AVIO 2 LEZGO
demagnetizing
ELECTRON THEORY
-States that all matter is comprised of molecules, which
in turn are comprised of atoms.
MATTER – MOLECULES – ATOMS (P, E, N)
Molecule – smallest part of matter; can exist by itself
Atoms – protons (+) electrons (–) neutrons (no charge)
Protons – 1800 times heavier than electrons; located in
the nucleus.
Electrons – smallest and lightest; located around the
nucleus in different layers.
Free electrons – travel out in wide open spaces
between atoms and molecules making electric current
possible.
Bound electrons – resist dislodgement
Electromotive force (EMF) - push electron out of its
orbit and toward excess protons making a stream of
flowing electrons and starts electrical current. (total
voltage).
Conventional theory – current flows from + to -
Isotopes – same value of p and e
Static Electricity – build up of electric charge; at rest;
harmful; conductive; have higher voltage than dynamic
(moving electrons); 3000V + to be electrocuted.
Antistatic Agent – air ionizers; treatment of materials to
reduce static buildup; added to some military jet fuels.
MAGNETISM
-property of material that respond to an applied
magnetic field; magnetic state depends on temp.
Magnetic Field – Lorentz force; magnetic influence of
electric currents; produced by moving electric charges.
TYPES OF MAGNETS
1. Ferromagnetic Materials – strongly attracted to
magnets; includes iron, nickel, cobalt and steel; contain
electrons spinning in the same direction.
2. Paramagnetic Materials – weakly attracted to
magnets; aluminum, gold, and copper; not electron spin
in the same direction.
3. Ferrimagnetic Materials – magnetite (crystal on
lodestones) first magnetic material discovered; weak
magnet but when powdered, it is very useful in cassette
tapes, fridge magnets, speaker, etc.
4. Diamagnetic Materials – everything else such as
plants, water, skin, etc.; no visible reaction; atoms spin
in opposite directions; useful consequences like in MRI.
Destroying Magnetism: hammering, heating, dropping,
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE
1. Static Electricity - neutral charge loses electrons, due
to friction, and comes in contact with another object
having a normal charge, an electric charge is exerted
between the two objects. (ex. From ur body)
2. Electrochemistry – voltage created by combining
chemicals; electromechanical reaction is where voltage
is created by a chemical reaction such as in battery;
oxidation/reduction reactions: electrons are transferred.
(ex. A320 ATR Battery)
3. Electro/Magnetic Induction – Rotating coils of wire
through a stationary magnetic field or vice versa
produces a potential; production of electric current
across a conductor; magnetic field should be
perpendicular to the to the wire.
(ex. Generators, solenoid)
4. Piezoelectric Effect - Bending or twisting certain
materials will cause electrons to drive out of orbit;
applied mechanical stress or pressure; piezo = squeeze
(ex. Fire alarm, alarm clock, fuel injector, ink jet printer)
5. Thermoelectricity - Heating two joined dissimilar
materials will cause a transfer of electrons between the
materials setting up a current flow; efficient temp
controllers. (ex. temp sensors)
6. Photoelectric Effect - Dislodging of electrons from
their orbits by light beams creates positively- charged
objects; ultraviolet or visible light. (ex. Solar panels)
AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (TYPES OF MOTORS)
Electric Motor - device which changes electric power to
mechanical energy; that is, its function is opposite to
that of a generator; (used as motors under some
conditions)
- contains electromagnets around the armature.
- armature: this is where input voltage is supplied; the
rotor or the stator can serve as the armature.
Motor Theory – Magnetic attraction and repulsion work
together to produce the torque that causes a motor to
rotate; right hand rule:
Thumb – motion; conductor movement direction
Index finger – magnetic flux direction
Middle finger – electron flow direction
TWO MAIN PARTS OF MOTOR:
a. Rotor - rotating part; also knows as armature
b. Stator - stationary part
Other parts:
c. Commutator: switching device located inside the
armature reverses the polarity. Flux reversal takes place
each time the armature become nearly aligned.
d. Brushes e. axle f. field magnet g. power supply
Electric motor – all about magnets and magnetism; uses
magnets to create motion.
Electromagnet – is the basis of an electric motor.
Two poles – half turn motion; electromagnetic field
flips.
Three poles – used by motors to rotate
Benefits of 3 poles: better dynamics & saves batt.
energy
More wires wrapped around = stronger electromagnet
The brush helps the commutator to switch polarity,
making the armature rotates continuously.
TYPES OF DC MOTOR
- differ only in the connection of the field circuits and
armature windings.
All four major classes of motors are widely used. This is
in contrast to the generators, in which the compound
wound type is used for nearly all general power
applications.
- rated according to Horse Power (HP)
1. Series – Wound Motor – field coils are connected in
series with the armature; starting torque is high; high
turn at the beginning; no load increases the speed.
(ex. landing gears, cowl flaps, trim tabs, engine starter)
2. Shunt – Wound Motor - field coils are in parallel with
the armature; constant speed motor with or without
load; many turns of fine wires to increase resistance
than the armature; low starting torque because of weak
field; load is small at the start and increases as the
motor speed increases. (ex. electric fans, rotary
inverters.)
Kahit umikot siya, you can still stop it.
3. Compound Motors - have both a shunt and a series
field (parallel and series); may operate from no-load
condition to a maximum-load condition in which neither
shunt motor nor a series motor would satisfactorily
fulfill these requirements. (ex. hydraulic pumps)
a. Cumulative Compound Motor – speed decreases;
uniform speed; better torque
b. Differential Compound Motor – low power work; low
torque; better constant speed; unable to handle serious
overloads.
4. Separately-excited DC Motor – two circuits; not
armature connected; have rheostat instead that
controls speed below normal; suitable for printing
machines to cut paper, and for adjustable-speed fan.
TWO TYPES OF DUTY MOTOR
a. Intermittent-Duty – short periods of operation; less
insulated; seldomly used; thin coils
b. Continuous-Duty - operate continuously; highly
insulated coils; highly insulated coils; (ex. starter, IDG)
REVERSIBLE DC MOTOR – operates in neither direction;
28V DC on transport aircraft are used for fuel/hyd valve;
(ex. flaps to be reversed; landing gears)
direction in which the DC motor armature will rotate
depends on two conditions:
a. direction of magnetic lines of force from the field
poles
b. direction of current through the armature windings
The voltage polarity applied to the field and armature
windings of any motor will determine the motor’s
direction of rotation (clockwise or counterclockwise)
AC MOTOR – same basic principle of magnetism and
electromagnetic with DC but varies on the application;
more power for less weight; classified according to
horsepower, phase, operating frequency, and type of
construction; magnetic field changing all the time;
contains capacitors in which DC motors do not have;
sine wave frequency; 3 phase (120° from the other
phases)
Drawback: high current & sparking (possible power loss)
Torque in an AC motor is developed through
interactions with the rotor and the rotating magnetic
field.
Slip is the percentage difference between the speed of
the stator and the speed of the rotating magnetic field.
typical induction motor breakdown torque: 200 to
300% of full-load torque. Starting torque is the value of
torque at 100% slip and is normally 150 to 200% of full-
load torque. maximum value at about 25% slip: beyond
full load torque, motor will stall and come to a rapid
stop.
TYPES OF AC MOTORS
1. Universal Motor – not used in aircraft systems
because ac current has 400 Hz (substantial energy
losses); applicable to AC & DC; 50-60 Hz 250V suitable
on houses and not on 115V aircraft. (ex. vacuum
cleaners, electric appliances, blenders, drill motors)
2. Induction Motor - made of a laminated cylinder with
slots in its surface.; induced into the rotor by a rotating
magnetic field; most commonly used because of
simplicity and low cost; self-contained unit with no
external connections; has three types:
a. Skewed Rotor – rotor have skewed slots that
are used to minimize torque ripple.
b. Squirrel-Cage Motor – rotor have laminated
copper bars connected together at the end by
metal rings.
c. Wound Rotor - of laminated iron core in which
are placed longitudinal conductors.
3. Synchronous Motor - constant speed between no
load and full load; single-phase or multiphase machines;
designed in sizes up to thousands of horsepower;
cannot be started from a standstill; has no starting
torque; compact in size; acts like bar magnet; frequency
of the current is directly proportional to the engine
speed; tachometer
TYPES OF PHASES IN AC MOTOR
1. Single-Phase Reversible Motor - found on transport
category aircraft and are used to drive valve assemblies
and other relatively small actuators.; contain two stator
winding; clockwise or counter clockwise winding; small
2. Three-Phase Motor - large transport-category aircraft
to drive hydraulic pumps, large blower fans, fuel boost
and transfer pumps; allow a high surge of current when
the motor is started and a low current as the motor
gains full operating speed; lighter weight
GENERATORS – mechanical into electrical energy;
provided by the aircraft’s engine; Light aircrafts use 14V
or 28V DC generators; Large aircrafts use 208V or 117V
at 400Hz; first means of supplying electric power for
aircrafts.
Generator Theory – left hand rule for generators thumb
(direction of conductor) index finger (current flow);
electricity is produced by electromagnetic induction;
relative movement between magnetic field and
conductor held in perpendicular to the line of flux
produces EMF.
TYPES OF ALTERNATORS
1. DC Alternator - found on light aircraft where the
electric load is relatively small;
2. AC Alternator - found on large commercial airliners
and many military aircraft; creates a valuable weight
savings with the help of transformers; Transformers are
used to step up or step-down AC voltage.
TYPES OF GENERATORS
1. DC Generator - needed for many aircraft electrical
systems such as battery charging; contains commutator,
brushes, field winding, and armature; dynamically
induced current; uses carbon contacts to eliminate
spark; uses graphite connectors/brushes to not damage
the armature; uses galvanometer; if single coil is used, it
will generate pulsating dc output which is a number of
coils are needed to produce stable output.
FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION – basic law of
electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will
interact with electric circuit to produce EMF.
- operating principle of transformers, inductors, and
many types of electrical motors, generators &
solenoids.
2. STARTER GENERATOR - combination of a generator
and a starter in one housing; employed on small
turboprop and turbine-powered aircraft such as the
Beechcraft King Air; at least two sets of field windings
and only one armature winding; one field winding
needs special circuitry in the generator control unit
(GCU);
Advantage: only one drive gear mechanism is used for
both start and the generator modes.
Disadvantage: unable to maintain full output at low
rpm
Start mode: employs a low resistance series field. At
this time a high current flow through both the field and
armature windings, producing the high torque required
for engine starting.
Generator mode: supplies 300A at 28.5V current to the
aircraft’s electrical system.
3. AC GENERATOR - often called alternators, are used as
the primary source of electric power in almost all
transport-category aircraft. For emergency situations AC
generations driven by auxiliary power units (APUs) or
ram air turbines (RATs) are often used; require
constant-speed drive to maintain a constant AC
frequency
constant-speed drive (CSD) is a type of automatic
transmission that maintains a constant output RPM
with a variable input RPM.
Parts of Simple AC Generator
a. Magnetic Field - produced by a permanent
magnet or by electromagnet field coils
b. Rotating Loop/Coil – armature or rotor
 c. Slip rings
d. Brushes - produced by a permanent magnet or
by electromagnet field coils
Two Types of Alternator Rotors
1. Turbine Driven – two or four distinct poles;
windings are firmly embedded in slots to
withstand the tremendous centrifugal forces
encountered at high speeds.
2. Salient-Pole - used in low-speed alternators;
consists of several separately wound pole
pieces, bolted to the frame of the rotor; bigger
in diameter; greater centrifugal force.
MONITORING GENERATOR OUTPUT
-Two ways to monitor a generator; if only one
instrument is used, ammeter is preferred (measures
current flow); Voltmeter (measures voltage) should
never be used without ammeter.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
- controls alternator output by varying the alternator’s
input; increases the field circuit’s resistance to decrease
the alternator’s output.
- dc alternators require voltage regulator and current
limiter
CURRENT LIMITER
- Designed to protect the generator from loads which
will cause it to overheat and eventually burn the
installation and windings.
REVERSE-CURRENT CUT-OUT RELAY
- automatically disconnecting the generator from the
battery when the generator voltage is lower than the
battery voltage to avoid battery discharge.
AIRCRAFT AC GENERATORS
- As the rotor turns, the magnetic flux cut across the
stator poles and induces a voltage in the stator winding.
The induced voltage will reverse polarity every half
revolution of the rotor in a two-pole alternator will
produce 1 cycle of alternating current; that is, one
complete ac sine wave will be produced for each
complete revolution of the rotor.
HIGH-OUTPUT BRUSHLESS ALTERNATORS
- eliminates some of the problems of alternators that
employ slip rings and brushes to carry exciter current to
the rotating field. Advantages:
a. Lower maintenance cost, since there is no brush or
slip-ring wear.
b. High stability and consistency of output, because
variations of resistance and conductivity at the brushes
and slip rings are eliminated.
c. Better performance at high altitudes, because arcing
at the brushes is eliminated
HIGH-OUTPUT ALTERNATORS
- often referred to as ac generators.
PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATORS
- Modern brushless alternators; production of electric
power; three separate generators within one case:
a. permanent magnet generator,
b. exciter generator,
c. main generator
GENERATOR COOLING
- most ac generators require some means of cooling
during operation
- Older and/or less powerful generators are typically
cooled by means of ram air force; Newer systems used
oil as the cooling.
GENERATOR CONTROL UNIT (GCU)
- performs Aircraft electric power control system
include functions such as voltage regulation, current
limiting, protection for out-of-tolerance voltage and
frequency conditions, and crew alerting
Functions of GCU
▪Voltage regulation
▪Generator Line Contactor Control
▪Overvoltage protection
▪Overload and undervoltage protection
▪Reverse current and differential voltage protection
▪Reverse polarity protection
▪Anticycle protection
▪Latching field relay control
▪Flash and Start relay control
▪Overvoltage and overload protection self-test
CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE
- complete CSD system consists of an axial gear
differential (AGD), whose output speed relative to input
speed is controlled by a flyweight-type governor that
controls a variable-delivery hydraulic motor, which
varies the ratio of input rpm to out rpm for there AGD
in order to maintain a constant output rpm to drive the
generation and maintain an ac frequency of 400 Hz.
TACHOMETER GENERATOR
- a three phase unit, has a voltage proportional to the
speed of the output drive. Its voltage is changed from ac
to dc by the rectifier. After rectification, the current
flows through the resistor, rheostat, and valve and
solenoid.
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