Imagine your life without light during night time.

● Electricity powers our motorboats, cools our summers, cooks our food, lights our cities, and makes our
evening glow.
● More encompassing than these, man's manipulation of electromagnetic energy makes it possible for us to view
events as they happen on the other side of the world in living colors and sounds.
● In our lifetime, we have seen man's first step and heard his first words on the moon.
● In our lifetime, we hope to see more of man's great leaps into the vast, dark space beyond.

Electric Current

● Electric current is the movement of charged particles in a specific direction.

● The charged particle may be an electron, a positive ion or a negative ion, and they are referred to as current
carriers.
● The symbol used for current is I because early scientists thought about the intensity of the electricity in a wire.
● Electric current is just like the flow of water called water current which is the amount of water flowing
through any cross section of the pipe per unit time.
● The unit of current is given in coulomb per second (C/s) and is named ampere (A) after the French physicist
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836).
● He discovered that two parallel wires attract each other when currents flow through them in the same direction
and repel each other when currents are made to flow in opposite directions.
● The relationship between time, charge, and current is given as: Current=charge/time or I-q/t
● The unit is: Ampere=coulomb/second or A=C/s
● If the current continues to flow in the same direction through the conducting wire all the time, it is called
direct current (DC).
● This is the kind of current that we get from flashlight cells and batteries.
● If the current periodically reverses the direction in which it is moving, it is called alternating current (AC).
● This is the kind of current we have in our home and in school.

Electrostatics

● Electrostatics is the study of electric charges that are relatively at rest.

● Charge is a fundamental quantity that explains all electrical phenomena and is inherent to all bodies that are
composed of atoms and molecules. It has two components - magnitude and polarity.
● The magnitude of a charge describes its strength and its polarity determines how it will interact with other
charges.
● There are two types of charge polarities - positive and negative. The proton is the carrier of positive charge
and the electron carries negative charge.
● The magnitude of these carriers, however, is the same and is equal to 1.6 x 1019 coulomb; the coulomb (C) is
the unit of charge in the metric system.
● Electrostatic force is the degree of repulsion or attraction between charged objects.

Electric Field

● It is the action-at-a-distance forces that exist because of the force fields present in space.
Conductors and Insulators

● A conductor is a material that allows charges to flow through it with relative ease. Ideal conductors afford no
resistance to flowing charges.
● An insulator presents significant resistance to flowing charges.
● Metals are good conductors, while materials like rubber and glass are good examples of insulators

Electric Current

● Electric current is the rate of flow of charges in a medium. Its MKS unit is ampere (A) or coulomb per second
(C/s). Conventional current is the flow of positive charges from a point of higher or positive potential to a
point of lower or negative potential.
● Electron current, on the contrary, is the flow of electrons from a point of lower or negative potential to a point
of higher or positive potential.

Electric current
● In circuit analysis, current in a conductor is usually referred to as electron current brought by a potential
difference between the ends of the conductor.
● Electric current flows only in a complete conducting path or a close electric circuit. An ammeter measures the
current in an electric element.

Wire
● An AND gate is an electrical circuit that combines tw signals so that the output is on if both signals are
present.
● NAND is an abbreviation for "NOT AND." A two-inputNAND gate is a digital combination logic circuit that
performs the logical inverse of an AND gate.
● An OR gate is a digital logic gate that gives an output of 1 when any of its inputs are 1, otherwise 0. An OR
gate performs like two switches in parallel supplying a light, so that when either of the switches is closed the
light is on.
● A NOR gate is a digital logic gate that gives an output of O when any of its inputs are 1, otherwise 1.
● "XOR" an abbreviation for "Exclusively-OR." The simplest XOR gate is a two-input digital circuit that
outputs a logical "1" if the two input values differ
Ohm's Law : R-I-V Relationship
● The amount of opposition of a medium to any flow of changes is referred to as resistance
● Resistance is measured in ohm (Ω) and the material that presents the resistance to electrical current is called
as a resistor
● The resistance of a conductor (R) depends on ne resistivity (P), length (1), and cross - sectional area (A) of the
conductor
● I = V/R, R = V/I, V = RI

Series and Parallel

● Because not all needed resistances are available in the market, resistors are connected in series or parallel.
series resistors are connected one after the other, while parallel ones are those where corresponding terminals
are connected to two separate points.
● The equivalent resistance (Req,) of resistors in series is greater than that of any resistors connected in the
network.
● Contrastingly, the equivalent resistance (Req) of resistors in parallel is less than that of any of the revitors in
the network. Figure 6 summarizes these concepts.

∑R = R1+ R2+... ∑R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃

I₁= I₂= I₃ Itotal = I₁+ I₂+ I₃

Vtotal = V₁+ V₂ + V₃ V₁ = V₂ = V₃

● Further, a series connection provides only one conducting path, while a parallel connection affords several
paths. With such, the current through series resistor is the same, but the voltage across each resistor may not
necessarily be equal. The voltages are equal only when resistors have the same resistances.
● For parallel resistors, the voltages across the resistors are equal, unlike the current may not necessarily be the
same. The current in the resistors will only be the same if the resistors have equal resistances.
● To measure the current flowing through a resistor the ammeter must be connected in series with the resistor.
Ammeters have negligible resistance so it will not cast any effect on the circuit
● To measure the voltage across the resistor, the voltmeter - the instrument that measures voltage - must be
connected in parallel to the resistor. Voltmeters have very high resistance..

Kirchhoff's Laws
● One of the fundamental laws in circuit analysis Kirchhoff's Law, also referred to as Kirchoff'sRules. here are
2 laws of Kirchoff - the current law and the voltage law
● These laws are applied to electrical circuits that cannot be analyzed using the concept of series and parallel
resistors.
● The current law is based on the conservation of charges - charges cannot be created nor destroyed and adapted
to electric junction called nodes.
● According to Kirchoff’s current laws, the sum of the currents entering a route is equal to the sum of the
current leaving the node.