BFA I Year History of Arts NOTES 2021

BFA 1st Year- HISTORY OF ARTS
INTRODUCTION
What is Art ?
The work of art is an expression given as a concrete tangible form existing in space. From ancient
days till today, art is expressed and communicated through different medium. This expression in man
distinguished him from other living being.
What is the Nature of art ?
'Art does not reproduce what we see rather it makes us see’, says Paul Klee. This may be true. The
ability in art is the power to invent, create and to design with originality . Art is not static, it progresses in many
things. Things may be concrete , abstract . Each has its own concrete expression of thought and feeling that
art expressed through art.
What is the connection between Art and Man...?
Man is a piece of nature and art is produced by him. This is the connection between art and nature
says George Bernard Shaw. Art is essentially man made and therefore different from nature itself.
Art is the result of imagination combined with technical and physical.
The work of art is artist mind put forth by the body. It is an experience both for the artist who produces
it and the observer who is benefited by the product. Art is created when an artist creates a beautiful object, or
produces a stimulating experience that is considered by his audience to have artistic merit.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ART
The Fundamentals of art is divided into two sections
a) Elements of art
b) Principles of art
When an artist creates a work of art he makes use of the elements of art and employs the principles
of art.
ELEMENTS OF ART
The elements of art are the basic components of art-marking. It is impossible to create a work of art without
using at least one of the eight elements of art. In order to be successful in art creation, an artist must be able
to intelligently use the elements of art. Artwork can also be analyzed according to the use of the elements in a
work of art. When an artwork is analyzed in this manner, it is considered a Formalist approach to art criticism.
The Elements of art are Point, Line, Form, Space, Light and Dark, Colour, Texture
(i) Point
Point is the simplest element. It is unique in character. The ideal shape of the point is a
circular one. It’s ideal shape is small, but the artist who varies it in combination with other points has a
surprisingly wide range . He may make it in the shape of a square or rectangle or irregular curve, Linear ,
Sharp or flat fuzzy . It may be larger or smaller than it follows or uniform in size.
When we repeat a point on a paper in a orderly or planned fashion , it can create not only
tension but also effects of movements which a point by itself cannot give as it transforms the points of focus
into a point of departure and induces our eyes to jump along with it . By grouping points in various ways , we
control our own step creating a measured and stately movement (... ... ...) and retarding movement (... .. . )
and other different kinds of movements.
1 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

(ii) Line
Line is considered by most to be the most basic element of art. In terms of art, line is
considered to be a moving dot. It has an endless number of uses in the creation of art.When the points are
placed in series and when they are grouped together , they tend to go beyond their role as points and art like
the lines over which eyes read into gaps between them . The point is the simplest element to understand , but
the line is the easiest to follow . It is the element which we are continuously drawing out from nature.
Line is a chain of dots. A Line may be an edge, a contour in which case it is linear. It may be
structural in quality which suggests a mass or an element of enrichment of surface. It may be broad or thin,
sharp or flat , firm or wavering , delicate or bold , energetic or weak . .
Line can control an viewer's eye. It can describe edges. It can indicate form as well as movement. It can
also indicate value and a light source in drawing
Line however is used to express human emotions and experiences . It is also used mostly for
conventional representation of object . For example , the architect uses lines as it is a primary utilant as it
conveys and communicates our ideas to another person .
Emotional qualities of different kinds of Lines
(i) Vertical Line - Upliftment
(ii) Horizontal Line - Tranquility , repose
(iii) Diagonal Line - Dynamic
(iv) Curve - Pleasure
(v) Spiral - Happiness
(vi) Zig Zag - Confusion
(vii) Oval - Charm
(viii) Cirle - Fullness
When line is used for value or shading, we most typically see it used in the form of hatching or cross hatching.
Hatching and Cross Hatching
Hatching and cross hatching are linear drawing techniques that can be used to create texture, value, and the
illusion of form and light. Typically used as an application technique when the medium is linear in nature,
hatching and cross hatching are often used together.
Both techniques work well with a variety of different drawing mediums including pen and ink, graphite, colored
pencils, and pastels. Hatching and cross hatching can also be found in traditional printmaking techniques
such as etching and engraving.
Some artists prefer to use either hatching or cross hatching in a specific drawing in order to create harmony.
Most often however, the two techniques are used together in the same drawing or painting.
While using hatching or crosshatching in a drawing can create a variety of textures, the technique is mostly
used to create a full range of value. The placement of values within the work leads to the illusion of the form of
the subject as well as the illusion of a defined light source.

Hatching
Hatching is created when non-crossing lines are used to indicate the value on or
around an object. The value added to the object is dependent on the location of a light
source. More marks are added in the areas of core shadow and cast shadow, while
less marks should exist in lighter areas.
When hatching is used, the lines drawn generally go in the same direction and are
mostly parallel with each other. Sometimes, the lines may curve slightly or even a great
bit depending on the contours of the object. Lines of this nature are referred to as cross
contour lines.
When used correctly, cross contour lines can further the illusion of form by giving the viewer information about
the actual 3-dimensional qualities of the object.
By changing the frequency of the use of line, and the amount of space between the lines, the artist can create
a full range of value in the drawing. Assuming that an artist is working on white paper, more space between
the lines (more paper showing) will lead to lighter values in the drawing. Less space between lines will
naturally lead to darker values in the drawing.
Cross Hatching
When cross hatching is used, the artist may begin adding value as hatching, but then
allow the lines to cross over each other. The more that the lines cross over each other,
the darker the value becomes.
Many artists approach the addition of crossing lines as a science, following a specific
order of vertical lines, followed by horizontal lines, followed by diagonal lines, and so on.
This method produces very deliberate and

controlled marks that are very exact and precise.
Others simply cross the lines at random leading to
“looser” drawings. Neither way is better, per se.
Some looser approaches work better for some
subjects, while more rigid approaches are suitable
for other subjects. They may also combine linear
techniques to create a variety of textures or
patterns. The arrangement of patterns can add
interest to a drawing as well as push the tonal
qualities.
Although these are arguably the most common

forms of using line for adding value, there is an
endless number of ways that it can be used.
A simple way of thinking of a line is to imagine a

point that moves...
The most common use of line is showing where an

object ends. This type of line is called a contour
line. Contour lines are most commonly called
outlines.
Line can also create the illusion of form in a drawing. Line quality is the thickness or
thinness of a line. By varying the line quality an artist can show form in a drawing with
just the use of line.

Line most commonly defines the edges of an object. When line is used
in this way, the lines are called contour lines.
Drawing with one basic line that does not change in width is
monotonous and boring. In order to make your contour line drawing
more interesting, you should add variety to the line by varying the line
quality.
Line Quality
Line quality is also called line weight and simply put, refers to the thickness
or thinness of the line. Lines may become wider or thicker in areas where
the object itself is thicker. Or lines may become thicker to help indicate a
light source. Lines in areas of shadow may be thicker. By varying line
quality (weight) you add variety to your work. Take a look at the apples
below. Notice how varying the line quality in the drawing on the right, makes
the apple appear to have form.
(iii) Shape
Shape is an element of art that is a two-dimensional area that is defined in some way. A shape may have an
outline around it or you may recognize it by its area. Shape is the
structure of an object .
Geometric shapes- precise shapes that can be described using

mathematical formulas. Ex. Circle, square, triangle, oval, rectangle,
parallelogram, trapezoid, pentagon, pentagram, hexagon, and octagon.
Freeform Shapes- also called organic shapes, are irregular and

uneven shapes. Their outlines may be curved, angular, or a
combination of both
You can turn a shape into the illusion of form by adding value and
you can simplify a form from life into a shape.
(iv)Form
Form- an element of art, means objects that have

three dimensions. It reforms to the whole organisation of an object .
The beauty of the form depends on the relationship of the parts of the
whole. Form follows function . This means that form or intrinsic
character are essential . The nature of an object result from nature ,
are not merely for utilization but also has aesthetic function .Form in
nature are two kinds.
(i) Organic or free form- Organic forms do not have

specific names associated with them and are often associated with
naturally occurring forms.
(ii) Geometric or inorganic form- Geometric forms

have specific names associated with them and are typically man-

made.
Free forms suggests delicacy and grace , while rectangular form suggests vigor and strength . All the visual
arts are conceived with forms.
(v) Space
Space is the distance between and around shapes and

masses . Space is the working area within which we compose the picture
. Space is essential . Space is ordinarily considered to be bound, but
continuous within which all materials (Things) are contained. Modern
science of course added the concept of continuity. Architecture provides
our commonest experience of the actual manipulation of space, while the
art of painting frequently has had the purpose of projecting on a two -
dimensional surface. An image (or illusion ) of the three - dimensional
spatial world moving in any area becomes a positive space.
Shapes defined by objects are positive shapes (space). Shapes defined

around objects are negative shapes (space).
On a plane , when it is defined on some shape and perhaps filled in by the artist , the areas then left over
around this positive space is for rest. The relationships between the positive and negative shapes help the
brain of our viewers understand what they are seeing. Our brains are even capable of making sense of
complex relationships between positive and negative shapes.
(vi) Light and Dark/ Value
Light and dark is otherwise known as "Chiarosuro", an Italian word ( Chiaro - Light , scuro –
dark). It is a range from light to dark or white to black with an infinite number of gradations. The diffused light
endorses a mysterious or tranquil mood. Light and shade are also known as Value. The value conveys the
dominating factor of a work of art. The interplay of light and dark gives the relationship of areas. In art, light is
both the tool and medium of expression, as we manipulate light in such a way as reflection , diffusion ,
transmission and modulation. Value is one of the seven elements of art. It is one of the most important
elements when it comes to drawing. Value is how we see things. It has little to do with color. Light is reflected
off of objects and informs us about the form of the objects that we are seeing.
Value deals directly to light. We see things because light reflects off of objects and goes into our eyes. Our
mind processes the light and rationalizes what we are seeing. Without light, we cannot see anything. In order
to draw or paint in a way that
creates an illusion of what we normally see, we must fully understand light and how it reacts on surfaces.
Value is the key to the illusion of light. This is why value is so incredibly important to drawing and painting.

(vii) Colour
Colour surrounds us everywhere . Everything in

the world has color. Our eyes see grass as green, an apple as red.
We take these colors for granted , but we cannot prove that they
exist . To learn about colour , scientists have explored the nature of
light . They know that white light , such as sunlight , can be broken
up into the colours of the rainbow.
Colour depends on the reflection and absorption of light on a

surface. It varies in degree depending upon on the dullness ,
brightness and darkness of light .
Colour are perhaps the most emotive of the

elements . It plays an important role in human life . Colour is known
to man ever since he became conscious of it and began to express
emotion or feeling and to make the surrounding more joyful and
pleasant. It is a sensation produced on the eyes by decomposed light. Light is the source of colours.
Classification of Colour
a) Primary Colours:
Yellow , Blue and Red are primary colours. They are called primary for a
couple of reasons. First, no two colors can be mixed to create a primary color. In other
words, primary colors can only be created through the use of natural pigments. Secondly,
all other colors found on the color wheel can be created by mixing primary colors together.
b) Secondary Colours:
Green , Orange and Purple are called secondary

colours . They are obtained by mixing two primary colours
Yellow + Blue = Green
Yellow + Red = Orange
Blue + Red = Purple
c) Tertiary Colours
By mixing one primary and one

secondary we get tertiary colors. They are also known
as intermediate colours because they are in between
the primary and secondary
There are six tertiary colors- red-purple, red-orange,

blue-green, yellow-green, blue-purple, and yellow-
orange.

d) Neutral Colours:
White , Black and Gray are called neutral

Colours because they have no colours.
COLOUR HARMONY
Colour Harmony is the use of combinations of

colours to produce a pleasing effect. A woman may use
colour harmony when she selects the colour of a hat to
wear with a new dress. Interior decorators plan colour
schemes for the rooms of a home according to the
principle of colour harmony. Many persons use a colour
triangle or a colour wheel to find attractive combinations
of colours.
(i) MONOCHROMATIC COLOURS:
Monochromatic colours are all the colors (Tints ,

Tones and shades ) of a single hue. Monochromatic
colours scheme are derived from a single base hue and
extended using its shades , tones and tints.
(ii) ANALOGOUS COLOURS:
Analogous colour schemes use colours that are next to

each other on the colour wheel. They usually match well and
create serene and comfortable designs.Analogous colours
schemes are often found in nature and are harmonious and
pleasing to the eyes.

(iii)COMPLEMENTARY
The Colours that are opposite to each other on the colours wheel are considered to be
complementary colours.
Red x Green , Blue x Orange , Yellow x Violet
The high contrast of complementary colours creates a vibrant look especially when used at full
saturation. This colour scheme must be managed well so it is not jarring.
Complementary colour schemes are tricky to use in large

doses, but work well when you want something to stand out.
(iv) SPLIT COMPLEMENTARY
The split complementary colour scheme is a variation of the complementary colour scheme. In
addition to the base colour, it uses the two colours adjacent to its complement.
This colour scheme has the same strong visual contrast as the complementary colour scheme, but has less
tension.
(iv) TRIADIC COLOUR
A Triadic colour scheme uses colours that are evenly spaced around the
colour wheel . Any three equally spaced colours are called triads.
This scheme is popular among artists because it offers strong visual

contrasts while retaining balance and colour richness. The triadic scheme is not
as contrasting as the complementary scheme, but it looks more balanced and
harmonious.
(vi) TETRADIC ( DOUBLE COMPLEMENTARY ) COLOUR
The tetradic ( Double complementary ) scheme is the richest of all the

schemes because it uses four colours arranged into two complementary colour
arranged into two complementary colour pacrs . This scheme is hard to harmonize ,
if all four colors are used in equal amounts , the scheme may look unbalanced , so

you should choose a colour to be dominant or subdue the colours.
COLOUR TRIANGLE
Two important point colours black and white , do not appear anywhere on the colour wheel . We can
see how black and white fit into the world of colours by using a colour triangle.
A colour triangle has a colour at one angle, black at another and white at the third. If a color from the
colour wheel, such as red , is mixed with white , the result is a tint - in this case , pink . If we mix red with
black , the result is a shade , in this case Red + Black-Maroon , And if we mix red with both black and white ,
the result is a tone - in this case rose.
In a colour triangle, the colours in any straight line form pleasing combinations. A pure colour
harmonizes with tints and white with shade and black or with tones and grey. A tint and a tone blend with
black, and a shade and a tone go well with white.
Groups of tints, shades or tones also harmonize well psychologically every different colour create a
certain effect on us emotionally. Such an effect of the colour is either pleasing or irritating, relaxing or exciting
, warm or cool , bright or dull.
Emotional characteristics of colours
1.Red - Excitement , danger , hatred , passion , strong emotion
2.Yellow- Cheerfulness , gaiety , light , gold , wisdom , brilliance .
3.Blue - Cool , refreshing , quality , truth , slight metal depression
4.Green- Relaxation , safety , cool , progress , growth , abundance , spring.
5.Orange- Stimulation , knowledge , warmth
6.Pink - Healthy , Happiness , Delicacy , Feminine
7.Purple- Royalty , Dignity
8.Black - Sorrow , Evil , Death , Darkness

9.White- Peace , Dignity , Purity , Cleanliness , Light
10.Grey- Retirement , Quietness, Sadness , Humble , Soberness
Properties of Colour
The Properties of colour are Hue , value and intensity
Hue: Hue is the name of the Colour
(Eg) Yellow
Value: Value is the lightness or darkness of the colour.
(Eg) Light yellow or dark yellow
Intensity: Intensity is the brightness or dullness of the colour
(Eg) Bright yellow or dull yellow
Colours have a lot of influence on us. So the scientists and artists have spent a lot of time on it. Some
of the findings are given below.
Stimulation : Red , Yellow and Orange are the most distinct
Green is fairly natural
Grey is sober and depressing.
Attention Value: Red , Yellow , Orange and Green attracted more attention when seen against a white
backgroud.
Colour Preference: Red and Blue are the most popular colours . Yellow and Orange are the least
On the whole men prefer lighter shades and women prefer darker shades.
Red and Yellow quite naturally have emotions of warmth . So they are warm colours . Blue , Green
are cool colours . Generally warm colours seem to advance and cool colurs seem to recede.
(viii) TEXTURE
Texture is the surface quality of materials either visual or by feeling . Texture has two dimensions.
Texture is of two types
(i) Tactile Quality
(ii) Visual Quality
Tactile quality deals most directly with the sense of touch. The surface of an object produce tension
when we touch it.
Visual texture makes one feel its presence without actually coming into contact with the fingers.
Glass has got transparent texture and sand has a rough texture. In design, the texture quality often
comes from the nature of materials used like the roughness of a stone wall or smoothness of a silk fabric or
woollen fabric. The artists can simulate texture and can go beyond their illusions. He can add to the emotional
impact of his picture by the development of actual textures in the way he applies the paint.

PRINCIPLES OF ART
1. BALANCE:
Balanced is the most important principle of art, It is the arrangement of art elements to produce a
visual equilibrium. Balance in a design or produce a visual equilibrium. Balance in a design or picture is so
natural that we are aware of its presence. But when a design or a picture is unbalanced it gives a sense of
unpleasant look which gives trouble to the eye since one part of the picture seems heavy and makes the other
part merely noticeable . Through balance we get a sense of stability and repose.
The balancing of units does not necessarily mean that they should be of the same weight. The
balance can be affected by the movement of perfect co-ordinates and application of all factors of balance
namely
(i) Symmetrical or formal balance
(ii) Asymmetrical or informal balance
(iii) Radial balance
(i)Symmetrical Balance:
Symmetrical balance is that which exists when all the units are placed at its exact place away from the
centre or it is the equal balance of weight , shape or form (Eg) Pot
(ii)Asymmetrical Balance:
Asymmetrical balance is the balance in which the main feature is the impression of movement . In a
work of art , though the object is placed to one side , there will be balance.
(iii)Radial Balance:
Radial balance is the balance in which the focus is in the centre and our eye moves radially . E.g
Sunflower , wheel , etc...
2. DOMINANCE:
Dominance means of emphasis. It is the emphasis of one part over the other. It is the process of
separating the essential from the less important. All work of art must have a theme which should form the
focus of attention on which the on-lookers interest is there. The size or the weight of the colour , shape and
interest of emotion , so as to gain emphasis on one dominating in a lay out . There must necessarily be a
strong contrast between the elements and the orders.
3. RHYTHM
When a shape is repeated two times or more a movement is created which carries the eye from one
unit to the next in such a way that one is not conscious of separate units , but of a rhythmic advancement
making it easy for the eyes to pass along the entire length of space.
Rhythm is a movement with regular successions of strong and weak elements , sometimes in order of
importance and is closely allied with unity . It may be gained by repetition with variations . Rhythm is the
outcome of perfect co-ordination of all the qualities of art and it is mainly recovered by the correct use of
balance , proportion and harmony.
4. PROPORTION
Proportion controls the size of all the units in any work of art and partly determines the relationship to
all existing shapes or forms including the frame of the picture or the boundary of a decoration . The proportion
is related to function and in nature we find correct proportion in various things which fulfill different needs and
functions . All designs must have good proportion otherwise there will be no unity.

5. SCALE:
Scale ( Like Proportion ) refers to the dimensional relations of the part of a work to its locality ( or of a
work to its setting ) , but usually in terms of appropriateness to use of function . The relative size which the
mind accepts is not what the eye sees , we form an image in which relative size may be entirely different . The
most important thing is the change of scale . When we look at the object or the space between them, guided
by interest. Colour helps the designers to produce many degrees of scaling design . It is an element in a lay
out.
6. RELATION
A good design always depends on the relation of parts that are closely connected with their
proportions. There can be no unity unless each unit and all other qualities that go to make it are related to
make a harmonious unit of design
7. HARMONY
It means the peaceful relationship of forms. Several factors coincide and form a unified whole. Parts
of one form and relation with several other forms bring them to one unified whole. By bringing relationship of
forms, it may be the result of undue emphasis and no sharp contrast on some of the elements in the design
8. DISCORD:
When conflicting forms intersect and do not produce harmony, discord is produced. Same object are
beautiful in their own way but refuse to harmonize when placed next to each other and this creates discord.
9. VARIETY:
The principle of change in a methodical repetition is known as variety . It brings liveliness and vigor to
the lay out and is secured by making changes in size , shape and colour of different units which go to make
the unified whole giving the design a beginning and an end.
THE VISUAL FORMS OF ART

SCULPTURAL FORMS ( SCULPTURE )
Sculpture , the architecture is an art of volume and space . But unlike architecture, it aims at the
arrangement of volumes in space to be seen externally like the exterior of the building. A sculpture confronted
by a block of stone on a piece of timber may retain much of the mass. The artist may lighten the mass by
taking away a considerable amount of material and thus serving more movement through space.
All sculptures of stone or clay is an art of mass , volume , contour and surface treatment
In general sculpture falls into three classes
(i) Sculpture in Round
(ii) Sculpture in relief
(iii) Sculpture in intaglio
(i) Sculpture in Round
It is a three - dimensional figure which you can see from numerous angles. (Eg) Michaelangelo's
David

(ii) Sculpture in relief
It is a sculpture in which the figure or shape is attached to the background from which it projects. It is
called as high - relief when it is projecting boldly and low relief or bas - relief if they project slightly
(ii) Sculpture intaglio
Sculpture intaglio also known as Sunken-relief or hollow-relief, is where the

image is made by carving into a flat surface - usually the images are mostly
linear in nature.
Materials used in Sculpture
A Sculpture can be carried out of hard materials it can be moulded in soft materials and then fired,
glazed and casted in metal . Man takes raw materials from nature and creates art products. Sometimes he
treats them sympathetically with a true understanding of their possibilities and their limitations. The
permanence of stone makes it an attractive mediums or it is of the most durable of all natural materials. Stone
as a material furthermore has possibilities of monumentality possessed by no other material. Carving directly
in stone by all sculptors was rejected during the 19th century in favour of easier methods. It became the
custom them, merely to make a clay model as base or ever reduced size and had skilled artisans to copy it in
stone. Different types of stones used for sculpture are line stone, soap stone, marble, granite etc.
Sculpture in wood: Primitive men found it easier to handle wood than the stone or metal and as a
consequence used it freely. Most commonly used woods are Oak, Pine, Rose Wood, Sandal Wood, and Teak
Wood etc.
Methods:
There are mainly two methods of making sculpture. They are carving or subtraction process and
modelling or addition process.
Carving or Subtraction Process:
In this method we remove the material either by carving or chiselling . The materials used are stone,
wood, clay etc.
Modelling or addition process
In this method, the material used is added little by little according to our convenience. The materials
used for this are clay, plaster of Paris, paper mesh etc...

Tools
Wooden mallet, steel chisel, drills and abrasives for smoothing and polishing.
Carving in stone is a laborious process, that takes a lot of physical strength, In order to avoid a false
step during the process of subtraction in which the work is done by cutting of the material, the sculptor first
draws the outline on the work and then cuts away. Finally he smoothens and polishes it. At times chisel marks
are left on the surface to secure the contrast of texture.
Clay Modelling
It is a building up method. In other words it can be offered as additional process. With the help of the
armature, the artist builds up the clay modellings. The clay is not a permanent material. When the statue is
completed in full size, it is ready for casting. Only by casting metal, cement or fiber glass we can keep it
permanently. Small figures can be fired. They are called terracotta.
Casting
As clay is not permanent material, the sculpture has to be casted in metal (Bronze), or cement.
In the earliest techniques of bronze casting, figures were cast solid. It is impossible by this method to
produce large or monumental sculpture because if a large mass of bronze is cast solid, it shrinks unevenly
and pulls out of shape. The invention of hollow casting enabled larger works to be cast with greater accuracy.
It also reduced the weight and made it easier to cast free - standing parts separately and assemble them in
the completed work.
Lost wax process or cire perdue
This is the method used for hollow casting. The wax method seems to have been the one chiefly used
in classical antiquity.
The principle of cire - perdue is as follows:
A heat - proof core is enveloped in wax which has been formed to the required shape . (The wax will
usually be a replica of the sculptors work modelled in clay and is produced by means of a plaster cast taken
from the clay ) . This in turn is surrounded by a heat proof mould . The wax is melted out. Molten metal is
poured into the space which the wax occupied, and finally , when the metal has solidified , mould and core are
removed , leaving a hollow metal shape reproducing the shape of the wax.
The core is made from a mixture of plaster of paris and 'ground' ( Pulverized Crockery ) or clay in
roughly the shape of the intended figure but slightly smaller . On this core the figure is modelled in wax , the
layer of wax being 1/2 inch or less thick. This is the model. Sometimes it will be produced by the sculptor , but
more usually the founder produces the wax model from a plaster cast of the artists model in clay. Then metal
pins are hammered through the wax layer into the core - not driver home but left with their upper halves
protruding. Their function is to keep the core in place. At the top of the model sausage - like road of wax are
fixed obliquely so that their upper ends meet in a solid wax shape like an inverted cone. On the lower parts of
the figure, and at all protruding points, thinner and longer wax road are fixed which lead upward and round to
the cone at the top. Then the model with all its excrescences is enveloped in a mass of plaster and grog. This
is the mould. The whole structure of core, wax layer and mould is now inverted so that the cone is at the
bottom and is put into a kiln, where it is heated. All the wax is thus melted out or burnt away. Where the cone
was there is now a hollow funnel, the thick road of wax has given place to runners, the thinner ones to air -
vents. All moisture has been evaporated and the interior of the mould is perfectly dry. The structure is now
turned right side up, so that the funnel is at the top, and packed into a sandpit so that the sand gives it greater
resistance to pressure. Molten bronze is poured into the funnel and it runs down the runners until it fills all the
vacant space between core and mould. The enclosed air is forced out through the vents - a delicate and
dangerous part of the process since if the air, expanded by the heat of the metal, does not escape freely , the
mould may burst . When the metal is cool the mould is chipped off, the cast is cleaned, the protrusions of
metal which filled the vents and runners are sawn off and the work is ready to be finished by the sculptor.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, sometimes having traces of other non-ferrous metals. Bronze is
easier to cast than copper because it has a lower melting point and is more liquid than copper at a given
temperature. Bronze is a very responsive, strong and enduring substance, readily workable by a variety of

processes. Bronze is a rigid material with somber colour, producing a strong contrast of light and dark.
PICTORIAL FORM ( PAINTING )

Painting is called the art of representation. It is a record of human experience expressed through
organization of colour , line , form , texture , space on a flat surface . The painting is used to enrich the value
of our own leading powers. Similarly painting is used to commensurate events of social importance and to
embellish public buildings. Religion, the most generous sponsor that painting and sculpture have enjoyed has
led to many insignificant expressions. Industries producing and marketing various commodities have likewise
called on the commercial artists and designers to produce advertisements. In such cases paintings and
sculpture are not produced primarily to be enjoyed as ends in them anymore than in that composed for
religious or military purposes. The basic aim is to arise, exhort or educate, to lead the observer on to the
things, to direct thinking and emotions on issues of one sort or another.
Painting can be naturalistic and representational ( as in a still life or landscape painting )

photographic , abstract , be loaded with narrative content , symbolism , emotion or be political in nature.
Pigments:
These are the coloring matter secured from the earth in the form of vegetable matters and mineral or
made synthetically. A pigment is a colouring substance which is finely grounded and held in suspension in a
medium. The pigments are usually in the form of power which is mixed with the liquid or medium called
vehicles to form paint.
Pigment + Vehicle = Paint
Each painting is composed of these defined elements.

(i) Support:
Matter on which one paints (Eg) The support can be canvas, wooden panels , plywood , card
board etc.
(ii) Ground:
Ground is which covers the support and makes it fit for it to receive the paints.
(iii)Paint:
This is applied in one or more coats to the ground.
PAINTING MEDIA
Different types of paint are usually identified by the medium that the pigment is suspended or
embedded in , which determines the general working characteristics of the which determines the general
working characteristics of the paint , such as viscosity , miscibility , solubility ,drying time etc.
1. OIL PAINTING
Oil paints are pigments ( Colouring matter ) mixed with linseed oil to make them sticky and workable .
Oil paints dry very slowly. They can be applied to canvas.
It is a durable medium if used correctly. Mistakes can be corrected by simply scrapping away the paint
with a rag or palette knife. Colours can be applied on top of one another like glazes to produce remarkable
effects.
2. WATER COLOR:
This is a medium in which ground up colours are mixed with gum - arabic and diluted with water.
Water colour are applied to white paper ( or tinted paper ) in transparent washes . It is a difficult medium to
handle as the artist must paint quickly . Mistakes cannot be over painted since the water colour would lose its
fresh transparent look.
3. GOUACHE:
Gouache is opaque water colour. Gouache consists of opaque colour ground in water and mixed with
glue and honey. Gouache is also known as poster paint and designers colours . Gouache paints have the
advantages that they dry out almost immediately to a matte finish and if required, without visible brush marks.
These qualities , with the capacities to be washed thinly or applied in thick impasto and a wide colour range
makes the medium particularly suited to preparatory studies for oil and acrylic paintings.
4. PASTEL:
Pastels are sticks of dry powdered pigment mixed with gum, and have a range of 300 different shade.
When rubbed on paper, the powdery effect is very much like a dry painting. Pastels spoil easily through
smudging and are best preserved by spraying with a fixative.
There are two kinds of pastels used by the artist. They are
1. Oil Pastels
2. Dry pastels

1. Oil Pastels:
These have a soft, buttery consistency and intense colours . They are slightly more difficult to blend
than soft pastels, but do not require a fixative.
2. Dry Pastels:
They are available in varying degrees of hardness, the softer varieties being wrapped in paper. Dry
Pastel media can be subdivided as follows:
*Soft Pastels *Hard Pastels *Pastel Pencils
Soft Pastels:
This is the most widely used form of pastel the sticks have a higher portion of pigment and less
binder, resulting in brighter colours . The drawing can be readily smudged and blended, but it results in a
higher proportion of dust . Drawings made with soft pastels require a fixative to prevent smudging
5. TEMPERA:
Tempera was traditionally created by hand - grinding dry powdered pigments into egg yolk ( or glue )
and diluted with water . This type of paint dries quickly in light. Tempera was used chiefly for painting
executed on wood panels. The panel was first prepared with a ground and priming.
The grinding of the pigments in egg-yolk was done beforehand. The method demanded not only
knowledge of the materials, but also great certainty of purpose. The paint was not easy to handle, and the
colours were few and difficult to blend. Tempera has more luminosity and depth than fresco, but its range of
colour and tone is limited and it cannot achieve the close imitation of natural effects that is attainable in oil
painting. Since tempera refracts the light very little, the colours are clearer and more vivid than in oil painting.
Tempera painting appeared in Europe in the 12th or early 13th centuries. From that time it was the
most important technique for panel painting until the 15th c.., when it began to give way to oil painting.
6. FRESCO:
A fresco painting is a medium for mural decoration and it is a plaster technique. In Italian language, it
means "Fresh Colour".
The pigment is ground in water and applied in single strokes to freely laid plaster while it is at a
particular dampness. First of all the wall is covered with two layers of plaster, one course and one fine. On to
this the design is drawn. Paint is applied to the fresh plaster but not to the dry plaster.
There are Two types of Fresco
1. Buon Fresco - Wet Plaster Technique.
2. Secco Fresco - Dry Plaster Technique.
Fresco is a durable method and the colours are luminous which makes them most suitable medium
for wall painting. It is also a challenge to the artist as he has a constant struggle with the wall, the must be an
absolute master of the technique. Each brush stroke must be perfect.
Characteristics of Fresco Paintings:
(i) The Colours used are transparent.
(ii) The Fresco painting are long lasting.
(iii) This medium has the possibilities of monumentality possessed by no other materials.
(iv) Broad sweeping brush strokes are used.

7.ACRYLIC PAINT:
Acrylic paint is fast drying paint containing pigment suspended in an acrylic polymer emulsion . Acrylic
paints can be diluted with water, but become water - resistant when dry.
Acrylic artist paints may be thinned with water and used as washes in the manner of water colour
paints. Acrylic paints can be used in either gloss or matte finishes. As with oil, pigment amounts and particle
size can alter the paint sheen. When dry, acrylic paint is generally non-removable.
GRAPHIC ARTS ( PRINT MAKING )
In the field of graphic arts the word "Print" is used to encompass any one or all of the many media that
may be employed by the printmaker.
There are various ways of classifying prints, but the print maker himself is most concerned with the
classification based on the method by which they are printed.
Graphic ( Print Making ) techniques fall into 4 main groups:
1. Relief Method
2. Intaglio Method
3. Surface or Planographic Method
4. Stencil Method
1. Relief Method:
In these, the parts of the wood block or metal plate which are to print black are left in relief and the
remainder is cut away. The block is then rolled over with a stiff printing ink, and as the pressure required for
printing is not great , impressions can be taken in an ordinary printing press.
The principle relief methods are woodcut and limo cut .
Woodcut: To make a woodcut, a block of wood has to be sawed , along the grain . The
surface is then covered with white paints, and on this the artist draws his design . After
this, the block has to be cut, that is the wood has to be removed from both side of the
lines so that high ridges like the letters on the rubber stamp are left on the block.
These outstanding parts are then inked and the block is then pressed against the
paper. The wood cut is a relief printing process, because the parts that stand out are
the ones that print.
The tools used for wood cut process are u - vieners , v - vieners , knives etc.
LINO CUT:
The lino cut is done in the same manner as the wood cut .But the material used is linoleum block
instead of wood . The linoleum , though relatively soft and friable , is without grain and presents a true and
even working surface.
2. INTAGLIO METHOD:
In intaglio printing the principle is the reverse of that which operates in the relief methods, for the
surface of the plate does not print, the ink being held only in the engraved furrows.
The various ways in which the design may be incised in the metal plate constitute the different intaglio
techniques. These techniques are: Line engraving, in which the design is engraved on the metal plate with a
burin. Dry Point where the lines are drawn by scratching the plate with a strong needle. Etching and

Aquatint where the designs are bitten into the plate by means of acid.
ENGRAVING:
The engraving is done on a copper plate. The picture has to be engraved in an inverted position on
the copper plate . In other words the right on the left and the left on the right. The important tool needed for
the process is the graver or burin .Eg . Durer's Engravings.
ETCHING:
Etching is one method of reproducing an original picture. As it is a linear technique , it belongs to the
graphic arts.
A metal plate is covered with an acid resisting varnish and on this surface a picture is drawn with a
sharp needle. Any line cut through the varnish to metal plate is then soaked in an acid bath and the rest of the
place is protected by the varnish. After the varnish has been melted, the plate is cleaned. The plate is covered
with printing ink. The printing ink remains in the engraved lines after the surface of the plate has been
polished clean.
The first reproduction is made by placing damp paper on the metal plate and rolling it through a heavy
press. The paper is pressed into contact with the inked lines of the engraving and thus it picks up the ink. In
this way the drawing is printed and it can be reproduced many times from the same plate.
3. Surface or Planographic Method
These are Lithography and its variants. Lithographs are neither incised nor raised in relief, but are
printed from a perfectly flat slab of limestone or from prepared metal plates. The process utilizes the antipathy
of grease and water to separate areas which receive and areas which reject the printing ink.
4. Stencil Method
The principle involved here is simply that of cutting a hole in a protecting sheet and brushing colour
through the hole on to a surface beneath. Stencils have long been used for colouring prints in quantity and for
fabric printing. The principal modern development is the silk - screen print or "serigraph"
SILK SCREEN PRINTING OR SERIGRAPHY
Serigraphy is the youngest medium of the group various stencil , which when printed one over the
other will make a completed print , are fixed upon separate screens of silk stretched fitly over wooden frames .
Each separate frame is an individual printing limit. Ink is introduced at one end of the frame and squeeged
across to the opposite end, forcing the pigment through the "Open " silk areas onto a sheet of paper placed
directly under the screen . Those areas of the stencil left "Open" are the areas to be printed (the image ) ,
those stopped out by the stencil are the negative or non - printing areas.
CERAMICS
Ceramics are classified as inorganic and nonmetallic materials that are essential to our daily
lifestyle. Ceramic and materials engineers are the people who design the processes in which these products
can be made, create new types of ceramic products, and find different uses for ceramic products in everyday
life.
Ceramics are all around us. This category of materials includes things like tile, bricks, plates, glass,
and toilets. Ceramics can be found in products like watches (quartz tuning forks-the time keeping devices in
watches), snow skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a voltage is applied to them), automobiles
(sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in racecars), and phone lines. They can also be found on space
shuttles, appliances (enamel coatings), and airplanes (nose cones). Depending on their method of formation,
ceramics can be dense or lightweight. Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and hard, strong in
compression, weak in shearing and tension. ; however, they are often brittle in nature. Ceramics can also be
formed to serve as electrically conductive materials, objects allowing electricity to pass through their mass, or
insulators, materials preventing the flow of electricity. They withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other

materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand very high
temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800 °F to 3,000 °F).
Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen elements, powders, and water and
shaping them into desired forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped, it is fired in a high temperature oven
known as a kiln. Often, ceramics are covered in decorative, waterproof, paint-like substances known as
glazes.
Properties of Ceramics:
Ceramics have
 High melting points (so they're heat resistant).

 Great hardness and strength.
 Considerable durability (they're long-lasting and hard-wearing).
 Low electrical and thermal conductivity (they're good insulators).
 Chemical inertness (they're unreactive with other chemicals).
All ceramics can be assigned to one of three basic categories, depending on what type of clay is used and the
temperature at which it is fired: earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain.
Earthenware Clays
Earthenware is the most commonly found type of found clay.
Earthenware clays were some of the earliest clays used by
potters, and it is the most common type of clay found. These clays
are highly plastic (easily worked) and can be sticky. Earthenware
clays contain iron and other mineral impurities which cause the
clay to reach its optimum hardness at between 1745°F and 2012°F
(950°C and 1100°C).
Typical colors for moist earthenware clays are red, orange, yellow, and light gray. Colors for fired earthenware
includes brown, red, orange, buff, medium grey, and white. Fired colors are in large part determined by the
content of mineral impurities and the type of firing. Terracotta, which means quite literally 'baked earth' is one
of the most popular types of earthenware.
Stoneware Clay Bodies
Stoneware clays are plastic and are often grey when moist. Their fired
colors range from light grey and buff to medium grey and brown. Fired
colors are greatly affected by the type of firing.
Mid-Fire Stoneware Clay Bodies are formulated to fire to maturity

between 2150°F and 2260°F (1160°C and 1225°C).
High-Fire Stoneware Clay Bodies fire to their mature hardness

between 2200°F and 2336°F (1200°C and 1300°C).
Porcelain Clay Bodies
Due to their mineral purity, kaolin clays are used for porcelain. Although
kaolin clays do have some range in color, they are all very light in color.

While moist, they will be light grey and will fire in the range from a very light grey or buff to near-white and
white.
Kaolin clays are not nearly as plastic as other clays and are difficult to work with. Pure kaolin clays fire to
maturity at about 3272°F (1800°C). They are often mixed with other clays to both increase workability and
lower the firing temperature. Many porcelain bodies are a mixture of kaolin and ball clays.
Porcelain clay bodies are known for their hardness, their extremely tight density, their whiteness, and their
translucence when the pottery's walls are thin. Kaolin clays are the foundation of all porcelain clay bodies.
Kaolin is the purest form of clay. It is also so non-plastic as to be nearly unworkable if not mixed with other
clays. Another difficulty is that porcelain clay bodies are very prone to warping during drying and in the kiln.
The purest porcelain bodies are fired at the highest temperatures used in pottery, usually between cone 11
and cone 14. However, many porcelain clay bodies are modified to make the clay more workable and also to
bring the firing temperature down.
DESIGN
Introduction:
Man observes nature and records its beauty in his mind. He then tries to express it, with the help of
his aesthetic sensibility and imagination. This is human nature. The artist tries continuously to bring in novelty
in the expression of his aesthetic qualities. A new colours, new colour schemes and new techniques. All such
endeavours result in what is known as 'Design'.
The process of analyzing forms of natural objects and consequently creating a new pattern by
organizing the various elements obtained through analysis, with the help of one's own imagination, is the
process of preparing design.
Design becomes necessary to organize the motifs rhythmically and harmoniously within the external
shape or its equal divisions. Balance, proportion and order of the motifs, radiation and rhythm are some of the
fundamental principles of design and it is necessary that these should be properly expresses in the design.
Forms which show no similarity with any natural or man-made objects are known as abstract forms. These are
created very easily through casual, natural activity , scribbling is the first stage in creating such forms . In fact,
they are born only in the artist's mind and have no relationship with virtual nature or any manmade object.
DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES
A design is an arrangement of lines, shapes or figures that is used as a decoration. Designs can be
used to beautify different things like flower vases, bags , fabrics , clothes , tiles , crockery and much more.
Enchanting design can be used for geometric shapes of birds, animals and insects, human figures,
leaves, letters or even abstract forms.
MOTIFS AND FORMS IN DESIGN
Designs are made up of parts or elements called motifs. Each motif is made by using a basic form of design.
Learning how to draw a motif is the first step in creating a design
BASIC FORMS OF DESIGN
1. Natural Forms:
Design Can be created using natural forms like leaves, flowers , birds , animals , butterflies , shells
etc.....

2. Decorative Forms:
Natural Forms can be transformed into decorative forms by modifying them in a stylized and
imaginative way.
3. Geometric Forms:
Here Designs are based on geometric elements like circles , lines , squares , triangles etc.....
4. Abstract Forms:
Forms which show no similarity with any natural or man made objects are known as abstract forms.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
1. REPETITION
The repeated use of the same form in a design makes it very attractive. This is called repetition and
can be of many kinds.
(a) Formal Repetition:
The repetition of a shape with both sides equal.
(b) Informal Repetition:
The repetition of a shape ,which is not uniform.
(c) Linear Repetition:
The repetition of definite types of line. Liner repetition can be used to beautify
borders.
(d) All Over Pattern:
The repetition of one or more pattern's used to fill or cover a surface . It makes the
surface look uniform.
II.ALTERNATION
When a pattern alternates in a design , it becomes more interesting . The shapes that are to be
repeated undergo changes in organization , size and colour. This creates a variety and makes the
arrangement more attractive. The kinds of alternating arrangements are
(a) Counter Change:
Counter change is achieved by alternately changing the dark and light ( or positive
and negative ) position of the repeated forms. The changes are done on the colours and shades.
(b) Inter Change:
Shapes can be changed in terms of position , size colours when they are repeated.
III.RADIATION
Here the lines are seen as spreading out in all directions from a point. The starting point could be the
centre, the base or the axis of the elements.

A FEATURE OF DESIGN - SYMMETRICALLY
Design can be symmetrical or asymmetrical . In a symmetrical design , the two halves on bothe side
of the central axis are exactly alike. They look like mirrored images of each other. Symmetrical designs can be
drawn using tracing paper.
Asymmetrical design do not have this kind of uniformity.
TEXTURE
Texture is an additional factor that enhances the beauty of a picture. Using texture in still life will make the
painting work more attractive. Texture means the smoothness or roughness of the surface of an
object. It is a sort of decoration of the surface of the object. Observe the difference between a fine and a
rough piece of cloth of the same color. The difference between them is due to their textures only.
You can produce a variety of textures by using only a brush. Similarly , a number of mediums , ( Sponge ,
cotton , cloth , blade , jute , leaf , crumpled paper , spray with brush , scribbling with the rear end of a brush .
Stippling technique by applying colour in small dots side by side , applying a thick colour coat and moving a
comb over it , carved vegetables like lady’s finger , onion , potato , carrot and soap , eraser are used to
enhance the beauty of the painting through texture.
BRIEF HISTORY OF INDIAN ART
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The Indus valley or Harappa civilization, the first great city or urban culture known in India, flourished
during the third millenium B.C..., contemporaneously with the ancient Sumerian culture. Its existence came to
light through unexpected archaeological discoveries from 1924 onwards at Harappa in the Punjab and
th
Mohenjo – Daro in Sind. Until that time, art historians considered the Cyclopean walls of Rajarina (6 Century
B.C) as the earliest architectural remains and a continuous history of India reached back only to the
th
Macedonian invasion in the 4 century B.O.
Indus Valley seals, beads and other objects found in Mesopotamian towns such as Lagash, Ur, Tel -
Asmar and other places indicate some communication and commercial intercourse between the Indus Valley
or Harappa civilization and that of dating . Until recent, more scientific methods of dating, scholars attempted
a chronology of the Indus Valley civilization by comparing it with the Sumerian. But until further evidence is
discovered, the full flowering of the Harappa culture may be placed between 2500 and 1700 B.C
ARCHITECTURE
The building materials and methods of construction , like the general layout of the different parts of
the city , also show remarkable uniformity . Kiln - burnt bricks went into the construction of defence works ,
important buildings , and the walls of house ; while they generally employed sun - dried mud bricks to raise
platforms and to fill in floor areas and courtyards inside the houses. The bricks , cemented together with mud
mortar , were laid
The Great Bath

The chief buildings in the Mohenjo - daro citadel is
the so - called great bath ,a complex of verandahs and
rooms ranged around the sides of a rectangular pool
measuring almost 12 x 7 in with a depth of 2.44m , all laid
on a north - south axis . A flight of steps set into each of
the shorter sides of the pool leads to a surrounding
platform thirty centimeters high. The steps were furnished
with treads fixed with bitumen. To make the floor and walls

of this tank waterproof they laid the specially shaped bricks on end and set them in gypsum mortar , further
strengthened by a two - centimeter - thick lining of bitumen behind the facing. The floor of the pool sloped
towards the drain hole which could be plugged to hold water. On the south western corner the water outlet
linked with an excellent corbelled channel sixty centimeters wide and high enough to walk along
Another remarkable feature was a man-hole, about 60x105 cm, accessible both from the tank and the
corbelled drain. The water supply came from a double-ringed well in a room to the east.
A pillared verandah surrounded all four sides of the pool, with rooms beyond except on the west . On
the south, two entrances led to a paved vestibule, with a drain at the eastern extremity. At either end this
vestibule terminated in two small apartments of unknown function. A series of rooms, perhaps used for
dressing, extend on the east . The one which contains the north the original arrangement of rooms is not clear
because at a later stage, due to floods , they raised the level by filling in the units.
To the north of the great bath lie two rows of bathrooms on either side of a lane containing a drain .
Each bathroom measures about three by two metres (2.9 x 1.8 m) , and has brick-paved floors . Each had a
staircase presumably leading to a now extinct upper storey . The excavators believe that these may have
been reserved for priests who lived upstairs and came down at specific intervals for ritual bathing , while the
laymen used the main bathing pool . The doors of these bathrooms were staggered to ensure privacy.
SCULPTURE
Sculptural remains at Harappan sites , apart from the well-known seals and terracotta figures , are
confined to Mohenjio-daro and Harappa.
Bearded Man
Very few statues have been found , and the biggest of these is only 42cm
high. They are made of steatite , alabaster or limestone , Most of them represent
elderly men with beards and wearing loose garments. They seem to be early
attempts at portraiture. The most important of the statues from Mohenjo-Daro is the
bearded man, a limestone statuette measuring 17.5cm. His half closed eyes belong
to the long type. The tip of the flattish nose has been broken off. The lips are
unusually thick. As in Mesopotamian figures, the upper lip is shaven. The ears,
beard and hair are conventionalized or stylized-the ears resembling a two-edged
shell with a hole in the hair and beard. A narrow ribbon or fillet with a circle in front
surrounds his head.
He wears a draped cloth decorated with big trefoil patterns like the clover leaf. It
covers his left shoulder and passes under the right arm. The so-called "Temple" at Harappa has yielded
another head of a bearded man 17.5 cm high. It too has wavy hair tied with a fillet, shell-
like ears with holes, a beard and a moustache . The eyes have hollows left for the inlay
of shells or faience. Here the lips look less grim and the face appears more like an
attempted portrait.
Dancing Girl
The most important among the bronze statues is the dancing girl now in the
National Museum , New Delhi.
She stands in a dancing pose, her right hand on her hip. Heavy bangles cover
her left arm from the shoulder down to the wrist . The face that the Indus Valley knew
how to smelt bronze shows how well advanced they were in metalwork. Another but
more inferior figure was also found as well as a fragmentary foot with anklet. Bronze
figures of animals occur quite frequently.

MAURYAN ART
Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya , was one of the greatest
emperors of the Maurya dynasty. Distressed at the killing and violence of the
Kalinga (Orissa) war , he embraced Buddhism. His name is cohnected with the
initial development of religious (Predominantly Buddhist) architecture. The main
architectural types appear very early-the stambha, the stupa and the rock-cut
chambers-the prototypes of chaitya and vihara.
Stambha
Stambhas (Pillars) characterise all the ages and styles of Indian
architecture . Ashoka set up at least thirty free-standing , pillars , ten of which
have his edicts engraved on them. One of these pillar - edicts states that "His
gracious majesty the king" ordered them to be inscribed twenty - six years after
his consecration in order to convery to his subjects the teaching of the dharma.
The extant examples show that they were set up at places sacred to the
Buddhists as well as along the highways from Pataliputra as well as along the
highways from Pataliputra to the Himalayan valleys of Nepal .Chiselled out of the
grey Chunar sandstone quarried near Varanasi (Benaras) , they retain a lustorus
polish unaffected by time or weather even after so many centuries.
A stambha consists of a shaft and capital upholding a statue . The shaft ,

circular in section and tapering slightly towards the summit , is monolithic -
carved out of a single stone. The gracefulness of the column depends on the
proportion between the height and the tapering of its width. Not all the Ashokan
stambhas are equally graceful. The capital , decorated with gently curved lotus
petals , resembles an invereted louts-often called the Persepolitan bell. This
member , together with the abacus and the crowning sculpture in the round ,
were carved out of another single stone . Sculptures in relief often adorn the
sides of the circular or rectangular abacus. The statue on the top comprises one
or more animal figures-usually lion , bull or elephant , or four lions sitting back to back.
Stupa
The stupa obviously evolved from the simple prehistoric burial heap or tumulus under which the ashes
of the dead were buried . Many such funeral mounds-low , circular elevations of carth ringed by huge
boulders-can be seen in the Deccan and South India. Though the Jains too built stupas , this kind of
monument appears most frequently in Buddhist art. Some times another circle of stones surrounded the first ,
and the space between the two served as a processional path.
The chief purpose of the stupa was to enshrine saririka (Body relics , usually in the form of small
picces of calcinated bone ) of the Buddha or of Buddhist teachers , or their paribhogika ( Personal belongings
). Preserved in reliquaries of crystal , gold or other materials and enclosed in a stone box , they were placed in
a small chamber during the time of building so that the solid masonry of the stupa enclosed them securely.
The stupa consists of a solid hemisphere or dome called the anda (egg-mound). It stands on a medhi
( Circular or square base ) and on its flattened top rests a kind of kiosk , usually called harmika. Originally an
umbrella was firmly implanted into the brickwork of the dome , with a dwarf railing or vedika around it . The
supporting mast was called the yasti; the urabrella , the chatra ; and the whole , the chatravali.
Since the ancient Indian customarily enclosed sacred buildings with a wooden fence or balustrade ,
the Buddhists too surrounded their stupas with a vedika , which became a characteristic feature of the stupa .
Later they made it of stone but gave it all the features of a wooden railing. The principal vedika surrounded the
structure and enclosed the lower pradaksina-patha (The processional path on which the Buddhists walked ,
keeping their right shoulders turned towares the stupa as a sign of reverence ). Another vedika surrounded
the medhi or base , which included the upper pradaksina-patha and was reached by means of the sopana (
Staircase ).

The vedika was either plain or richly decorated with sculptured figures and lotus pat erns. It rested on
an alambana (base) on which stood upright posts called thaba (From the sanskrit word stambha). These were
connected to each other by suci ( Horizontal bars ) and an usnisa ( continuous rounded coping stone ).
Torana (gateways) faced each of the cardinal points. Their design-a pair of high posts crossed near the top by
one to three slightly arched bars-resembles stone copies of wooden village gates. Often these toranas were
richly carved.
Sanchi ( In Madhya Pradesh ) has the best preserved remains of the large typs of stupa and of a
whole Buddhist settlement . Several stupas and ruins of other buildings have been found on the top of the hill.
The great stupa I , the most notable monument of the site , was first constructed during the Maurya period as
a brick tumulus surrounded by a wooden railing . A century later , under the sungas , it was greatly enlarged
and a terrace built around it . A stone vedika encircled both the stupa and the terrace. During the second half
of the first century B.C.., the new conquerors , the Andhras or Satavahanas , erected the beautifully carved
toranas, one at each of the cardinal points of the vedika. This stupa I is classical example of its type, for it
shows all the parts clearly.
THE SUNGAS
The exact cause of the rapid decline of the Maurya dynasty (within fifty years of Ashoka's reign ) is not
known. Many factors must have contributed to the final overthrow. One reason could be that Ashoka, in his
enthusiasm , typical of the newly converted , to follow the tenets of Buddhism , issued a new set of rules for
the public , such as the ban on animal sacrifices , samajama ( social gatherings ) and other popular pastimes
and festivals . This deprived the people of the freedom to worship in the customary manner their favourite
deities especially the grama devatas ( village gods ). Furthermore , those who carried out Askoka's orders in
the various provinces were strict to the point of tyranny : so that - even during Ashoka's reign we hear of
rebellions being put down. This repression of the local social customs ended with the assassination of the
Mauryan King Brihadratha by his commander in-Chief Pushyamitra Sunga , a Brahman of the Bharadvaja
clan.
With the Sungas on the throne (c.188 B.C-76 B.C), the people could return
to their old customs and honour their village and nature deities , whom they
represented with much skill and tender care , as seen in the monuments at Bharhut
and Bodhgaya. Perhaps this accounts for the profusion of yaksa and yaksini figures
so soon after the fall of the Mauryan empire.
Chulakoka Yakshini , Bharhut

Flowing lines characterise the Chulakoka Yakshini at Bharhut. Embraces a
tree, as if caressing it to coax it into bloom . This symbolism goes back to a period
when trees were associated with fertility rites. There are many legends relating the

power of women and yaksinis to bring trees to flower by an embrace or a mere touch of their feet. The figure
is fully rounded , the sensuousness enhanced by the flowing line running from the tree trunk to the bending
branches, through the raised arm of the yaksini and on to the left interlocked arm , and then to the left foot.
The contrast between this and the sharpness of the precisely carved jewelled ornaments
is striking. The channavira (Bandoleer) appears for the first time , with five medallions at
the shoulders , chest and hips. The dress in conventionalised , with long parallel pleats
bordered with chevron folds.
Kuvera Yaksha
Compared to the swaying movement of the Chulakoka yaksini, the Kuvera
Yaksha at Bharhul , with right leg slightly bent and raised and with hands folded,
appears rather stiff and flat . The treatmcnt of the drapery , here as well as in the
Chulakoka devata , is flat with an emphastic definition of the borders.
Mriga Jataka
In the Mriga or Ruru Jataka, a medallion from the Bharhut vedika the method of continuous narration
has been used. This means that the various episodes of a story, which occurred at the same place but at
different periods, are represented in a single carving. The Ruru Jataka takes place in a forest near the river
Ganga where lived the golden Ruru (stag). The three successive episodes appear on the same round panel.
The first is at the bottom, where the son of a merchant in the act of drowning himself in the river, is rescued by
the golden stag which carries him to the bank on its back. The second episode, on the right upper half shows
this ungrateful youth pointing out the stag to the king of Varanasi who has promised a reward to the one who
would reveal the where about of this precious animal seen in a dream by his queen. The king is shown in the
act of taking aim with his bow to shoot the deer. In the centre we see the last episode where the king, having
dropped his bow, listens with awe and admiration to the eloquent speech of the deer.
THE KUSHANS : GANDHARA PHASE

The term "Gandhara art"brings to mind a mixture of Hellenistic and Buddhist forms. This art
developed from the first century B.G.Under the patronage of the Kushan rulers (c.78-200A.D) and continued
till the fifth century A.D. when much of Gandhara was invaded by the white Huns or Ephthalites who
destroyed many Buddhist monuments.
Gandhara was one of the provinces Asoka converted to Buddhism and it has many prosperous
Buddhist settlements. Chinese pilgrims among them Fa-Hien who travelled to Gandhara between the fourth
and seventh centuries, impressed by the great monuments and centres of Buddhism , have left valuable
information in their chronicles. Thus Gandhara , having received western influences, became in turn a centre
of inspiration for Asia, affecting chiefly the art of China and to a somewhat lesser degree that of Japan. The
numerous sculptures found there are almost entirely Buddhist in subject.
The most important contribution of the Gandhara school was the creation of the Buddha image. With
the change from the Hinayana to the Mahayana Buddhism, in compliance with common demand , the Buddha
image appeared simultaneously in Gandhara and Mathura ; but while the Mathura artist drew his inspiration
from the Yaksha figures of the earlier centuries , the Gandhara artist turned to the Hellenistic world for a

model.
Head of The Buddha , Gandhara

The head of these Buddha statues is usually classical ; oval in shape with regular
features, eyes half closed to show meditation and introversion, eyebrows arched over
the straight nose , and wavy hair in a tuft ( krobylos ). The thirty-two laksanas were
closely followed, as seen in the usnisa , the elongated ears , and the urna ( sometimes
made hollow to hold a stone ). The best work in Gandhara created a Buddha image
conforming to the spiritual requirements of the Buddhist doctrine. The serene passive
face expresses benevolence towards all.
THE KUSHANS : MATHURA PHASE

The art of Mathura carried on the early tradition found at Bharhut and Sanchi. The few remaining
fragments from the early period show a close connection with art of these places. The middle period, during
the first centuries A.D .., coincides with the rule of the Kushans. The later period , under the Guptas, belongs
to that school of art.
It is easy to identify statues belonging to the Mathura school since all are carved in the red spotted
sandstone from the quarries of sikri, marred by yellow and white veins, streaks and spots which disfigure its
surface. The artists tried to overcome this defect by painting or gilding the statues.
An important contributions of Mathura is portrait-sculpture the only examples of the type in ancient India.
Head of The Buddha , Mathura

A comparison of the Buddha's head from Mathura with the one from
Gandhara ( Formerly Spink and Son, London ) Shows the difference between the two
schools. In the latter the usnisa resembles the Greek krobylos, while in Mathura it
looks like a cranial protuberance in the form of a spiraling snail shell. The Gandhara
head combines the abstract and the real: the upper part of the abstract and the real:
the upper part of the face appears hard while the lower part is modelled more softly.
This gives the face an inconsistent mask-like character. The Mathura head is
completely abstract with the features moulded gently into the round face. The main
concern of the artist was the whole volume rather than the details of anatomy. There
is inner beauty and spirituality in the smile, emphasized by the curving cheeks, jaw,
eye brows and eyelids.
ANDHRAS
Amaravati was the centre of artistic activity of the later Satavahana rulers ( c.124-225A.D). After being
repulsed from the Deccan, they had moved eastwards along the Krishna and Godavari valleys as far as the
coastline.
Disposal Of The Buddha's Relics From Amaravati Vedika

The sculptures of the third period (150 A.D) appearing mainly on the vedika (rail), display great
softness and a delicate touch. In this outstanding sculptural phase at Amaravati , foreshortening and
perspective have been successfully introduced and the planes have been differentiated-the most distant
figures in low relief , the nearer ones in slightly higher relief and those in the foreground in very high relief. The
scenes on the coping stone of the vedika depicting the disposal of the Buddha's relics (Madras Museum )
belong to this time. After the Buddha''s cremation ceremonies the Mallas of Kusinagara wanted to keep all his
remains for themselves, to the great displeasure of the neighbouring rulers. But on the advice of the Brahman
Dona (Drona) they consented to share them. The composition is first divided into two parts, with the city
gateway set across the middle. The lower part of the right side shows the funeral dance. The scene on the
upper right represents the Mallas refusing to give the relics and the upper left depicts the half of the

composition seven elephants leave the city gateway with small relic caskets on their heads. The carving
shows the lower part of the gatehouse and of the wall in brick, and the upper part of the gatehouse in wood.
The rectangular lattice windows are surmounted at the gable ends by horseshoe-like windows that fit the
barrel roofs. A square hut stands on top of the wall turret beside the gatehouse.
Subduing Of The Mad Elephant Nalagiri , Medallion From Amaravati Vedika

Another composition highly dramatic in character is the subduing
of the mad elephant Nalagiri (Madras Museum). Devadatta had set it
loose in order to kill the Buddha. The medallion shows two episodes of
the story. On the left the beast attacks the terror-stricken people. After
knocking down one unfortunate victim, it grips the legs of another with its
trunk. Nearby a frightened woman clings to her friend. The people at the
windows of a neighbouring house however, feeling themselves in safety,
gape at the spectacle. On the right the same elephant, now subdued by
the appearance of the Buddha, prostrates before him. He is no longer
visible because this edge of the medallion is worn away.
GUPTAS
The Golden Age of the Imperial Guptas ( Fourth to sixth century
A.D) begins with the founder Srigupta. At the zenith of their power the Guptas controlled the whole Ganges
valley from Ujjain to Orissa. Such a vast tract of land united under one authority contributed to the artistic
heights reached during this period.
During the Gupta era Indian sculpture , architecture and painting reached their highest perfection-the
flowering after centuries of slow growth under the influence mainly of the earlier Indian style of Mathura and
the Gandhara school. It is not a rebirth but the logical outgrowth of several continuous traditions.
Relatively few artistic remains of the Gupta periods’ have survived because of destructive Muslim
invasions. Though Gupta temples are scarce, fortunately more statues have been preserved.
The main centres of artistic activity seem to have been Mathura and Sarnath. But the Gupta influence
spread out much farther. Even in the Western Ghats we find carvings so close to the Gupta style that we have
to include them in Gupta art although these caves were produced under the patronage of the Vakatakas,
allies of the Guptas.
These sculptures include standing and seated figures-Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina. Although a period
of Hindu revival , both Buddhism and Jainism flourished throughout the Gupta empire, and Indian art was
never sectarian.
Gupta sculptures have acquired great mastery of technique and refinement. The treatment of the
Buddha figures in particular reveals a new awareness of the supremacy of man's spiritual powers over
material values.

Copper Buddha From Sultanganj
A copper Buddha found at Sultanganj (Birmingham Museum) is the only large
piece of metal sculpture surviving from the Gupta period. The style resembles that of
the stone sculptures of Mathura during the fifth century in the slenderness of the body
and the tubular smoothness of the ling limbs. The treatment of the transparent robe
lies midway between that of Mathura in which the folds of the robe were clearly shown
by string courses and that of Sarnath , where there are none . Here the sculptor has
merely indicated the folds by means of faintly incised curves in the smooth surface.
The dignity curves in the smooth surface. The dignity of the figure has been enhanced
by the flow of the robe which in its sweeping lines also heightens the impression of
movement created by the posture which is slightly off balance.
THE RASHTRAKUTAS
The Rashtrakuta dynasty (eighth to tenth century A.D) from being a feudatory of the Chalukyas of
Badami, soon rose to become one of the supreme powers in the Deccan under the able leadership of
Dantidurga, defeating the Chalukyas around 752 A.D. and ruling much of their territory and beyond. They
initiated a period of Saivite revivalism-the numerous caves at Ellora and Elephanta bearing ample testimony
to the faith and fervour of these rulers. Of the many rock-cut temples at Ellora, the Kailasa , carved entirely out
of one rock during the reign of Krishna I (c.758 A.D) stands out as the most remarkable monument. Among
the many other temples, those of Ravana-ka-khai, Dasavatara , Lankesvara and Ramesvara contain the most
numerous sculptures.
The rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora and the rock-cut caves at Elephanta are the highest sculptural
achievements in the Deccan during the eight century. The marvellous carvings in the Kailasa temple reveal
the final artistic synthesis of the powerful, heavy forms of the Deccani tradition with the slender grace of
southern sculpture , thus releasing the pent-up energy of the former in free and vigorous movement. Every
composition catches the most dramatic moment of the story and expresses it with a passion rarely equalled in
art. All life's varied moods-tender love and destructive fury, the speed of flight and controlled movement of
dance find expression in creative realism. But the greatest merit of this sculpture lies in the detailed,
individualized modelling of each figure. The clever arrangement of light and shade helps to increase the
emotional effects. Deep cavities form the stage for the action. From these the figures appear to emerge from
various depths of reliefs, in moment. This artistic arrangement of the different elements imparts to these
compositions a highly spectacular note. Centuries of experiments in the rock-cut tradition in the Deccan
culminated in the perfection attained in the sculptures of the monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora.
Fight Between Ravana And Jatayu , Kailasanatha Temple , Ellora

The Fight Between Ravana and Jatayu from the story of Sita's abduction, is
artistically set in a deep niche with a bare surface to represent the scene of the battle
high in the air. According to the story the demon king Ravana had lured Rama away
from his wife to pursue a golden deer, the disguise of one of Ravana's suite. Left
unprotected in her hermitage in the wilderness of the Vindhya mountains, Sita was
kidnapped by Ravana and carried away in his magic flying chariot. Jatayu, the
powerful king of vultures, to whose faithful care Rama had entrusted his wife , came
to her rescue upon hearing her cry but proved unequal to the fight. Ravana killed him
and carried Sita off to his native Lanka.
The sculpture shows her crouching in the chariot, but her figure has been damaged.
The intact form of the vigorous Ravana emerges boldly from the niche, in very high
relief. The dramatic posture catches the haste of his flight on the one hand and his
violent backward turn as he threatens with uplifted arm to strike the large Jatayu
behind him who is pecking his thigh.

Dancing Siva , Lankeswara Cave , Ellora
One of the walls of the Lankesvara cave (Hewn out of the hillside beside
the Kailasa) has a particularly graceful image of Siva dancing in the nadanta
mode. Though the panel has been severely damaged, the central figure remains
complete enough to provide a good idea of the whole. Steadying himself on his
left foot, he thrusts forward the right (now broken), twisting the body so that the
hip appears in profile and the chest in complete frontal view as he tramples the
demon Apasmara. The whole body curves in the atibhanga pose. The sense of
movement and grace, stressed by the powerful curves of the body, proclaim him
to be the lord of dance and divine harmony. The artist has successfully used the
movement of the hands and body to stress rhythm and balance. The tilt of the
head, framed by two of his arms, matches that of the hips , while the left leg
repeats the forward thrust of the torso . He wears an ornate jatamakuta from
which hang three loops of pearls. The edges of the cloth flow rhythmically on
either side moving with the swaying body. Below him one musician plays the flute
and another cymbals. A lady sits at the right, with Bhringi ( the skeletal figure )
behind her and Ganapathy standing near them.
PALLAVAS
The Southern type of architecture underwent a
long evolution in its details, which are those of the ruling
dynasties in south India , architecture developed under
royal patronage:
Pallava ( A.D 600-900 )
Chola ( A.D 900-1150 )
The building activity of the Pallava rulers marks

the beginings of southern or dravidian architecture and
their rock - cut and sculpturall temples are of the greatest
importance for the later development of this style. The
most important monuments of the period can be seen at
Mahabalipuram on the sea coast , 51 1/2Km south of
Madras . They are rock cut mantapas ( Open halls ) or free standing vimanas ( Shrines ) which are sculptural
replicas of contemporary structural buildings , carved out from boulders , a sort of granite gneiss on the sandy
shore . The monolithic vimanas are popularly called Rathas , meaning car.
The Five Rathas

The five rathas are the most important which are situated at the extreme south of Mahabalipuram.
They are carved out from a huge whale - back like boulder , almost a hillock .
The five rathas are 1.Draupadi ratha 2. Arjuna ratha 3.Bhima ratha
4.Dharmaraja ratha 5.Sahadeva ratha.
1. Draupadi Ratha
Dedicated to it is the simplest and Durga most elegant of the group .
Shaped like a kutaghara (Hut). It lacks an artha mandapa in front. On its four
lower corners the domical sikhara has carved scroll ornamentations very similar
to embossed metal designs. Dvarapalikas ( Female counterparts of the
dvarapalas ) stand in niches on either side of the entrance. The Draupadi ratha stands
on the same upapitha (Platform) as the Arjuna ratha.
2. Arjuna Ratha
Dedicated to Siva. Stands next to Draupadi ratha . It has a two - storeyed
vimana of the Dravida order. The two pillars of the artha mantapa in front are modern
additions. Cushion-shaped capitals surmount the two octagonal pilasters at the

corners. Due to lack of wall space, the dvarapala figures do not appear at either end of the facade but at the
angles of the side and back walls. The sikhara crowning the upper storey is octagonal, a figure sculptures
abound in this ratha.
3. Bhima Ratha
It is oblong and have a wagon - roof with a row of finials . It is of
the sala type . Bhima ratha has one upper storey with a row of haras.
The ratha remains unfinished and its basal parts. Uncarved, still
attached to the parent rock on the north and south. The aditala ( ground
floor ) indicates that the original design included a rectangular madapa
going all around it.
4. Dharmaraja Ratha
It has a square ground storey with vertical walls and a projecting open
verandah on the western side. On this ground storey rests the 3-storeyed
pyramidal roof.
The plan of the first pyramidal storey consists of a square simulated

hall surrounded on all four sides by a hara or row of miniature shrines with the
wagon roofed salas , and the domed kutas at the corners. In between the hara
and the wall of the simulated hall there is an open passage. The second and
third floors are each narrower. The whole pyramidal tower is crowned by a tall
octagonal sikhara. These rock -cut monuments were carved from the top
downwards. The Dharmaraja ratha , replete with sculptural decoration.
5. Nakula -Sahadeva Ratha:

It is carved out of an independent boulder. It stands near the
Arjuna ratha and faces south. It has a dvitala ( Two-storeyed )
vimana with an apsidal end also with an apsidal end. The base
remains incomplete. An ardha mandapa projects in front , its roof
supported by a pair of lion - based pillars.
PALLAVA SCULPTURE
In Pallava monuments , the exterior is rated by figures of the

gods set in niches , the interior by panels of relief sculpture
illustrating Hindu legends. The style is a development from the Late
Andhra period , and certain new conventions appear , such as the bear - shaped face in place of the
traditional oval. The figures have the same graceful slenderness as those of Amaravati , accentuated by the
tubular form of the limbs.
The most famous achievement of Pallava sculpture is the so-called Descent of the Ganges at
Mahabalipuram , carved on two huge boulders in the side of the hill , with a narrow vertical cleft in
between . This rock wall , covered with over one hundred figure carvings , measures 27 metres in length and
about 9 metres in height. That the vertical cleft was utilized to let water fall down-at least on festive occasions-
is proved by the fact that at the bottom of the cleft is a tank , and above the cleft on the ledge are a number of
channels indicating that once a cistern stood there , filled with water . This fact and the similarities of this
carving with that of the Ganga monument at Anuradhapura in Ceylon gives more probability to the supposition
that the scene represents the descent of the Ganga rather than Arjuna's penance , as several scholars
believe.

The mythical event of the descent of the Ganga as narrated in the Ramayana , may be summarized as follows
the ashes of the sinful sons of king Sagara of the Solar race had to be purified. Bhaglratha , a descendent of
the same royal line , obtained through his austerities , first the favour of the Ganga to descend to earth and
then that of Siva to receive the weight of the river on this adamantine head , lest its force should destroy the
earth. This boon , was granted and the river , falling from heaven , became entangled in Siva's matted hair ,
which slowed its impetuous rush. From Siva's head the waters descended to the Himalayas , and thence
poured down to the plain.
The central episode of the great carving is therefore, that of the descent of the celestial stream
through the vertical cleft, which is seen peopled with water - divinities notably a giant Nagaraja and his queen
, who surge up from the depth , lost in wonder at the world enlivening event. On either side are seen gods,
demons , men and animals , flocking to see the event and to plunge into the stream.
To the left, on the lower level , is an exquisite little temple in Pallava style . Around it a group of yogis
can be seen: one of them squats in yoga posture at the door of the temple and two others somewhat further
away. It is a lively representation of ascetic life.
Near the top of the cleft, also on the left side, is the scene of Bhagiratha conjuring Siva. He stands
emaciated on one leg in pillar - like rigidity, both arms upstretched , the fingers interlocked. Siva stands before
him, of gigantic stature , four - armed , with the lower left arm in the gift - bestowing posture ( varada mudra ).
He is accompanied by his ganas.
The rest of the rock - face is taken up with carvings of different forms of life: divine , titanic , human
and animal , all perfectly differentiated , and all revealed in truly typical attitudes , whether of movement or of
rest . All are either hurrying to witness the great event, or peacefully contemplating it. Very striking, on the
right side of the cleft, is a family of elephants, the giant bull followed by small cow , with babies sheltering
between their legs as they advance to the river.
CHOLAS
After the fall of the Pallavas , minor dynasties kept up the cultural traditions until the Cholas became
the chief power in South India. Under Rajaraja The Great ( 985 - 1014 ) and his son Rajendra I (1012 - 1044),
Chola power reached its zenith and under their patronage temple building attained its peak.
Settled political conditions, vast resources and great interest in art resulted in the creation of two
magnificent temples, namely the Bridhadisvara at Tanjavur built by Rajaraja the Great , and the Brihadisvara
at Gangai kondacholapuram erected by his son Rajendra I . Hard stones of various qualities went into their
construction. A number of earlier brick and timber structures were renovated in stone, and new ones built in
places visited by the Saiva and Vaisanav saints. Sculptural ornaments became more ornate and hold,
advancing from bas - relief to figures almost in the round.

BRIHADISHVARA TEMPLE ,
TANJAVUR
* It was built by Rajaraja the Great

about the year 1000 AD
* It is the largest, highest and most

ambitious production of its kind.
* It is a landmark of the building art in

southern India.
* The vimana attached to the maha

mandapa and the ardha mandapa
has a richly moulded common
platform with them.
* The vertical wall of the vimana is

divided into two storeys by a bold moulding.
* The walls of each storey are decorated with pilasters and niches containing statues.
* Between the outer wall of the vimana and the inner wall of the garbhagriha is a two - storeyed
circumambulatory passage.
* On the walls of the lower one are the famous chola frecoes , which were overpainted in the 17th , by the
Nayaka.
* On the walls of the upper circumambulatory passage are 108 painted panels representing siva in the
different dance poses of Bharata's Natyasastra.
* The pyramidal tower of the vimana rises to a height of 66m and standing on a base of 30 m2.
* It consists of 16 storeys and is terminated by an octagonal sikhara.
* It has beautiful proportions.
CHOLA SCULPTURE
The greatest example of Chola architecture is the Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjavur , in which detailed
decoration , though lavish , is sub ordinated to the over all design . yet the images on the facades are still
individual works of art . The Characteristic Dravidian combination of dynamisms with massivity is repeated
here , as in the figure of Siva Nataraja , a high relief whose theme of whirling movement is more easily
expressed in the metal work of the period.
THE HOYSALAS
The Hoysalas ( eleventh to fourteenth century A.D ), originally feudatories of the Later Chalukyas,
soon became independent . Under the able Bittiga , converted to Vaisnavisam by Ramanuja in the twelfth
century and renamed Vishnuvardhana , the dynasty gradually assumed power. The Hoysalas patronised
many temples , such as those at Halebid , Belur and Somnathpur . These were literally covered with
sculptural decorations . The local stone , which has the double advantage of being soft when first quarried but
hardening on exposure to are , enable the Hoysala craftsmen to produce from it a profusion of detailed
carvings.

Vina - Dhara Saraswati , Hoysaleshvara Temple , Halebid
The eight - handed figure holds the musical instrument in the right
and left hands. She dances, resting on the right leg, slightly bent , while
raising the left . The line of the body seems to move with the tilt of the head,
the gesture of the arms and the bend of the raised leg. Saraswati's vahana ,
the hamsa , near her feet , is so highly stylized that it resembles a decorative
motif more than a life - like representation of a bird.

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BFA 1st Year- HISTORY OF ARTS

What is the Nature of art ?

What is the connection between Art and Man...?

Art is the result of imagination combined with technical and physical.

The Fundamentals of art is divided into two sections

1 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

Emotional qualities of different kinds of Lines

(i) Vertical Line - Upliftment

(ii) Horizontal Line - Tranquility , repose

(iii) Diagonal Line - Dynamic

(iv) Curve - Pleasure

(v) Spiral - Happiness

(vi) Zig Zag - Confusion

(vii) Oval - Charm

(viii) Cirle - Fullness

Hatching and Cross Hatching

2 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

This method produces very deliberate and

Although these are arguably the most common

A simple way of thinking of a line is to imagine a

The most common use of line is showing where an

3 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

Geometric shapes- precise shapes that can be described using

Freeform Shapes- also called organic shapes, are irregular and

Form- an element of art, means objects that have

(i) Organic or free form- Organic forms do not have

(ii) Geometric or inorganic form- Geometric forms

4 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

Space is the distance between and around shapes and

Shapes defined by objects are positive shapes (space). Shapes defined

(vi) Light and Dark/ Value

5 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

Colour surrounds us everywhere . Everything in

Colour depends on the reflection and absorption of light on a

Colour are perhaps the most emotive of the

Green , Orange and Purple are called secondary

Yellow + Blue = Green

Yellow + Red = Orange

Blue + Red = Purple

By mixing one primary and one

There are six tertiary colors- red-purple, red-orange,

6 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

White , Black and Gray are called neutral

Colour Harmony is the use of combinations of

(i) MONOCHROMATIC COLOURS:

Monochromatic colours are all the colors (Tints ,

(ii) ANALOGOUS COLOURS:

Analogous colour schemes use colours that are next to

7 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

Red x Green , Blue x Orange , Yellow x Violet

Complementary colour schemes are tricky to use in large

(iv) SPLIT COMPLEMENTARY

(iv) TRIADIC COLOUR

This scheme is popular among artists because it offers strong visual

(vi) TETRADIC ( DOUBLE COMPLEMENTARY ) COLOUR

The tetradic ( Double complementary ) scheme is the richest of all the

8 Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai

Soft Pastels Hard Pastels *Pastel Pencils