p. 152; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 183; Glazier 2012, p. 614; Chawane 2014, p. 218.
33. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 187.
34. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 8.
35. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 8; Chawane 2014, p. 218.
37. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. v.
38. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 63.
39. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 49–50, 63.
40. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Clarke 1986, p. 64.
41. ^ Warner-Lewis 1993, p. 108; Savishinsky 1994b, p. 31; Barrett 1997, p. 111; Sibanda 2016, p. 183.
42. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 231.
43. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 882.
44. ^ Bedasse 2013, p. 302.
45. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 14; Cashmore 1983, p. 74; Barrett 1997, p. 127; Sibanda 2016, p. 184; Chawane 2014,
p. 232.
46. ^ Jump up to:a b Sibanda 2016, p. 184.
47. ^ Glazier 2012, p. 614.
48. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 127; Mhango 2008, p. 222.
49. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 73.
50. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 64; Barrett 1997, p. 127.
51. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 74; Clarke 1986, p. 64; Barrett 1997, p. 127; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998,
p. 502; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 195.
52. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 74.
53. ^ Jump up to:a b Soumahoro 2007, p. 44.
54. ^ Jump up to:a b Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 193.
55. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 24; Rubenstein & Suarez 1994, p. 2; Barrett 1997, p. 83.
56. ^ Chevannes 1990, p. 135.
57. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 6; Clarke 1986, p. 12; Barnett 2006, p. 876; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert
2011, p. 196.
59. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 65.
60. ^ Jump up to:a b c Clarke 1986, p. 67.
62. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 67; Warner-Lewis 1993, p. 110.
63. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 232.
64. ^ Jump up to:a b Soumahoro 2007, p. 39.
65. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barrett 1997, p. 108.
66. ^ Pereira 1998, p. 35; Benard 2007, p. 93.
67. ^ Watson 1973, p. 191; Soumahoro 2007, p. 46.
68. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 175.
69. ^ Bedasse 2010, p. 960; Edmonds 2012, p. 32.
70. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 77; Benard 2007, p. 94.
71. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 34.
72. ^ Jump up to:a b Bedasse 2010, p. 961.
73. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 67; Bedasse 2010, pp. 961, 964.
74. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 15–16, 66; Barnett 2006, p. 876; Bedasse 2010, p. 966; Edmonds 2012, pp. 32–33.

75. ^ Watson 1973, p. 191; Clarke 1986, p. 65; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, pp. 510, 511; Mhango 2008,
p. 222; Bedasse 2010, p. 264.
76. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 36; Kitzinger 1969, p. 246.
77. ^ Soumahoro 2007, p. 44; Bedasse 2010, p. 960.
78. ^ Bedasse 2010, p. 964.
79. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 159; Edmonds 2012, p. 34.
80. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 59.
81. ^ Salter 2005, p. 16.
82. ^ Bedasse 2010, p. 968.
83. ^ Jump up to:a b Cashmore 1983, p. 22.
84. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 66.
86. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 36.
87. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 59; Edmonds 2012, pp. 36–37.
88. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 63.
89. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 60; Edmonds 2012, p. 37; Middleton 2006, p. 158.
91. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 60; Barrett 1997, p. 253; Edmonds 2012, p. 37.
92. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 60.
93. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 511; Edmonds 2012, p. 25.
94. ^ MacLeod 2014, p. 70.
95. ^ MacLeod 2014, p. 71.
96. ^ Jump up to:a b c Cashmore 1983, p. 127.
97. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 108; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 511.
99. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 864.
100. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 882; Wittmann 2011, p. 152; Ntombana & Maganga 2020, p. 3.
101. ^ Campbell 1988, p. 78; Soumahoro 2007, p. 39; Bedasse 2013, p. 311.
102. ^ Simpson 1955, p. 168; Cashmore 1983, p. 129; Clarke 1986, p. 17; Barrett 1997, p. 111; Edmonds
2012, p. 38.
104. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 240.
105. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 81; Barnett 2006, p. 885.
107. ^ Simpson 1955, p. 169; Watson 1973, p. 191; Barrett 1997, p. 113; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998,
p. 504.
108. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 149; Clarke 1986, p. 81.
109. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 150.
111. ^ Eyre 1985, p. 145; Pereira 1998, p. 31; Edmonds 2012, p. 40.
112. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 38–40.
113. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 175–176; Edmonds 2012, p. 40.
115. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barnett 2005, p. 77.
116. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 69.
117. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 71.
118. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Edmonds 2012, p. 40.
119. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 19.
121. ^ White 2010, p. 317.
122. ^ Jump up to:a b White 2010, p. 314.
123. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 77.
124. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 77; Edmonds 2012, p. 41.

125. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 240; Middleton 2006, p. 163.
126. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 163.
128. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Edmonds 2012, p. 42.
129. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 99.
130. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 100; Edmonds 2012, p. 42; Bedasse 2013, p. 294.
131. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 33; Barrett 1997, p. 172; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 511; Edmonds 2012,
p. 42.
133. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 7–8; Simpson 1985, p. 286; Eyre 1985, p. 147; Barrett 1997, pp. 248–
249; Barnett 2006, p. 875; Semaj 2013, p. 103.
135. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 70.
136. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 134.
137. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 129.
138. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 11, 70.
139. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 11, 69.
141. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 74.
143. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 112.
144. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 113.
145. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 74; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 186.
146. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 76.
147. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 247; Clarke 1986, p. 75; Chevannes 1990, p. 141; Barnett 2005, p. 72.
148. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 73.
149. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 79.
150. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barnett 2002, p. 54.
151. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 79; Barnett 2002, p. 57; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
154. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 177.
155. ^ Alison Dundes Renteln (2005). The Cultural Defense. Oxford University Press.
p. 257. ISBN 9780195154030.
156. ^ Watson 1973, p. 192.
157. ^ Warner-Lewis 1993, p. 122.
158. ^ Barnett 2002, p. 57.
159. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Clarke 1986, p. 50.
160. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 247; Chevannes 1994, p. 150; Barrett 1997, p. 220.
161. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 220.
162. ^ Jump up to:a b Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 187.
163. ^ Cashmore 1981, pp. 175–176, 179; Barnett 2006, p. 891.
164. ^ Middleton 2006, pp. 165–167.
165. ^ Newland 2013, p. 205.
166. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 178; Edmonds 2012, p. 96.
167. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 13; Clarke 1986, p. 87; Chevannes 1990, p. 142; Barrett 1997, p. 241; Barnett
2006, p. 879; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 199; Edmonds 2012, p. 95.
168. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 200; Edmonds 2012, p. 96.
169. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 178; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 504; Edmonds 2012, p. 95.
170. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 178.
171. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 16.
172. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 97.
173. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 15; Lake 1994, p. 244; Sabelli 2011, p. 141; Edmonds 2012, p. 98.
174. ^ Lake 1994, pp. 241–242; Edmonds 2012, pp. 95, 97.

175. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 88; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 200; Edmonds 2012, p. 98.
176. ^ Lake 1994, p. 247; Barnett 2006, p. 889; Edmonds 2012, p. 98.
178. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 15.
179. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 889.
180. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 98, 99.
183. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 38.
184. ^ Lake 1994, p. 252; Edmonds 2012, p. 99.
185. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 99.
186. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 38; Kitzinger 1969, p. 253; Clarke 1986, p. 88; Semaj 2013, p. 106.
187. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 78–79.
188. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 253; Cashmore 1983, p. 79; Clarke 1986, p. 87; Edmonds 2012, p. 109.
190. ^ Lake 1994, p. 245; Edmonds 2012, p. 99.
191. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 87–88.
192. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 37.
193. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 504; Edmonds 2012, pp. 103–104.
194. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Clarke 1986, p. 88.
195. ^ Cashmore 1981, pp. 178–179; Clarke 1986, p. 87.
196. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 87; Edmonds 2012, p. 107.
197. ^ Turner 1991, p. 86.
198. ^ Sabelli 2011, p. 141.
199. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 253; Cashmore 1983, p. 79; Clarke 1986, p. 88; Barrett 1997, p. 209; Edmonds
2012, p. 99.
200. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 37; Clarke 1986, p. 88; Edmonds 2012, p. 100; Sibanda 2016, p. 192.
201. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 35; Kitzinger 1969, pp. 254–255; Cashmore 1983, p. 79; Barnett 2006,
p. 879; Sibanda 2016, pp. 180, 181, 191.
202. ^ Jump up to:a b Sibanda 2016, p. 192.
203. ^ Cashmore 1981, pp. 178–179.
204. ^ Gjerset 1994, p. 71; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 503; Edmonds 2012, p. 32.
207. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 262.
209. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 88; Edmonds 2012, p. 54.
210. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 100.
211. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 505; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 193; Edmonds
2012, p. 56; Chawane 2014, p. 234.
212. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, pp. 505–506; Edmonds 2012, p. 56; Chawane 2014, p. 234.
213. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 56–57.
214. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 57.
216. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 58–59.
217. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 59.
219. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Edmonds 2012, p. 61.
220. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 60–61.
221. ^ Semaj 2013, p. 106.
222. ^ Semaj 2013, p. 107.
223. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 47; Chawane 2014, p. 224.
224. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 129; Chawane 2014, p. 225.

225. ^ Gjerset 1994, p. 73.
226. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 89.
227. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 48; Chawane 2014, p. 224.
228. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 51; Salter 2005, p. 8; Benard 2007, p. 90; Edmonds 2012, p. 53.
229. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 53.
230. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 883; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 201.
232. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 89; Gjerset 1994, p. 73; Edmonds 2012, pp. 48, 55.
234. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 49, 55.
235. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 130; Edmonds 2012, p. 56.
237. ^ Hamid 2002, p. xxxii.
238. ^ Benard 2007, pp. 95, 96; Edmonds 2012, p. 55.
239. ^ Benard 2007, pp. 91–92.
241. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 129.
242. ^ Jump up to:a b Loadenthal 2013, p. 5.
243. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 76; Barnett 2006, p. 892; Sibanda 2016, p. 184.
244. ^ Margolin, Madison (August 20, 2018). "Now Decriminalized, Could Jamaica Become Destination
for Legal Weed?". Rolling Stone. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
245. ^ "Government passes ganja legislation for Rastafarians, conditions apply". Loop. November 24,
2019. Retrieved February 19, 2020.
246. ^ "Barbados gov't promises Rastafarians 60 acres to grow marijuana". Jamaica Observer. August
31, 2019. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
247. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 93.
250. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 94; Barrett 1997, p. 123; Edmonds 2012, p. 58.
251. ^ King 2002, p. 5.
252. ^ King 2002, p. 4.
253. ^ King 2002, p. 24; Edmonds 2012, p. 115.
256. ^ Jump up to:a b King 2002, p. 24.
258. ^ Barrett 1997, p. vii.
259. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 117.
260. ^ King 2002, p. 57.
261. ^ King 2002, p. 56.
263. ^ King 2002, p. 100.
265. ^ King 2002, p. xiii; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 191.
266. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barrett 1997, p. 245.
267. ^ Rommen 2006, pp. 235–236.
268. ^ Partridge 2004, p. 178.
270. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 92–93.
271. ^ Pollard 1980, p. 32; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 191.
273. ^ Pollard 1980, p. 32.
274. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 45.

276. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 46, 47.
277. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 93; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509.
278. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 103.
279. ^ Pollard 1982, p. 25.
280. ^ Simpson 1985, p. 288; Clarke 1986, p. 92; Chevannes 1994, p. 167; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998,
p. 509; Edmonds 2012, p. 45.
281. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 2, 38.
282. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 92; Edmonds 2012, p. 37.
283. ^ Pollard 1980, p. 36; King 2002, p. xx; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
284. ^ Simpson 1985, p. 288; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
285. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 269; Semaj 2013, p. 108.
286. ^ Jump up to:a b c d White 2010, p. 308.
287. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 159; Barrett 1997, p. 143; White 2010, p. 307.
288. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 160; Barrett 1997, p. 143; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 190.
289. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 143.
290. ^ Jump up to:a b White 2010, p. 307.
291. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 160.
292. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 83; Barrett 1997, p. 141; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011,
p. 198; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
293. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 83; Loadenthal 2013, p. 4; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011,
p. 198; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
295. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 83; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 507; Edmonds 2012, p. 49; Sibanda 2016,
p. 184.
297. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 72.
298. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 141; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198; Edmonds 2012,
p. 49; Sibanda 2016, p. 184.
299. ^ White 2010, p. 309.
300. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 267.
301. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 35; Clarke 1986, p. 85; Barrett 1997, p. 142; Edmonds 2012, p. 48.
302. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 15; Chevannes 1994, pp. 157–158; Barrett 1997, p. 142; Kebede & Knottnerus
1998, p. 504.
303. ^ Chevannes 1994, pp. 165–166.
304. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 247; Clarke 1986, p. 85; Barrett 1997, p. 131; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-
Gebert 2011, p. 198.
305. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 131; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198; Edmonds 2012, p. 48.
307. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, pp. 198–199.
308. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 242; Clarke 1986, p. 92.
309. ^ Barnett 2002, p. 55.
310. ^ Barrett 1997, p. ix; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509; Hansing 2001, p. 741; Barnett 2006,
p. 887; Chawane 2014, p. 225.
311. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 89; Barrett 1997, p. 137; Edmonds 2012, p. 43; Bedasse 2013, p. 316.
312. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 90; Barrett 1997, p. 137; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 190.
313. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 89; Wittmann 2011, p. 154; Loadenthal 2013, p. 4.
315. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 157; Clarke 1986, p. 90; Wittmann 2011, pp. 154–155; Edmonds 2012, p. 42.
316. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 90; Edmonds 2012, pp. 44, 45.
318. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 242.
319. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 62–63; Clarke 1986, p. 53.
320. ^ Forsythe 1980, p. 64; Pollard 1982, p. 29; Gjerset 1994, p. 72; Edmonds 2012, p. 45.

321. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509.
322. ^ Barrett 1997, pp. 257–258; Mhango 2008, p. 233.
323. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 13; Gjerset 1994, p. 72.
324. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 90.
325. ^ Chevannes 1994, pp. 157–158.
326. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 42–43.
327. ^ Jump up to:a b Barrett 1997, p. ix.
328. ^ White 2010, p. 310.
329. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 139.
330. ^ Phiri, Frank (January 24, 2020). "Malawi's Rastas cheer ruling allowing dreadlocks in
school". Reuters. Retrieved October 3, 2020.
331. ^ Jump up to:a b Chevannes 1994, p. 2.
332. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 24; Chevannes 1994, p. 3.
333. ^ Chevannes 1994, p. 3.
334. ^ Francis 2013, p. 52.
335. ^ Chevannes 1994, p. 120.
338. ^ Jump up to:a b c Clarke 1986, pp. 27–28.
339. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 29–34; Barrett 1997, pp. 75–76; Francis 2013, pp. 54–56.
340. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 34; Chawane 2014, p. 221.
341. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 34.
342. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 41–42.
344. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 22; Soumahoro 2007, pp. 38–39.
345. ^ Grant 2008, p. 426.
346. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 35; Edmonds 2012, p. 7; Semaj 2013, p. 99; Chawane 2014, p. 221.
347. ^ Chevannes 1994, p. 109.
348. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 22; Grant 2008, pp. 440–441.
349. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 46; Lewis 1993, pp. 1–2; Loadenthal 2013, p. 10.
350. ^ Lewis 1993, p. 2; Barrett 1997, p. 81; Edmonds 2012, p. 9.
351. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 46; Lewis 1993, p. 2.
352. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 46.
353. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 46; Barrett 1997, pp. 85–86; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011,
p. 188; Edmonds 2012, pp. 11, 13.
354. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 25; Clarke 1986, p. 46; Barrett 1997, p. 86; Edmonds 2012, pp. 13–14.
355. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 26; Barrett 1997, p. 87; Edmonds 2012, pp. 14–15.
356. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 87; Edmonds 2012, p. 15.
358. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 27; Clarke 1986, p. 47; Barrett 1997, p. 89; Bonacci 2013, pp. 74, 78.
359. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 10.
361. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 15.
362. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 16.
364. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 28; Clarke 1986, p. 50; Barrett 1997, p. 93.
365. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 28.
366. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 28–29; Clarke 1986, p. 50; Barrett 1997, pp. 95–98; Edmonds 2012, p. 19.
367. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 29–30; Barrett 1997, pp. 98–99; Edmonds 2012, pp. 19–20.
368. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 22.
369. ^ King 2002, p. 79.
370. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 51; Barrett 1997, pp. 158–160; King 2002, pp. 82–83; Edmonds 2012, p. 24.

372. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 146.
373. ^ King 2002, p. 52.
375. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 25.
376. ^ King 2002, p. 103.
377. ^ King 2002, p. 81.
378. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 52; Bedasse 2013, pp. 297–298; Edmonds 2012, p. 26.
379. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 54; Edmonds 2012, pp. 25–26.
380. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 55.
381. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 108.
382. ^ King 2002, pp. 100, 102.
383. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 53.
384. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 52; Lewis 1993, p. 12; Lewis 1994, pp. 290–291; King 2002, pp. 105, 108–111.
385. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 220; King 1998, p. 41; King 2002, pp. 91–92; Edmonds 2012, p. 27.
386. ^ Lewis 1994, p. 12; Lewis 1994, p. 291; Edmonds 2012, p. 27.
387. ^ King 2002, p. 106.
388. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 27.
389. ^ King 2002, pp. 121–122.
390. ^ Semaj 2013, p. 98.
391. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 28.
392. ^ King 2002, p. 120.
394. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 29–30.
396. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 30–31.
397. ^ Barnett 2002, p. 56.
399. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 91; King 2002, p. xvii.
400. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 52–53.
402. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 88–89.
405. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 25.
406. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 59, 62.
407. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 63; Merritt 2017, p. 285.
408. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 64; Merritt 2017, pp. 285–286.
410. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 182; Barnett 2005, p. 69; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
411. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 69.
413. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 157.
414. ^ Lake 1994, p. 247; Barnett 2005, p. 69; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
415. ^ Lewis 1993, p. 11; Barrett 1997, p. 227; Bedasse 2010, pp. 961, 962; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
416. ^ Rubenstein & Suarez 1994, p. 2; Bedasse 2010, p. 962; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
417. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 67.
418. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 229; Barnett 2005, p. 68; Edmonds 2012, p. 65.
419. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 66–67.
420. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 68; Barnett 2005, p. 67; Bedasse 2013, p. 302.
421. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 68.
422. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 54; Barrett 1997, p. 230.
424. ^ Bedasse 2010, pp. 961–962.

425. ^ Lewis 1993, p. 11; Rubenstein & Suarez 1994, p. 4.
426. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 68–69.
430. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 94–95.
432. ^ Jump up to:a b Hansing 2006, p. 63.
433. ^ Cashmore 1984, p. 3.
435. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 85.
436. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 55.
437. ^ Savishinsky 1994b, p. 28.
438. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 6.
439. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 128.
440. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 9.
441. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 57.
442. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 57–58.
444. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 97.
445. ^ Loadenthal 2013, p. 2.
449. ^ "Jamaica". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (US State Department). September
14, 2007. Retrieved October 20, 2010.
450. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 2.
451. ^ Barrett 1997, pp. 2–3.
452. ^ Barrett 1997, pp. 2, 241.
453. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 87.
454. ^ Gjerset 1994, p. 67.
455. ^ Gjerset 1994, p. 67; Edmonds 2012, p. 81.
456. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 81.
457. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 82.
458. ^ Campbell 1980, pp. 50–51; Simpson 1985, p. 291; Edmonds 2012, p. 82.
459. ^ Hansing 2001, p. 734; Hansing 2006, p. 65; Edmonds 2012, pp. 82–83.
460. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 82–83.
461. ^ Hansing 2001, p. 736; Hansing 2006, p. 69.
463. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 76.
464. ^ Loadenthal 2013, p. 12.
465. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 78.
466. ^ Savishinsky 1994b, pp. 26–27.
467. ^ Savishinsky 1994b, p. 33.
468. ^ White 2010, pp. 304, 306–307.
469. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 152.
470. ^ Middleton 2006, pp. 154–155.
471. ^ Middleton 2006, pp. 161–162.
472. ^ Savishinsky 1994b, pp. 31–32.
473. ^ Savishinsky 1994, p. 211.
474. ^ Savishinsky 1994, p. 214.
475. ^ Wittmann 2011, pp. 158–159.

477. ^ Turner 1991, p. 82.
478. ^ Sibanda 2016, p. 182.
479. ^ Ntombana & Maganga 2020, p. 1.
480. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 220.
481. ^ Mhango 2008, p. 234.
482. ^ Newland 2013, p. 225.
484. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 176; Cashmore 1983, p. 54.
485. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 58.
486. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 56.
488. ^ "Rastafari at a glance". BBC. October 2, 2009. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
489. ^ Wakengut 2013, p. 60.
490. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 83.
491. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 98.
492. ^ Jump up to:a b Cashmore 1981, p. 173.
493. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 173; Hansing 2001, p. 733; Benard 2007, p. 90.
494. ^ King 2002, p. 101.
495. ^ Ben-Simhon, Coby (April 8, 2005). "Jamaica in the Desert". Haaretz. Retrieved April 12, 2019.
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 Wakengut, Anastasia (2013). "Rastafari in Germany: Jamaican Roots and Global-Local Influences". Student
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Further reading[edit]
 Barnett, Michael (2017). The Rastafari Movement: A North American and Caribbean Perspective. Abingdon:
Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-68215-3.
 Bonacci, Giulia (2015). Exodus! Heirs and Pioneers, Rastafari Return to Ethiopia. Mona: University of West Indies
Press. ISBN 978-9766405038.
 Campbell, Horace (2007). Rasta and Resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney (fourth ed.). Watton-at-
Stone: Hansib Publications. ISBN 978-1-906190-00-2.
 Edmonds, Ennis B. (2008). Rastafari: From Outcasts to Cultural Bearers. Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534048-8.
 Lake, Obiagele (1998). Rastafari Women: Subordination in the Midst of Liberation Theology. Durham: Carolina
Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-89089-836-9.
 Lee, Hélène (2004). First Rasta: Leonard Howell and the Rise of Rastafarianism. Chicago: Chicago Review
Press. ISBN 978-1-55652-558-2.
 Pollard, Velma (2000). Dread Talk: The Language of the Rastafari (revised ed.). Montreal: McGill-Queen's University
Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2030-1.
 Price, Charles (2009). Becoming Rasta: Origins of Rastafari Identity in Jamaica. New York City: New York University
Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6747-4.
KEEP THE PRINCIPLES OF

THE RASTAFARI LIVITY
A Rastafari woman lives by all the principles of the Rastafari livity. There is no acceptation.
Things like Avoiding Satan’s temptations, eating natural unprocessed foods, and putting Jah
first in all things that we do. The Rastafari Livity is about living modest, Humble and loving.
However there are times when an Empress must stand firm. We try our best to use love
to make our point as much as possible.

Rastafari “livity,” or the principle of balanced lifestyle, includes the wearing of long
hair locked in its natural, uncombed state, dressing in the colours of red, green,
gold, and black (which symbolize the life force of blood, herbs, royalty, and
Africanness), and eating an “I-tal” (natural, vegetarian) diet.
Religious rituals include prayer services, the smoking of ganja (marijuana) to
achieve better “itation” (meditation) with Jah, and “bingis” (all-night drumming
ceremonies). Reggae music grew out of the Rastafari movement and was made
popular throughout the world by the Jamaican singer and songwriter Bob Marley.
WOMEN
Though the rules for women seem strict, a Rasta woman has to be able to tell herself apart
from the larger society of women in Babylon whose ways, style of dress, and approach to life
is all together different. Rasta women realize their potential as queens and honor that title
with respect: no short dresses, no pants, no adding chemicals to the hair, and definitely no
make up or artificial cosmetic use.
Rasta women normally wear long, loose fitted dresses and/or skirts in liberation colours; The
"deep" Rasta women do not wear pants
Rasta women also do not wear shiny jewellery. They prefer having a more natural
appearance thus wearing jewellery made out of beads, shells, wood or copper. They also
wear dreadlocks, but do not style them or curl them.
When going out, Rasta women wrap their hair; they do not let them loose. This is for many
reasons:
 To show respect for The Most High and other deep rasta.
 To maintain a private spiritual relationship.
 To reserve her beauty for her Rasta King and her family.
 To portray a queen-like appearance.
Women In Rastafarianism
While the Rastafarian movement is one culture, and one religion, men and
women are not treated the same. In this community, women are considered
queens, though they are seen inferior to men (Dubb, 2012; Mash, 2011), but must
follow additional and separate rules. The understood role of a Rasta-Woman is
that she “raise [her] child, and provide a stable environment for the men” (Dubb,

2012; Mash, 2011). These women are also ordered not to commit to adultery
(Mash, 2011).
This role, as previously stated, comes along with quite a few seemingly strict
“rules”, which guide a Rasta-Woman throughout her life, the first being the rule on
how to become a Rastafarian as a woman. According to Mash (2011), “women are
only called to be Rastafari through their husbands… are not allowed to be leaders…
[and must recognize men as] the spiritual [heads] of the family” (p. 3). Other
rules listed included that while on her period, a woman cannot cook for her
husband, and that she must never use birth control, or get an abortion (Mash,
2011). The Rastafarians feel that birth control is a European method designed to
“suppress the development of the African population”, and that abortion,
regardless of which stage of pregnancy, is murder (Mash, 2011, p.6).
There are also limitations on what a woman may wear or do with her hair. In the
book, which provides guidelines for Rastafari women, it is plainly stated that they
may not wear makeup, promiscuous clothes, or put chemicals in their hair (Mash,
2011). Also mentioned was that while a woman is praying, she should wear head
dress, to cover her hair and head, which is a practice that they derived from 1
Corinthians 11:5 (Dubb, 2012; Mash, 2011).

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‘’Life of a Rastafarian Woman’’

Dr. Nokuthula FB Buthelezi

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 1

For more information, email nkthlbthlz@gmail.com.

ISBN: (print only)

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 2

Your affectionate daughter

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 3

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 4

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 5

1.) Identify the problem

2.) Present the solution

3.) Reassert your credibility

4.) Show them the benefits again

5.) Give them proof

6.) Make a promise (the bigger the better)

7.) Warn them against waiting

8.) Prompt them to read (call to action)

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 6

1. The primacy of self-knowledge.

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 7

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 8

Rastafari, sometimes called Rastafarianism, is a religion that developed in Jamaica during

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 9

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 10

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 11

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 12

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 13

Dr. Nokuthula Funokuhle Bongumusa Buthelezi 14

Role of Females and the Bible

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From these premises came certain behavioral restrictions or taboos:

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Other Factors Affecting the Role of Daughters

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The Development of Rastafari

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What it means to be Rasta

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The Rasta Diet.

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The Rasta’s Social Thought.

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feel free to drop those here!

several people to assist you.

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Nokuthula resides in beautiful KwaZulu-Natal Province in Zululand in a place called

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Rastafari has certain rules that apply only to women.

 Women are known as Queens

 The main role of women is to look after their King

 Women are regarded as subordinate to men