Unit 2

Second Language Acquisition and Learning

Second Language
Acquisition and Learning
History
 Index
Scheme 3

Key Ideas 4
2.1. Objectives 4
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2.2. Introduction 5
2.3. History 6
2.4. SLA in the 21st Century 18
2.5. References 26

In Depth 28

Test 30
 Scheme
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Unit 2. Scheme
 Key Ideas

2.1. Objectives

In order to understand the unit, it is important that students read the mandatory
contents, listed in the key ideas. Students should but it also highly recommended the
students take a look at the in depth material to help them complete the end of the
unit test. This will enable them to enhance their breadth and depth on the topic
although it is not required to complete the unit test.

To study this unit, please read carefully the following sections, this unit looks
specifically at the history of second language acquisition and learning. It is important
the students have a clear idea of the differences between the theories presented.
Students will also use Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development to help them
develop a leveled activity. By the end of the unit students should be able to:

 Students will differentiate learning from acquisition.

 Students will understand the evolution of the theories.
 Students will compare and contrast different methodologies.
 Students will analyze the differences between BICS and CALP.
 Students will create a scaffolded activity through Vygotsky’s ZPD.
 Students will evaluate the advantages and disadvantages to using ZPD.
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 2.2. Introduction

Understanding the historical context of second language learning will enable

educators to be better teachers. Through this review it is to be noted that theories
and hypotheses are continually being developed, studied and presented. This unit
will go through the historical context from the 1900’s of simply learning grammar and
translation until now. Though it is important to note the spectrum is vast, there are
many theories, methods and hypotheses but it is important to understand and
analyze those who have made a distinction in second language learning.

Firstly, it is important for there to be a common ground in the language use when
referencing language acquisition versus language learning. Within the field of second
language acquisition and learning the distinction is made as such:

“Language acquisition is a subconscious process; language acquirers are not

usually aware of the fact that they are acquiring language, but are only
aware of the fact that they are using the language for communication.
Implicit learning, informal learning, and natural learning aka picking-up a
language Second language learning is conscious knowledge of a second
language, knowing the rules, being aware of them and being able to talk
about them” (Krashen, 2003).

This definition of Krashen helps define how these two phenomena’s will be address.
To be simply put:

Acquisition can be understood as the natural picking up a language through

exposure. Learning can be understood as the conscious study of a language.

The following table will help orient the format of this unit, it will proceed in the
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following order. It is important to note, while Vygotsky’s theory was initially

established in the 1920’s the implications of the theory are still developed and
worked on today, which is why it is the most relevant in the classrooms today. The

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 other theories although still relevant may not stand out as often in the 21st century
classroom.

Theories, Methods and Hypotheses

Pre-20th 1940s,
1960s, 1970s 1980s 1990s -Present
Century 1950s
LAD & Universal
Grammar - Social
Behaviorist Grammar, The BICS & CALP
Translation Interactionism
Monitor Model
Chomsky, Vygotsky*
Skinner Cummins
Krashen Developed in 1920s

Table 1. Theories, Methods and Hypotheses. (Malone, 2012).

2.3. History

Theories of L2

Grammar Translation

Many recall their days as a language learner, may it be recently or further into the
past, regardless most remember a time when grammar and translation guided
teaching practices in foreign and second language classrooms. This theory dates back
to the pre- 20th century. The ultimate purpose is to read materials and to translate
from an individual’s L1 (first language) into the L2 (second language). The emphasis
of language learning is placed on written language instead of oral language.
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The methodology implemented in the classroom follows 6 important guidelines (Xia,

2014):

 Written language is emphasized rather than oral language.

 Students will never learn to communicate in the L2.

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  Teacher’s absolute authority. Students are to listen.
 Grammar is taught in the L1. Students are to write in the L2.
 The content is not important, the grammar is the most important.
 Students begin reading at an early stage.
 Heavily practiced translation.

Behaviorism, Skinner

In 1936, B.F. Skinner addressed a new phenomenon, which he called Behaviorism.

Another supporter of this principle is Leonard Bloomfield. Behaviorism is can be
understood as human behavior is reinforced through observable stimulus-response
interaction and the association made between them. For example, if a child sees a
cat and calls it a “kitty” positive reinforcement would be to agree and tell them
they’ve done a good job. Whereas if the child calls it a “doggie” negative
reinforcement would be used to tell them they have not correctly named the animal.
Through an adults/another person’s reaction children learn how to response to elicit
positive reinforcement. To understand this, consider the image below.

Figure 1. Stimulus - Response - Reaction. From http://behaviorismskinner.blogspot.com/

The Stimulus – Response – Reaction (S-R-R) is circular, children need to constantly

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repeat the information to learn the correct response. Think about how babies learn
to say “mama” or when children are applauded for doing the right thing, also consider
things on the other hand such as getting your hand smacked away from the treats or
told that bad words should not be said. Skinner contends that the language learned
is a result of positive and negative responses.

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 The basic tenets of the Behaviorist theory are (Demírezen, 1988):

 Language is oral.
 Language learning is a consequence of behavior.
 S-R-R is circular.
 All language learning is the establishment of habits as a result of reinforcement
and reward.
 Each person can learn the same information, if the conditions are the same.

It is important to remember that behaviorist believe that language acquisition occurs

through imitation, practice, reinforcement and habituation which in turn constitutes
the pace of language learning (Demírezen, 1988).

Some researchers have countered the argument to say that this lacks innovation in
learning and is also a generalization. Since learners learn through repetition and
drilling there is no element of creativity. The generalization made that when ideas
and constructs are more complex they are harder to reward and that all learners will
learn equally, assuming all conditions are the same, which is impossible to guarantee.
As a result of the generalization all learners can learn equally assuming the same
conditions are met, how does one differentiate the role of a child’s surroundings in
language learning? Also because this theory is taught through reward and
“punishment” it does not take into account adult language learners.

Universal Grammar (UG) Language Acquisition Device (LAD), Chomsky

Noam Chomsky shared his hypothesis that “children acquire language competence
very fast and with almost no effort” (Xia, 2014). Chomsky believed that children are
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born with the predisposition to language as they are with the innate ability to walk
(Xia, 2014). Through this belief he developed his theory of Universal Grammar (UG).

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 Children are abled fluent speakers in their L1 by the age of 5, which usually is acquired
through the following stages:

 Babbling stage (oooo, aaaa, vowel sounds).

 Nonsense word stage (saying nonsensical words repetitively).
 Holophrastic stage (saying one word appropriately and repetitively).
 Two-word utterance stage (stringing words together).
 Developing grammar (for example making mistakes in verb conjugations).
 Near-adult stage (making minor errors but knowing most grammar rules).
 Full competence.

The theory that all human brains have the disposition to acquire language lead
Chomsky to define how children acquire language through a Language Acquisition
Device (LAD). This device is consists of three elements, a hypothesis maker, linguistic
universal and an evaluation procedure (Alshalan, 2019; Xia, 2014). This meaning that
children are able to understand grammar by categorizing elements and general
principles. Chomsky thinks that a child is capable to adopt a kind of generative
grammar that evidences his knowledge of his mother tongue (Alshalan, 2019).

It is important to understand that the LAD is something innate within the child brain
and cannot be created or constructed. The ability for an individual to understand
their L1 provides the groundwork for students to then acquire a second language
according to the theory.

Though this theory has been rejected and counter-argued not just from Chomsky’s
critics but also from former students.
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 The Monitor Model, Krashen

In the 1970s, Stephan D. Krashen proposed The 5 hypotheses of Theory of Second

Language Acquisition:

 The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis.

 The Monitor hypothesis.
 The Input hypothesis.
 The Affective Filter hypothesis
 The Natural Order hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

This hypothesis takes into to consideration how acquisition and learning work
together to help the language speaker modify their language capabilities. Krashen
(2003) explains, “Acquisition ‘initiates’ our utterances in a second language is
responsible for our fluency, learning comes into place only to make changes in the
form of our utterance, after it has been ‘produced’ by the acquired system.”

The Monitor Hypothesis

The Monitor is the system which imposes the grammar rules or the conscious
learning that has occurred on the speaker’s output. That is to say the Monitor plays
a role in how a speaker organizes their output, but limitedly. The speaker can only
“monitor” or “edit” their speech when three conditions are met:

 When the speaker has time to evaluate their discourse. Sometimes a conversation
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is long gone when the speaker has had the time to evaluate their discourse and
now their output is no longer relevant. The timing is not only contingent on the
pace of the conversation but also on how quickly the speaker is able to evaluate
their discourse.

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  When the speaker is focused on the form of their discourse. A speaker must be
attentive to their ideas as well as able to assess how to organize and structure
their discourse.

 When the speaker knows the rules. The Monitor does a better job highlighting
certain parts of grammar versus others. The easier the rule is for the speaker the
easier it is for the monitor to be more conscious of editing the discourse.

The following figure is an example of the acquisitions and learning in second language
production occurs with the “monitor” or the learned competences.

Figure 2. The Acquisition and Learning in Second Language Production. (Krashen, 2003).

There are three types of performers of the “Monitor” these can be understood as
(Krashen, 2003):

 Monitor over-users, who attempt to monitor everything they say because they
are so concerned with correctness.

 Monitor under-users, who have not learned or prefer not to use their conscious
knowledge – justification is it “sounds right.”

 The optimal monitor, the pedagogical goal is to produce optimal users who use
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the Monitor when it’s appropriate and it does not interfere with communication.

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 The Input Hypothesis

The input hypothesis looks at how language is acquired by speakers. Krashen states
(2003), “Our pedagogy should be to encourage acquisition.” This meaning that to
foster acquisition learners must understand context, knowledge of the world as well
as structures to help discern meaning and not focus solely on the form of messages.
This belief places a greater emphasis on individuals speaking spontaneously to get
across their message versus the emphasis of grammar and/or translation, as seen in
pre-20th century methods.

This poses the question then how do learners acquire language and its relationship
to the input hypothesis, which is about acquisition, not learning. Learners are able to
acquire language by understanding more complex language structures through the
help of context or extra-linguistic information (e.g. speed, tone, volume and pitch).
Learners should be able to understand complex structures that are beyond their
current level with the help of these components. While production abilities such as
fluency and accuracy emerge over time.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis

How a successful a learner is in acquiring a language is not a reflection of their

learning. These are variables which can facilitate or impede learner’s acquisition as
well as production of language. Krashen (2003) relates the success to acquiring a
language to three factors:

 Motivation: Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image do better in

second language acquisition (usually, but not always).
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 Self-Confidence: Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to

do better in second language acquisition.

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  Anxiety: Low anxiety appears to be conducive to second language acquisition,
whether measure as a personal or classroom anxiety.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

The natural order hypothesis contends that there is a natural order in how things are
acquired. Certain grammatical structures are acquired earlier than others. This
relates to Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device. That is to say the natural order in
which babies develop their speaking abilities.

BICS and CALP, Cummins

Cummins introduced BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills) and CALP

(Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) in 1979. This distinction between the skills
are the abilities to use conversational language versus using academic language. It is
important to conceptualize the three constructs of CALP (Cummins, 1999):

“Cognitive – the instruction should be cognitively challenging and require

students to use higher-order thinking abilities rather than the low-level
memorization and application skills that are tapped by typical worksheets or
drill-and-practice computer programs.
Academic – academic content (science, math, social studies, art, etc.) should
be integrated with language instruction as in content-based ESL programs.
Language – the development of critical language awareness should be
fostered throughout the program by encouraging students to compare and
contrast their languages (e.g. phonic, conventions, grammar, etc.) and by
providing students with extensive opportunities to carry out projects
investigating their own and their community’s language use, practices, and
assumptions (e.g. in relation to the status of different varieties)” (Chamot et
al., 1997).
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 Figure 3. Iceberg. From https://www.shutterstock.com/search/iceberg

The image that generally is associated with these two phenomena is the iceberg. The
iceberg submerged in water represents, the BICS what is surface level and can be
seen versus the vastness of the iceberg underwater which represents CAP. Like an
iceberg, “BICS may only represent about 10% of the overall proficiency of an
academically competent learner” (Roessingh, 2006). It is important to consider that
a language learner’s first language also holds an important role to understand both
the surface (BICS) and below surface level (CALP) relationship.

The organization of BICS and CALP are explained through Cummins four quadrants.
The context is represented on the horizontal axis whereas the cognitive demands for
language are on the vertical axis. These four quadrants differ in the degree of
contextual support and cognitive demand required for language activities. The most
difficult being quadrant 4 and the easiest being quadrant 1, the ascending number
order indicate the level of difficultly.
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 Figure 4. Framework for the Development of Language Proficiency. (Cummins, 1982).

Figure 5 provides types of activities which can occur in the different quadrants
(Roessingh, 2006). Consider the iceberg metaphor while reading through the
quadrants, those pertaining to quadrant 1 and 2, are BICS whereas the context
horizontal axis is where the water level of the submerged iceberg, quadrants 3 and 4
are the use of CALP.
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Figure 5. Framework for the Development of Language Proficiency. (Cummins, 1982) adapted by (Roessingh,
2006).

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 The first two quadrants represent BICS: The language of “here and now” and “my
lived experiences.” Here students are using vocabulary and language which they
come face-to-face with in everyday contexts. This is the type of learning which
currently occurs in Spain, within infants and primary school. Teachers enact the use
of repetition to help the learners learn the vocabulary or grammar structures.

The third quadrant on the other hand is the transitional phase from where learners
shift from learning to read, to reading, to reading to learn. This is where the
introduction of academic content in the L2 is integrated into the learner’s life. The
information learned is in an embedded context, such as a classroom, where the
teacher can facilitate the learning process and progress.

Finally, the last quadrant is characterized by metaphoric competence, using language

abstractly to express ideas, thoughts and beliefs. This quadrant is where the leaner
can make inferences, and create connections through language that otherwise was
impossible. Although it is important to note, “The ever-widening gap in vocabulary
size” between an L1 and L2 (Roessingh, 2006).
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Figure 6. The Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP) Model of Bilingual Proficiency-The Common
Underlying Proficiency (CUP) Model of Bilingual Proficiency. (Cummins, 2005).

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 Cummins’ theory highlights that L1 and L2 learning are interdependent. The
acquisition and learning of a first language will provide the foundation for
understanding a second language. As seen in figure below, Cummins postulates that
acquiring languages is not a separate system as seeing in the Separate Underlying
Proficiency (SUP) model. Languages are not separate, individuals use the information
acquired from a L1 to foster learning in an L2. For example, languages within the same
family of languages such as the romance languages (e.g. Spanish, French, Italian and
Portuguese) or the Germanic languages (e.g. German, English and Dutch) will
facilitate the learners understanding in phonetics and grammatical structures as well
as learning content. Whereas languages which have no commonalities such as English
and Japanese a learner may not understand the foundations to be similar to their L1
but can learn new information through the content being taught. Thus meaning that
figure 6 is a better representation of how languages are reliant on one another, the
Common Underlying Proficiency Model (CUP) demonstrates that languages are
interdependent but later the channel of how the information is dispersed is chosen
by the learner.

This theory highlights that although native and non-natives will reach a plateau in the
“development of native-like phonology and fluency after several years of acquisition
but CALP continues to develop throughout schooling” (Cummins, 1999). Meaning
that content whether taught in an L1 or L2 will help the learner foster both their
language skills in the academic realm. The dual iceberg model represents how the
individual can have CUP in both languages but channel the information through
different languages.
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 Figure 7. The Dual-Iceberg Representation of Bilingual Proficiency. (Cummins, 2005).

2.4. SLA in the 21st Century

Social Interaction and Sociocultural Theories, Vygotsky

Vygotsky’s theory is a quest for identifying what is uniquely human about human
development (Eun & Lim, 2009). What makes humans different from other species is
the ability to communicate with one another and understand meaning. These
processes are central to linguistic processes. As humans there only way to develop
and function within a social context is to be able to discern meaning. Through
interpersonal interactions meaning is made.

Zone of Proximal Development

The theory regards negotiation and creation of meanings as a collaborative act, and
through this negotiation and creation; the gap between the interpsychological/social
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and intrapyschological/individual is bridged (Turuk, 2008). That is to say through

social interaction individual’s learning can be fostered to advance their
understanding to later be able to work independently.

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 Vygotsky defines the zone of proximal development (ZPD) as, “the distance between
a child’s actual development level as determined by independent problem solving,
and the higher level of potential development as determined through problem
solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Turuk,
2008).

Figure 8. Zone of Proximal Development.

Image from: https://www.pinterest.es/pin/400679698072193894/

The goal of instruction is to support students to engage in the activities, talk, and use
of tools where meaning then emerges from collective thinking and talking (Scott &
Palincsar). The goals of educational assessment should be to (Scott & Palincsar):

 Identify abilities that are in the process of developing.

 Attempt to predict what the learner will do independently in the future.

Thus implying that for an educator to help a student first they must establish what
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the child can do without help, and then establish how far they can reach with help.
Though it is important to note there is no correct hierarchical order in ZDP, learning
is considered messy versus neatly sequenced.

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 Learning will occur through interaction, negotiation and collaboration (Scott
& Palincsar).

Mediation

Learners are able to understand content by the people who are in their lives, these
people are there to enhance the learning process by “selecting and shaping the
learning experience presented to them” (Turuk, 2008). This process is called
medication, which is when socially meaningful activities change natural behavior into
a higher mental process through the use of tools. Kozulin (1990, 2003) identified
three major categories:

 Mediation through material tools (using picture cards to aid remembering).

 Mediation through symbolic systems (silently rehearsing the words to be

remembered).

 Mediation through another human being (children could be supported by an adult

in the process of remembering).

Through mediation Vygotsky demonstrated that children who struggled memorizing

a list of words were able to achieve the set goals when practicing with picture cards
in their remembering process. Meaning through practice of seeing the images,
students were able to later recall the list of words, without the images.

ZPD Implications for Learning

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If considered within the realm of education, ZPD is ultimately a social process for
learning and development. Vygotsky’s theory should help convince educators to use
a more dynamic approach to learning that activates children’s potential through

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 assistance rather than a more static one that bases curriculum design on what they
are not capable of doing (Burkhalter).

Vygotsky claimed that this is what happens within the classroom. Learners are active
meaning-makers and problem solvers, through the interplay between teachers,
learners and tasks. Social interaction advocates learners to learn new skills with the
guidance of others.

Students in class engage in different joint activities which in turn helps them
internalize the effects of working together, to later carry out similar tasks individually.
This not only helps students learn content but allows them to acquire new strategies
as well as knowledge and culture. As a result of the social interaction which is
promoted through ZPD, “Vygotsky encourages teachers not to concentrate too much
on teaching concrete facts but to also push their students into an abstract world as a
means to assisting them to develop multiple skills that will enable them to deal with
complex learning tasks” (Turuk, 2008). The sooner a teacher can plant the seed of
cognitive processes or skills, the sooner they can begin to flourish within the learner.

ZPD Phases

As mentioned before, ZPD is not an ordered sequence that student’s follow. The
order for each student is contingent on their current potential. As a result of this, it
is hard to envision a teacher creating 30 different lesson plans for each student, but
the teacher can divide up the general phases of learner’s levels. The measurement of
a child’s ZPD is based on the ability to accomplish a task (Minick, 1987) (Schneider &
Watkins, 1996).
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It is crucial not only to determine the phase/level of the child but also to see who the
child may be capable of working with to complete a task. This does not mean putting
the weakest child with the strongest. In general, students should work with someone
who will not only be able to help them but allow them to learn. This meaning that a
student placed with someone who is significantly at a higher level may mean that

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 that child ends up doing the task on their own and the other student doesn’t end up
learning anything. Groupings depend not only on phase/level if not also on the
student’s themselves. It is important that the educator take this into consideration
when creating pairs or groups.

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a way to help children participate in the activities as well as promote

their cognitive, social and/or linguistic development (Schneider & Watkins, 1996).
This means adapting materials, tasks and even language to help the students achieve
the end goal. According to McKenzie (1999) scaffolding provides the following
advantages (Turuk, 2008):

 It provides clear directions for students.

 It clarifies purpose of the task.
 It keeps students on task.
 It offers assessment to clarify expectations.
 It points students to worthy sources.
 It reduces uncertainty, surprise and disappointment.
 It delivers efficiency.
 It creates momentum.

An example from a 3rd of ESO English class in phase 1 (the lowest level)

For questions 1-5:

1. Read the text (below), adapted from CNN.com.

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2. With a partner, decide what part of grammar (article, preposition or connector)

missing from each sentence. (Negotiation).
3. Use only one word in the box to fill each gap.

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Unit 2. Key Ideas
 4. With a partner choose three sentences from the text create a gap, identify if the
gap is an article, preposition or connector. (Collaborative work & Critical
Thinking).
5. Have another group answer the gaps. (Critical Thinking).
6. Check the other group’s answers and explain why it’s correct or incorrect. (Critical
Thinking & Collaborative Work).

Figure 9. Options.

1. Little did students expect to return from school holidays Monday to

find an original Banksy of their own on an exterior wall of their school,
(1)___________________ this city in southwestern England.

2. The note was addressed to the caretaker (2)___________________

the attention of the head teacher.

3. In the true style of Banksy -- who is known for painting graffiti on public
walls in secret, (3)___________________ permission -- he added:
“Remember -- it's always easier to get forgiveness than permission.
Much love Banksy.”

4. His work is sarcastic (4)___________________ subversive, and can be

found in many corners of the world.

5. (5)___________________ London to New York to Bali and the

Palestinian West Bank.

An example from a 3rd of ESO English class in phase 2 (the mid-range level)

For questions 1-5:

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1. Read the text (below), adapted from CNN.com.

2. With a partner, decide what the main idea of each paragraph is (Negotiation).
3. Use only one word to fill each gap.

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Unit 2. Key Ideas
 4. Write three NEW and ORIGINAL sentences with a partner with a gap
(Collaborative work & Critical Thinking).
5. Have another group answer the gaps (Critical Thinking).
6. Check the other group’s answers and explain why it’s correct or incorrect. (Critical
Thinking & Collaborative Work).

Banksy surprises primary school students with mural

When the children of Bridge Farm Primary School in Bristol were tasked
with naming a school “house” after a local hero, they decided on the
famous and elusive street artist Banksy. Little did they expect to return
from school holidays Monday to find an original Banksy of their own on
an exterior wall of their school, (1)___________________ this city in
southwestern England. The mural shows a stick-wielding girl chasing a
flaming tire.

Beside the mural Banksy, left a thank you note: “Thanks for your letter
and naming a house after me. Please have a picture. If you don't like it,
feel free to add stuff, I'm sure the teachers won't mind,” he wrote. The
note was addressed to the caretaker (2)___________________ the
attention of the head teacher.

In the true style of Banksy -- who is known for painting graffiti on public
walls in secret, (3)___________________ permission -- he added:
“Remember -- it's always easier to get forgiveness than permission. Much
love Banksy.” “I'm absolutely thrilled. We're all very excited,” said
Stanard, who added that the school plans to keep the mural as is instead
of having students add to it. The school is now in talks over how best to
preserve the mural, he said.

Banksy's work sells for hundreds of thousands of dollars, but little is

known about him, other than that he was born in Bristol, reportedly in
1974. His work is sarcastic (4)___________________ subversive, and can
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be found in many corners of the world, (5)___________________ London

to New York to Bali and the Palestinian West Bank.

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Unit 2. Key Ideas
 An example from a 3rd of ESO English class in phase 3 (the highest level, extending
the information)

For questions 1-5:

1. Read the text (below), adapted from CNN.com.

2. With a partner, decide what the main idea of each paragraph is (Negotiation).
3. Use only one word to fill each gap.
4. Create five open-ended questions with a partner about the text (Collaborative
work & Critical Thinking).
5. Have another group answer the questions (Critical Thinking).
6. Discuss the answers and come to an agreement on the questions being answered
(Negotiation).

Banksy surprises primary school students with mural

When the children of Bridge Farm Primary School in Bristol were tasked
with naming a school “house” after a local hero, they decided on the
famous and elusive street artist Banksy. Little did they expect to return
from school holidays Monday to find an original Banksy of their own on
an exterior wall of their school, (1)___________________ this city in
southwestern England. The mural shows a stick-wielding girl chasing a
flaming tire.

Beside the mural Banksy, left a thank you note: “Thanks for your letter
and naming a house after me. Please have a picture. If you don't like it,
feel free to add stuff, I'm sure the teachers won't mind,” he wrote. The
note was addressed to the caretaker (2)___________________ the
attention of the head teacher.

In the true style of Banksy -- who is known for painting graffiti on public
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walls in secret, (3)___________________ permission -- he added:

“Remember -- it's always easier to get forgiveness than permission. Much
love Banksy.” “I'm absolutely thrilled. We're all very excited,” said
Stanard, who added that the school plans to keep the mural as is instead
of having students add to it. The school is now in talks over how best to
preserve the mural, he said.

Second Language Acquisition and Learning

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Unit 2. Key Ideas
 Banksy's work sells for hundreds of thousands of dollars, but little is
known about him, other than that he was born in Bristol, reportedly in
1974. His work is sarcastic (4)___________________ subversive, and can
be found in many corners of the world, (5)___________________ London
to New York to Bali and the Palestinian West Bank.

2.5. References

Alshalan, K. (2019). Theories of Language Learning. American Journal of Humanities

and Social Sciences Research, 3(8), 69-72.

Burkhalter, N. (n. d.). Applying Vygotsky:Teaching Preformal-Operational Children a

Formal-Operational Task. University of Wyoming, U.S. Department of Education.
Laramie: ERIC.

Cummins, J. (1999). BICS and CALP: Clarifying the Distinction. U.S. Department of
Education. Bloomington: ERIC.

Demírezen, M. (1988). Behaviorist Theory and Language Learning. Hacettepe

Vniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 135-140.

Dewarn, A., & Coleman, R. (2016, June 6). Banksy surprises primary school students
with a mural. Retrieved from CNN.com: https://edition.cnn.com/style/art
icle/britain-art-banksy/index.html

Eun, B., & Lim, H.-S. (2009). A Sociocultural View of Language Learning: The
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Importance of Meaning-Based Instruction. TESL Canada Journal/Reuve TESL du

Canada, 27(1), 13-26.

Second Language Acquisition and Learning

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Unit 2. Key Ideas
 Krashen, S. (2003). Principles and Practice Second Language Acquisition. Retrieved
from Stephen Krashen: http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/princip
les_and_practice.pdf

Malone, D. (2012). Theories and Research of Second Language Acquisition. Retrieved

from Topic 2LA Theories: https://www.sil.org/sites/default/files/files/the
ories_and_research_of_second_language_acquisition.pdf

Roessingh, H. (2006). BICS-CALP: An introduction for fSOme, a Review for Others.

TESL Canada Journal/Revue TESL du Canada, 23(2), 91-96.

Schneider, P., & Watkins, R. V. (1996, April). Applying Vygotskian Developmental

Theory to Language Intervention. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools,
27, 157-170.

Scott, S., & Palincsar, A. (n. d.). Socialcultural Theory. Retrieved from Education.com:
http://www.education.com/reference/article/socialcultural-theory/

Turuk, M. C. (2008). The Relevance and Implications of Vygotsky's Socialcultural

Theory in the Second Language Classroom. ARECLS, 5, 244-262.

Xia, Y. (2014, May). Language Theories and Language Teaching- from Traditional
Grammar to Functionalism. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(3), 559-
565.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Second Language Acquisition and Learning

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Unit 2. Key Ideas
 In Depth
Scaffolding in Sociocultural Theory: Definitions, Steps, Features, Conditions, Tools
and Effective Considerations

Amerian, M., Mehri, E. (2014). Scaffolding in Sociocultural Theory: Definitions, Steps,

Features, Conditions, Tools and Effective Considerations. Scientific Journal of Review,
3(7), 756-765. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26559
8722_Scaffolding_in_Sociocultural_Theory_Definition_Steps_Features_Conditions_Too
ls_and_Effective_Considerations/link/54149da30cf2bb7347db3333/download

This article breaks down the different types of scaffolding a teacher may implore in
the classroom. It looks at the tools as well how to incorporate it in the classroom.

Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning

Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.

Retrieved from Stephen Krashen: http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/sl_ac
quisition_and_learning.pdf

Stephen D. Krashen’s published book where he explains “The Monitor Model” and
goes through Acquisition and Learning Theory.
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Second Language Acquisition and Learning

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Unit 2. In Depth
 Terms to know: BICS and CALP

WETA Public Broadcasting. (2019). Video: BICS and CALP [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.colorincolorado.org/faq/what-are-bics-and-calp

Explains the differences between BICS and CALP as well as how it is acquired.

Sociocultural zones: Juggling with Language Learning Theories

NFLRChawaii [Dr. Tim Murphey]. (2010 November 23). Sociocultural zones: Juggling with
Language Learning Theories [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFz-49P5wTY
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Dr. Tim Murphey talks about the Zone of Proximal Development and Zone of Proximal
Adjustment, giving examples of his experience.

Second Language Acquisition and Learning

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Unit 2. In Depth
 Test
1. The purpose of the grammar translation method… (choose all that apply)
A. Is to read materials.
B. Is to translate materials.
C. Is to correct sentences.
D. None of the above.

2. The stimulus-response-reaction interaction means…

A. Language learning is circular and a consequence of positive reinforcement.
B. Language learning is linear and a consequence of negative reinforcement.
C. Language learning is linear and a consequence of reinforced behavior.
D. Language learning is circular and a consequence of reinforced behavior.

3. Universal grammar has five stages according to Chomsky; the babbling stage, the
nonsense word stage, two-word utterance, developing grammar, near-adult and
full competence.
A. True.
B. False.

4. The Monitor must meet three conditions to work effectively (select all):
A. Time.
B. Knowing the rules.
C. Filter noise.
D. Focus on form.
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Second Language Acquisition and Learning

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Unit 2. Test
 5. Affective factors that relate to second language acquisition according to Krashen
are:
A. Self-confidence, performance and low anxiety.
B. Self-confidence, motivation and high anxiety.
C. Motivation and self-confidence.
D. Motivation, self-confidence and low anxiety.

6. BICS represent the majority of language learner’s overall proficiency.

A. True.
B. False.

7. Overtime native L1 and L2 learners usually…

A. Reach a plateau in CALP but continue to develop phonology and fluency
through schooling.
B. Reach a plateau in phonology, but CALP continues to develop through
schooling.
C. Reach a plateau in phonology and fluency, but CALP continues to develop
through schooling.
D. Reach a plateau in phonology, fluency, and CALP.

8. Social Interaction and Sociocultural theory promote… (select all that are correct)
A. Working together.
B. Guiding learning.
C. Measuring how well a learner performs with assistance.
D. Collective thinking.

9. The Zone of Proximal Development is leveled and hierarchical.

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A. True.
B. False.

Second Language Acquisition and Learning

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Unit 2. Test
 10. The use of ZPD in education is to:
A. Gage what a child can do with assistance versus what they cannot do alone.
B. Create a bridge between what students can and cannot do at the beginning
of a unit.
C. Create a static curriculum designed on what student’s cannot do.
D. Create a dynamic curriculum based on what students can do.
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Unit 2. Test