CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE

The quality of sewage can be analysed and checked by studying and examining its physical, chemical and
biological characteristics.
Physical Characteristics
To determine the physical characteristics of sewage, the following physical tests or examinations are
carried out:
i) Colour and Odour.
Colour and odour gives the conditions of sewage as fresh, stale or septic. Fresh domestic sewage has a
slightly soapy or oily odour, and cloudy appearance. As it ages, its character changes due to biological and
chemical phenomenon.
Stale sewage has odour of hydrogen sulphide, and is dark grey in colour. The change from fresh to stale
requires 2 to 6 hours at a temperature of 20°C, depending on the concentration of organic matter.
The odour of water or wastewater can be measured by a term called the Threshold odour number (TON),
which represents the extent of dilution required to just make the sample free of odour.
The Threshold (TON) cab be calculated by the equation:
Vs  VD
TON =
Vs
Where TON = Threshold Odour Number
VS = Volume of sewage
VD= Volume of distilled or odorless water added to just make the sewage sample loss its odour.
(ii) Temperature.
Normally the temperature of sewage is slightly higher than that of water, due to the additional heat
added during the utilisation of water. Temperature is very important parameter in sewage treatment.
It not only influences the solubility of oxygen, oxygen transfer, capacity of aeration, viscosity, and
rate of biological activity, but also influences the efficiency of sedimentation and sludge digestion. Further, it
also affects the aquatic life of the receiving water bodies. The average temperature of sewage in India is
20°C, which is near about the ideal temperature for the biological activities.
(iii) Turbidity
Sewage is normally turbid due to the presence of suspended and colloidal solids, such as fecal
matter, fruit and vegetable wastes, oil, grease and soaps, paper pieces, etc. The turbidity increases as the
sewage becomes stronger. Turbidity can be measured either by turbidimeters.
(iv) Solids.
Though sewage contains only about 0.05 to 0.1 percent solids, the rest being water, still the nuisance
caused by the solids cannot be overlooked because they are highly putrescible. The total solid matter is
known as ‘total solids’.
The sewage solids may be classified as suspended solids, dissolved solids, colloidal solids and settleable
solids. Suspended solids are those which remain floating in sewage. Dissolved solids are those which
remain dissolved in sewage.
Colloidal solids are finely divided solids remaining either in solution or in suspension. Settleable solids, are
that portion of sewage solids which settles out, if sewage is allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of
two hours.
On the basis of particle size, the suspended solids are those particle sizes more than 1.0 um (micron),
colloidal solids are those whose particle sizes between 1.0 µ m to 10 -3 µm and dissolved solids are those
whose particle sizes less than 10-3 µm.
Further, these solids can be sub-divided into organic and inorganic solids. Generally, the volatile solids
represent the organic solids and fixed solids represent the inorganic solids. Organic solids consist of
carbohydrates (such as cellulose, starch, sugar, fibre, etc.), fats and oils, and nitrogenous compounds such
as proteins and their decomposed products, including wastes from animals, urea, fatty acids, hydrocarbons,
etc. Inorganic solids consist of minerals (such as sand, gravel, etc.) and salts (such as chlorides, sulphates,
etc.). Generally, the presence of inorganic solids in sewage is not harmful; but organic solids (suspended
and dissolved) are responsible for creating nuisance, if disposed of untreated.

The fraction or quantity of various kinds of solids present in sewage can be determined as:
Total solids (ST in mg/l): The total solids (ST) present in a given sewage can be determined by evaporating
a known volume of sewage sample at 103 to 105°C, and weighing the dry residue left.
Suspended solids (SS in mg/l): They can be determined by passing a known volume of sewage sample
through a filter of 1 um pores, and, weighing the dry residue left. They are also called as non-filterable
solids.
Filterable solids (SD in mg/l): The difference between the total solids and the suspended solids will give the
filterable solids, and will represent the dissolved solids plus the colloidal solids.
SD = ST- - SS
Settleable solids (SSS in mgll); Settleable solids can be determined with the specially designed conical glass
container, called Imhoff cone. The capacity of Imhoff cone is one litre and is graduated upto about 50 ml.
Sewage is allowed to stand undisturbed in the Imhoff cone for two hours and the quantity of Settleable
solids is then directly read. However, to get the precise amount of settleable solids, the liquid from the
Imhoff cone is decanted off and the settleable solids collected at the bottom of the cone are dried and
weighed.
Chemical Characteristics
The important chemical characteristics of sewage affect the selection and operation of various types of
treatment units are:
(i) pH value. This test is carried out to know the degree of acidity or alkalinity of sewage. The pH value of
sewage indicates the negative log of hydrogen ion concentration present in sewage.
i.e., pH = - log H+ ; or H+ = (10)-PH
It is, thus, an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity of sewage. If the pH is less than 7, the sewage is
acidic, and if the pH value is more than 7, it is alkaline.
The pH value can be measured quickly and automatically with the help of a potentiometer, which
measures the electrical potential exerted by the hydrogen ions, and thus, indicating their concentration.
Fresh sewage is generally alkaline in nature (pH is between 7.3 to 7,5); but as time passes, the pH
falls due to the formation of acids by bacterial action. Low pH of sewage indicates its septic condition.
However, after oxidation when it is relatively stable, it becomes alkaline again. Its determination is
important in calculating the coagulant and disinfectant doses, in corrosion control, and in the biological
treatment of sewage, sludge digestion and dewatering.
(ii) Chlorides Content
Chlorides are mineral salts, and are not affected by biological action of sewage. Chlorides are
generally present in municipal sewage, and are derived from the kitchen wastes, human feces urinary
discharges, etc. The normal chloride content of domestic sewage is 120 mg/l.
It may occur in one or more than following forms:
(a) Free Amonia, called Ammonical nitrogen

2
(b) Albuminoid nitrogen, called Organic nitrogen
(c) Nitrites; and
(d) Nitrates
(iii) Nitrogen. The presence of nitrogen in sewage indicates the presence of organic matter in it. The main
sources of nitrogenous compounds in sewage are proteins, amines, amino-acids and urea. It may be
present in different forms such as ammonia nitrogen, organic nitrogen, albuminoid nitrogen, nitrites and
nitrates, depending on the condition of sewage.
(iv) Hydrogen sulphide. Its presence in sewage indicates anaerobic decomposition. In large amounts, it
may cause corrosion of concrete sewers and result in bad odours at sewage treatment plant.
(v) Fats, greases and oils.
The amount of fats and greases in a sewage sample is determined by making use of the fact that
they are soluble in ether, and when the ether is evaporated, it leaves behind ether-soluble-matter, which
represents the quantity of fats and oils.
Hence, in order to estimate their amount, a sample of sewage is, first of all evaporated. The residual
solids left are then mixed with ether (hexane). The solution is then poured off and evaporated, leaving
behind the fats and greases as a residue, which can be easily weighed.
Fats, greases and oils enter sewage from kitchens, garages, and certain industries. As they tend to
clog the sewers, they are trapped or removed at the source itself.
But, even then they enter the sewage treatment plant in large amounts and are removed in
skimming tanks prior to biological treatment units, because they cause heavy scum in sedimentation tank
and in streams, clog the filter media and interfere with the aeration in activated sludge treatment units.
(iv) Dissolved Oxygen (D.O).
Very fresh sewage contains a small amount of dissolved oxygen, which is soon depleted by aerobic
decomposition; as a result raw and settled sewages are not tested for dissolved oxygen.
The determination of dissolved oxygen present in sewage is very important, because while
discharging the treated sewage into some river stream, it is necessary to ensure at least 4 ppm of D.O. is
present in it; as otherwise, fish are likely to killed, creating nuisance near the vicinity of disposal. If the
temperature of sewage is more, the D.O. content will be less. The solubility of oxygen in sewage is 95% of
that distilled water.
The D.O content of sewage is generally determined by the Winkler’s method, which is an oxidation-
reduction process, carried out chemically to liberate iodine in amount equivalent to the quantity of dissolved
oxygen originally present.
Bacteriological Characteristics and Testing
The bacterial characteristics of sewage are due to the presence of microorganisms, which include bacteria
and other living micro-organism, such as alage, fungi, protozoa, etc. The bacteria are, however, more
active and exist in abundance (5-15 billion per liter of sewage)
Bio- Chemical oxygen Demand (B.O.D.)
If oxygen is furnished to sewage containing bacteria, aerobic decomposition of biologically active
unstable organic matter will occur until the oxygen demand is satisfied. The amount of oxygen used during
this process is known as the biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D).
It is an important indication of the amount of organic matter present in the sewage. The rate of
oxidation as well as the magnitude of the demand depends on the amount and type of organic matter
present, dissolved oxygen, temperature, type of organisms and the remaining demand.

3
 If the available oxygen falls short of the requirements, the organic matter putrefies or decomposes
an aerobically and produce foul conditions. Thus, B.O.D. indicates the nuisance potential of sewage and
the load imposed on the sewage treatment plant or disposal system.
The aerobic decomposition of biologically active organic matter proceeds in two stages. If the
oxygen supply is made available, satisfaction of the demand (or reduction of the B.O.D.) proceeds rapidly
for 6 to 7 days and then slows down until the end of about 20 days.
Thereafter, it may accelerate for a time and again slow up to a very low rate for an indefinite period.
The demand exerted during the first 20 days is due to the oxidation of almost all of the carbonaceous
organic matter to carbon dioxide and water, and is known as the ‘first-stage demand’ or ‘initial-demand’ or
‘carbonaceous-demand’ or ‘first-stage B.O.D.’ During 20 days, about 99% of carbonaceous matter is
oxidised, so first-stage B.O.D is taken as ultimate B.O.D.,
The latter demand is due to the oxidation of more resistant nitrogenous matter, and it takes a
prolonged period, and is known as the ‘Nitrogenous demand’ or ‘second-stage demand’ or ‘second-stage
B.O.D.’
Since the complete oxidation takes indefinite period, so for all practical purposes the reaction period
is taken as 5 days at 20°C. So, B.O.D. is expressed in terms of specified period and temperature. This 5
days B.O.D at 20°C, written as BOD5 at 20°C, is generally taken as the standard demand, and is about 50
to 70% of the total demand. The B.O.D of a sewage sample can be determined as:
Mathematical relationship for BOD removal: In most of the cases, it is necessary to estimate first-stage
BOD, but in laboratory, the standard BOD 5 at 20°C is generally estimated. Hence, a mathematical
relationship between 5 days BOD and first stage BOD will be useful.
The rate of biochemical oxidation of organic matter depends on temperature, and the amount and
nature of organic matter present in sewage at any time.
Thus, at a certain temperature, the rate of deoxygenating constant is proportional to the remaining
amount of Unoxidised organic matter present at that time. The relational is shown mathematically, it can be
written.
This is called the first stage BOD equation or simply the BOD equation, in which Yt is the BOD
of t days (or oxygen absorbed in t days).

Hence, the ultimate first stage BOD (Yu) is equal to oxygen equivalent of the organic matter present
in the sewage initially (i.e., at the start), and it a fixed quantity that does not depend upon the temperature
of oxidation.
The value of KD varies with the temperature of the sewage and is given, by the formula,
KD at T°C = KD at 20° [1.047]T- 20°
where KD at T°C = Deoxygenation constant at temperature T°C
KD at 20°C = Deoxygenation constant at 20°C. Its value varies from 0.05 to 0.2 per day.

The organic matter, infact, is of two types; i.e. that which is biologically oxidized (i.e oxidized by
bacteria) and is called biological active or biologically degradable; and (ii) which cannot be oxidized
biologically, and is called biologically inactive.
Hence, the BOD of water during 5 days at 20oC is generally taken as the standard demand, and is
about 68% of the total demand. A 10 day BOD is about 90% of the total.
This standard 5 day BOD, written as BOD 5, or simply as BOD is determined in the laboratory by
mixing or diluting a known volume of a sample of wastewater with a known volume of aerated pure water,
4
and then calculating the D.O of this diluted sample. The diluted sample is then incubated for 5 days at 20 C.
The D.O of diluted sample is again calculated.
The difference between the initial D.O value and the final D.O. value will indicate the oxygen
consumed by the sewage sample in 5 days (used in causing aerobic decomposition of wasters). The BOD
or BOD5 = D.O consumed in the test by the diluted sample

 Vol. of the diluted sample 

 
Vol. of the undiluted sewage sample 
The factor on the right hand side is the above equation is nothing but the dilution factor.
Say for example, 2% diluated sample means: 2 ml of sewage is diluted to make 100 ml of test sample; and
hence diluate factor would be 100/2=50.
In actual experimentation in the laboratory, we generally use 300 ml sized BOD test bottles. The
given volume of sample, say 4 ml is then place in the bottle, and mixed with pure aerated water to make
300 ml diluted sample. This sample is then incubated at 20 oC for 5 days. Light must be excluded from the
incubator to prevent algal growth that may produce oxygen in the bottle.
The first demand during the first 20 days, occurs due to the oxidation of organic matter, and is called
carbonaceous demand or first state demand or initial demand. The latter demand occurs due to biological
oxidation of ammonia, and is called Nitrogenous demand or Second state demand.
In fact, a Sanitary Engineer is more concerned with the first sate demand. Hence, the term BOD is
usually used to mean the first.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
It gives the amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic matter, (biologically active
as well biologically inactive), present in the sewage. Potassium dichromate or potassium permanganate
(KMnO4) used as oxidising agents to destroy the organic matter. COD test is carried out to determine the
pollutional strength of sewage because of its several advantages over BOD test, such as - it takes only 2
hours; industrial wastes do not respond to BOD test, so COD test is must; and where the presence of toxic
materials is likely to interfere with the BOD, then COD test is very useful.
The biggest, and the only, disadvantage of this test is that it cannot differentiate biologically
oxidisable and biologically inert organic matter; and in sewage treatment, biologically active organic
matter's quantity is of utmost importance.
In order to perform this test, a known quantity of waste water is mixed with known quantity of
standard solution of potassium dichromate, and the mixture is heated. The organic matter is oxidized by
K2Cr2O7 (in the presence of H2SO4).
The resulting solution of K2Cr2O7 is titrated, and the oxygen used in oxidizing the wastewater is
determined. This is called as C.O.D and is a measure of total organic matter (biodegradable as well as non-
biodegradable) present in sewage.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
Another important method of expressing organic matter is in terms of its carbon content. Carbon is the
primary constituent of organic matter, and hence the chemical formula of every organic compound will
reflect the extent of carbon present in that compound. Known concentrations of such chemical compounds
in given waste water will thus theoretically calculate the carbon present in that wastewater per liter of
solution.
(ix) Relative stability. The stability of sewage is just the opposite of putresibility. Relative stability is defined
as the percentage ratio of dissolved oxygen available in the sewage/waste to the total oxygen required to

5
completely satisfy the first stage BOD. It is expressed as percentage of the total oxygen required, and can
be computed as
Relative stability (S) = 100 [1 - (0.794)t20]
or S = 100 [1 - (0.630)t37]

t
where, 20 and t31 represent the time in days for a sewage sample to decolourise a standard volume of
methylene blue solution, when incubated at 20°C and 37°C respectively.
BOD
Ratio. Ultimate BOD (BODu) is the oxygen required for oxidizing the biodegradable Organics of a
COD
given wastewater. COD, on the other hand, is the oxygen required to oxidize the biodegradable organics
(BO’s) as well as the Non-Biodegradable Organics (NBO’s) both. COD of a wastewater will, therefore
always be more than its BODU, since their difference will represent the quantity of NBO’s present in the
BOD u
given wastewater. The ratio, will, therefore, always be less than1.0; but this value shall approach
COD
towards 1.0 with the decreasing amount of NBO’s. If this ratio is found to be between 0.92 to 1.0, the
wastewater can be considered to be fully biodegradable.
BOD 5
Since BOD5 is about 68%of BODu, we can easily state that ratio should for fully-biodegradable
COD
wastewaters, vary between (0.92×0.68=0.63) to (1.0×0.68=0.68). Any wastewater, having its BOD/COD
ratio more than 0.63 can hence, be considered to be quite amenable to biological treatment, since it
contains very little zero non biodegradable organics.
COD/TOC Ratio: The total carbonaceous organics present in a given wastewater can be assessed by
computing TOC of the wastewater, by converting the carbonaceous organics to CO2, which is measure by
infra-red analysis, and converted instrumentally to the origonal organic carbon content.
TOC is related to COD through a carbon–oxygen balance, such as in the oxidation of Glucose
C6H12O6+6O2 → 6CO2+ 6H2O
We will have,
COD 6 mol ofO 2 6  32
   2.66.
TOD 6 mol of C 6  12
Depending on the organic matter, the COD/TOC ratio may vary from zero (for an organic material resistant
to dichromate oxidation), to 5.33 for methane. Since the organic content undergoes change during
biological oxidation, it can be expected that COD/TOC ratio will also change.
Population Equivalent
The average standard five day BOD of domestic sewage is about 0.08 kg/day/person. Population
equivalent is generally used in rating the strength of industrial wastes in connection with the treatment loads
that they place upon municipal sewage treatment plants. It is used as a means of assessing charges for
waste treatment against industries, rather than consideration of volume only. The strength of the industrial
sewage is worked out as
Total 5 day BOD Standard 5 day BOD
of industrial sewage = of domestic sewage × Population Equivalent

For example, if the 5 day BOD of waste coming from an industry is 400 kg/day, then

6
 Total5 day BOD of Industrial sewage / day
Pop.Eq. 
0.08 kg / day / person
400
  5,000
0.08

WASTEWATER TREATMENT FLOWSHEET

SCREENING
 Screening is the first unit operation in wastewater treatment plants.
 A screen is a device (with openings) that is used to retain the coarse solids, or the residual Ss,
larger particles of floating and suspended nature.
 The screening element may consist of parallel bars, rods, wire mesh and the openings are generally
circular.
 A screen composed of parallel bars / rods is known as a bar rack / bar screen.
 The materials removed by screens are known as screenings. Screenings consists of debris like
leaves, paper, plastics, rags, organic matter. Coarse screenings are highly volatile (80-90% V.S.
Content, 15-25% Dry solid content).
 In large plants, at least 2 screens are provided in parallel and are generally accommodated in 1
screen chamber.
 The cross-sectional area of this chamber is always greater than that of inflowing wastewater.
 In wastewater treatment, bar rocks are used to protect pumps, valves, pipelines and other
mechanical equipments from damage or by clogging.
 Quantity of solids removed by screening depends mainly on screen opening size.
 Although no precise definition of screenable material exists and no recognized method of measuring
the quantities of screenings is available.
Types Of Screens, Their Designs And Cleaning
Depending upon the size of openings, screens may be classified as coarse screens, medium screens, and
fine screens.
(i) Coarse screens are also known as racks, and the spacing between the bars (i.e., opening size)
is about 50 mm or more. These screens do help in removing large floating objects from sewage. The
material separated by coarse screens, usually consists of rags, wood, paper, etc., which will not putrefy,
and may be disposed of by incineration, burial, or sumping.
(ii) In medium screens, the spacing between bars is about 6 to 40 mm. The screenings usually
contain some quantity of organic material, which may putrefy and become offensive, and must, therefore,
be disposed of by incineration, or burial (not by dumping).
Rectangular shaped coarse and medium screens are now-a-days widely used at sewage treatment plants.
They are made of steelbars, fixed parallel to one another at desired spacing on a rectangular steel frame,
and are called bar screens. The screens are set in a masonary or R.C.C. chamber, called screen chamber.
Now-a-days, these screens are generally kept inclined at about 30 to 60o to the direction of flow, so as to
increase the opening area, and to reduce the flow velocity; and thus making the screening more effective.
While designing the screens, clear openings should have sufficient total area, so that the velocity through
them is not more than 0.8 to 1m/sec. This limit, placed on velocity, limits th head loss through the screens,
and thus, reduces the opportunity for screenings to be pushed through the screens.
7
The material collected on bar screens can be removed either manually or mechanically. Manual cleaning is
practiced at small plants with hand operated rakes. The inclined screens help in their cleaning by the
upward strokes of the rake. Large plants, however, use mechanically operated rakes, which move over the
screens, either continuously or intermittently.
The cleaning of screens by rakes will be hindered by cross bars, if at all provided. They are, therefore,
generally avoided. Screens are sometimes classified as fixed or movable, depending upon whether the
screens are stationary or capable of motion.
Fixed screens are permanently set in position. Movable screens are stationary during their operating
periods. But they can be lifted up bodily and removed from their positions for the purpose of cleaning. A
common movable bar medium screen is a 3-sided cage with a bottom of perforated plates. It is mainly used
in deep pits ahead of pumps.
(iii) Fine Screens have perforations of 1.5 - 3 mm in size. The installation of these screens
prove very effective, and they remove as much as 20% of the suspended solids from sewage. These
screens, however, get clogged very often, and need frequent cleaning. They are, therefore, used only for
treating the wastewaters, or for treating those municipal wastewaters, which are associated with heavy
amounts of industrial wastewaters. These screens will considerably reduce the lord on further treatment
units.
Brass or Bronze plates or wire mesh are generally used for constructing fine screens. The material
used should be resistant to rust and corrosion. The fine screens may be disc or drum type, and are
operated continuously by electric motors.

GRIT REMOVAL

 Grit consists of inorganic particles having a diameter ranging from 0.15 mm – 0.20 mm and specific
gravity of 2.65
 The grit chamber is provided to decrease the load on the down stream processes as well as to,
protect the moving mechanical equipments and pumps.
 The grit consists of sand, silt, metal fragments, crushed gravels (very small) or other parcels having
specific gravity more than the organic particles.
 Being inorganic in nature, the grit is usually inactive, abrasive and non-biodegradable.
 A grit chamber is an enlarged channel or a long basin, in which the cross-section is increased, so as
to reduce the flow velocity of sewage to such an extent that the heavy inorganic materials do settle
down by gravity, and the lighter organic materials remain in suspension.
 The important point in the design of the grit basins is that the flow velocity should neither be too low
as to cause the settling of lighter organic matter, nor should it be so high as not to cause the
settlement of the entire silt and grit present in sewage. The flow velocity should also be enough to
scour out the settled organic matter, and reintroduce it into the flow stream
 If, a single unit is to be designed, or there are large variations in discharge, then the grit chamber is
designed for generating optimum velocity at peak discharge and a velocity control section, such as
a proportional flow weir or a parshall flume (venturiflume), is provided at the lower (effluent) end of
the grot channel, which helps in varying the flow area of the section in direct proportion to the flow,
and thus, helps to maintain a constant velocity in the channel (within the permissible limits of  5 to
10% over the designed value), even at varying discharges.

8
  The depth and detention times provided for a grt basin are interdependent, and are based on the
considerations of settling velocity of inorganic particles through water. A detention time of about 40
to 60 seconds (I minute) is generally sufficient for a water depth of about 1 to 1.8m.
 Generally two to three separate chambers in parallel should be provided; one to pass the low flow,
and the other to pass (along with the first of course) the high flow. This will also help in manual
cleaning of the chambers, as one unit can work, while the other is shut down for cleaning.
 The grit chambers can be cleaned periodically at about 3-weeks interval, either manually,
mechanically or hydraulically. In manual cleaning, grit is removed by shovels, etc., by hand; in
mechanical cleaning, the grit is removed with the help of machines; and in hydraulic cleaning, grit is
removed by the force of water-jet directed from a central point and removed through the pipes in the
side walls or bottom of the chamber.
 The removed grit may contain some organic matter, and can be washed prior to the disposal.
 The design concentration of a grit chamber includes
 Hydraulic retention time = 60 sec (at peak flow)
 Horizontal velocity (VH)  0.3 m/s
 Surface overflow rate = 100m 3/m2-d for the removal of grit particles.
 The width of chamber is taken between 2-3 m while the length is considered to be in the
range of 15-20 m.
 The particles having lesser settling velocities (V S) through these tanks. It is undesirable to remove
the organic particles from the tank. To achieve this, the scouring velocity is maintained.
Scouring Velocity – it is that velocity which resuspend the settled organic particles and does not disturb
the inorganic particles.
The horizontal velocity is given by
1
 8β S  1 g D  2
Vh   
 f 
where  = a constant factor (0.04-0.06)
f = friction factor generally taken as 0.03 for the settling tanks nd grit chambers.
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
S = Specific gravity (of the particle to be removed)
D = Diameter of the particles
The value of Vh is generally taken as in the range of 0.2-0.3 m/s.

SEDIMENTATION TANK

 It is an unit operation designed to reduce the organic load on the secondary units by the removal of
solid particle.
 The organic portion (solid particles) is slightly heavier than of water and therefore settles slowly (1-
2.5 m /hr).
 The removal efficiency of the sedimentation tank include 50-70% for suspended solid or 25-40% for
BOD.
 The sludge (settled solid) should be removed from time to time, so as to avoid the anaerobic
conditions.

9
Principle of Sedimentation
 The organic matter present in the sewage have the specific gravity somewhat greater than the water
( > 1.0 ). In the flowing condition, these particles remain in suspension, due to turbulence of water.
 In still conditions, they settle down due tio gravity.
 As soon as the turbulence is stopped by offering stirage to the waste water, the solid particles tend
to settle down to the bottom of the tank, this is the principle of sedimentation.
Factors Affecting the Settlement / Settling Process
The settlement of a particle due to gravity in a liquid medium is mainly opposed by the following factors:
1. The velocity of flow which carries the particle horizontally; the greater the flow area, lesser is the
velocity and hence the particles settles down more easily.
2. The viscosity of the liquid medium in which the particles travel. The viscosity varies inversely with
the temperature. Warm water is less viscous and thus offers less resistance to the settlement.
(Note) this factor is generally ignored since the temperature of the sewage can’t be controlled to
any appreciable extent.
3. The size, shape and specific gravity of the particle: the greater the specific gravity, the more easily
4 3
the particle settles for size and shape, spherical shaped particles include the volume V = π r and
3
π 2
Area A = D , therefore very small particles settles very slowly.
4

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS

 It is a process used for the treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater.

 After screening, the raw influent enters into the PST which removes a major portion of settleable
solid.
 Then the wastewater passes to the aeration tank where it is aerated and agitated.
 
O2 supply Mixed
 It consists of W/W  Air + Nutrient + M/O

Supply of N & P
 
Urea DAP (Di ammonium Phosphate)
 Then the wastewater passes to the settling tank. A portion of the settled sludge activated sludge is
sent back to the aeration tank and the excess quantity is treated and disposed off.
 This process removes the BOD in the range of 80-95% and the suspended solid from 60-70%.
 By surface aeration, the water droplets come in contact with the atmospheric oxygen and thus
increases the dissolved oxygen (DO) of the influent.
 The aerators provide the O2 and keep the contents of the tank fully mixed and in suspension.
 As the microorganism grow and are mixed, they flocculate together and forms a biological mass
known as activated sludge.
The effluent from PST passes to the aeration tank, where it is aerated (air supply) and agitated
(mixed).
The water in A.T. is known as mixed liquor.
10
 A.T.  wastewater + Air (induced) + Nutrients (W & P) + M / O
= Biological flocs / MLSS
Then, the water passes to the final settling tanks. A part of the settled sludge (activated sludge) is
sent back (20-30%) to A.T and excess quantity is treated and disposed off.
ASP removes the BOD in the range of 80-95% and SS from 60-70%.
By surface aeration, water droplets come in contact with atmospheric O 2and thus increases the D.O
of the influent. A D.O of 2-3 mg/l is maintained.
Aerators provide the O2 and keep the contents of the tank fully mixed and in suspension.
As the M/O grow and are mixed (by agitation of air), they flocculate together and form a biological
mass known as activated sludge.
A increase in the temperature of 10oC, will reduce the reaction rate by 50%.
Low pH values lead to the growth of nitrifying and filamentous organisms
Weight of O2 required /day :
 VX 
= 1.47 Q (So – S) – 1.42  
 θc 
where Q = inflow of waste
So, S = Influent and effluent BOD
V = Volume of A. Tank
X = Concentration of M/O in A.T.
c = mean cell residence time.

Raw Sewage Screens Grit removal PST A.T SST

Sludge thickener Treated W/W

Sludge digestion
Sludge drying beds
Flow chart of ASP
Advantages
1. Lesser land is required
2. No fly or odour nuisance
3. Greater flexibility of operation
4. Lower initial cost.
Disadvantages
1. High cost of operation, with greater power consumption.
2. Lot of machinery is required to be handled.
3. Shock loadings have adverse effects on the working and hence on the efficiency of the plant.
4. Bulking and rising of sludge.
5. Quantity of return sludge has to be adjusted from time to time.

The loading rates terms of ASP include:

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I. Aeration Period (HRT)
V
θ V  volume of A.T ( m3)
Q
Q  Discharge into A.T. (excluding the returned sludge, m 3/day)
  Aeration period (Days)
II. Volumetric Loading (Organic Loading)
It is given by
Mass of BOD per day to aeration tank from the influent
V.L =
Volume of aeration tank
Q.S 0
=
V
where Q = Flow into A.T. (m 3)
S0 = BOD of influent (mg/l)
V = Volume of A.T. (m3)
III. Food to Mass Ratio (F/M)
It is given by
F Incoming substrate

M Mass of cells in the reactor
it is taken as 0.2-0.5

IV. Sludge Age: it is defined as the average time for which the suspended solid remain under aeration.

STABILIZATION PONDS

 A shallow body in an earthen basin used for treating wastewater through natural purification by
suspended culture biological system is known as a stabilization pond. It is also known as oxidation
pond.
 A small portion of the pond is aerobic to produce an acceptable effluent. They are used in small
areas  of their low construction and operating costs. Stabilization ponds may be used in parallel or
series to achieve the desired objectives.
Series high level of BOD or coliform removal is required
Parallel for better distribution of solids
 Large volume to inflow ratio provides dilution to minimize the hydraulic and organic loadings, which
are highly variable.
 The main disadvantages of the high SS concentration in the effluent and odor problems during
winter season.
 Stabilization ponds are classified according to the nature of biological activity taking place in it. E.g.,
aerobic, anaerobic and facultative ( aerobic and naerobic). They are also classified on the type of
influent (Untreated, screened or after partial treatment) pond overflow condition (non-existent,
intermittent, or continuous) and the method of oxygenation (Photosynthesis, surface aeration or by
diffusers).

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Classification
Aerobic Ponds: Shallow ponds in which the dissolved oxygen is present at all depths’ are known as
aerobic ponds. They are also known as polishing or tertiary ponds. Diameter < 1.2 m, Area required is
more.
Anaerobic Ponds: Deep ponds in which oxygen is absent except for a relatively thin surface layer
are known as anaerobic ponds. They are used for partia; treatment of high strength wastewater but are
followed with aerobic treatment. Surrounding area may get affected by CH 4 and H2S, which are odor
causing gases.
Diameter  3.0 m
Facultative Ponds: These are the ponds in which both aerobic and anaerobic zones exist. They
are used for the complete treatment of municipal / domestic wastewater.
Depth varies from 0.9 – 2.0 m
Detention time : 7-30 days.
System Biology
 Aerobic conditions exist in the upper portion of the pond by oxygen generated by algae and
penetration of atmospheric oxygen.
 Sludge remains at the bottom portion due to stagnant conditions and anaerobic conditions exist
there.
 The boundary between aerobic and anaerobic zones is not stationary. It varies with the mixing by
wind action, penetration of sunlight etc.
 The volume through which the present of d.o fluctuates is known as facultative zone.
 Products of anaerobic zone (organic acids and gases) are released and become soluble food for
organisms in aerobic zone.
 Biological solids produced in aerobic zone, settle to the bottom and ths providing food for anaerobic
organisms.
 The relationship between algae and oxygen is mutually beneficial and is also known as symbiotic
relationship.
 The biological reactions get doubled for each 10 oc rise in the temperature of water, under naturally
occurring temperature ranges. Near freezing temperature, the biological activity ceases.

TRICKLING FILTER

 They are also known as percolating filters or sprinkling filters. They consist of tanks of coasser filter
media, over which the wastewater is allowed to sprinkle downwards, by means of spray nozzles or
rotary distributors.
 The filtered waste water is collected at the bottom of the tank through a under drainage system.
 The purification is done mainly by the aerobic bacteria, which forms a bacterial film around the
particle of the filtering media.
 Sufficient quantity of oxygen is supplied for the growth of these bacteria’s and for ventilation facility
in the body of the filter.the treated wastewater coming out from the filters is taken into sedimentation
tank. The influent entering the filter unit should be provided with screening and pre-sedimentation.

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 Difference Between High rate Trickling Filter and Standard Rate Filter
S.No. Characteristics Standard Rate Filter Higher Rate Filter
(Slow Or Conventional)
1 Depth of filter media 1.6-2.4 mm 1.2-1.8 mm
2 Size of filter media 25-75 mm 25-60 mm
3 Land required More Less
4 Cost of operation More Less
5. Method of operation Continuous, less skilled Continuous
supervision required operation and skilled
supervision required
6. Dosing Interval 3-10 min. Not supplied Less than 15 sec,
continuously but at wastewater is
regular interval. applied continuously.
7. Filter Loading Values
(i) Hydraulic Loading 20-44 M. Litre/ Hectare / 110-330 M. Litre/
day Hectare / day
(ii) Organic Loading 900-2200 Kg BODs/ 6000-18000 Kg
hac-M / day -m
BODs/ hac / day
8. Type of Effluent Highly stabilized with Less stable and of
produced BOD of less or equal to  BOD  30 ppm.
20 ppms

Merits
I. Lesser space is required and smaller quantities of filter media for their installation.
II. 75% of the BOD removal and about 80% for the suspended solid.
III. Easy operation, doesn’t require any skilled supervision.
IV. Flexible in operation and therefore handle the sewages/ wastewater of different concentration and
composition.
V. Moisture content of the sludge obtained is about 99%.
Demerits
II. The head loss through these filters is high, making automatic control dosing necessary.
III. Cost of construction is high.
IV. They can not treat the raw wastewater directly, the primary sedimentation is must.
V. The operational troubles include fly nuisance, odour nuisance and pending trouble.

Rotating Biological Contactors

 The rotating biological contactors (RBC) reactor is a unique adaptation of the attached growth process.
Media in the form of large, flat disks mounted on a common shaft are rotated through specially
contoured tanks in which wastewater flows on a continuous basis.
 The medium consists of plastic sheets ranging from 2 to 4 m in diameter and up to 10 mm thick. Spacing
between flat disks is approximately 30 to 40 mm. The disks are mounted through the center on a steel shaft in

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 widths up to 8 m. Several modules may be arranged in parallel and / or in series to meet the flow and
treatment requirements.
 The disks are submerged in the wastewater to about 40 percent of their diameter and are rotated by
power supplied to the shaft. Approximately 95 percent of the surface area is thus alternatively immersed
in the wastewater and then exposed to the atmosphere above the liquid.
 Rotational speed of the unit ranges from 1 to 2 r/min and must be sufficient to maintain enough
turbulence to keep the solids in suspension as the wastewater passes through the tank.
 Microorganisms growing on the medium surface remove substrate from the wastewater and oxygen
from the air to sustain their metabolic processes. Thickness of the biofilm may reach 2 to 4 mm,
depending on the wastewater strength and the rotational speed of the disk. Since the biofilm is
oxygenated externally from the wastewater, anaerobic conditions may develop in the liquid.
 Under normal operating conditions carbonaceous substrate is removed in the initial stages of the RBC.
Carbon conversion may be completed in the first stage of a series of modules, with nitrification being
completed after the fifth stage. Most designs of RBC systems will include a minimum of four or five
modules in series to obtain nitrification of the wastewater.
 Design of an RBC unit is based on hydraulic loading rates. The process appears to be well suited to the
treatment of municipal wastewater, however, one module of 3.7 m in diameter by 7.6 m long contain
approximately 10,000 m 2 of surface area for biofilm growth.
 The advantages include no recirculating effluent through the reactor and low power requirement with
simple operating procedures.
 Disadvantages of the system include a lack of documented operating experience, high capital cost, and
sensitivity to temperature.

Wastewater Irrigation & Reuse

It is a practice of disposing the wastewater, provided complete treatment is given to the waste. The
degree of pre-treatment before its application varies with the nature of crop to be grown. E.g. if the crops
are grown for animal consumption or for seed production, than a lower quality effluent can be used in
comparison to the crops to be grown for human consumption.
This water should not be used to irrigate the vegetables that are eaten raw / uncooked. Some of the
effluent is lost due to evaporation or due to perodation (beyond the reach of plant roots).
But most of the water is incorporated into the plant tissue or is transpired into the atmosphere. The
wastewater is also used for maintaining greenery in parks, golf courses, Lang freeways, etc. The
application of wastewater is done by sprinkling, flooding or ridge and furrow techniques. Sprinkling irrigation
is the most common type of method used with application rates of 2.5-10 cm/week, depending on climate,
soil conditions and the water and nutrient requirements of the plants.

The disadvantages to the use of wastewater for irrigation purposes include:

1. Large-scale irrigation systems are generally located at a greater distance from populated areas. The
cost of conveyance systems to the sight is high.
2. The nozzles of the sprinklers may get choked with the solids present in wastewater.
3. In large, high-pressure sprinkler systems, aerosols can be formed which may transport viral pathogens.

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 Anaerobic Digestion

 It is a process of decomposing the organic matters of the wastewater aerobically.

 The sludge is broken mainly into three forms:
I. The digested sludge with reduced moisture content.
II. Supernatent liquor, which include the liquefied and finely divided solid matters.
III. Gases of decomposition, i.e., CH4, CO2 etc.
 The digested sludge (treated sludge) is dewatered, dried-up and is used as an organic manure. The
gases produced are used as a fuel for driving the gas engines.
 The supernatent liquor is retreated at the treatment plant with the inlet wastewater.
 The stages involved in the process of anaerobic digestion include:
I. Acidification :- It is the first step of digestion in which the bacteria (acid formers) acts on the
organic matters and produces fatty acids and the pH is lowered to 6.
II. Liquifaction:- In this stage, the above acids produced are transformed from large solid particles to
finely divided form.
III. Gasification :- It is the last stage of digestion in which the proteins and organic acids are broken
up with the evolution of CO2 and CH4. the pH rises
Acidification Fatty Acids Liquidification Fine Form Gasification
Organic Matter
Acid Formers Protein CH4, CO2
Amino Acid
The factors affecting the proper control of digestion includes:
adjustment of temperature for developing and digesting, pH control, proper mixing, regular dosing and
withdrawal of Sludge from time to time.

ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT (AWT)

In case when large quantities of effluent are discharged into small streams or when delicate
ecosystems are encountered, AWT are used.

Nitification and De-nitrification

Nutrient Removal
The quantities of nutrients contributed by wastewater discharges are mainly by agricultural runoff
and other sources. The nutrients most often of interest are nitrogen and phosphorus compounds.
Nitrogen Removal
 In domestic wastewater, nitrogen compounds result from the biological decomposition of proteins and from
urea discharged in body waste. This nitrogen may be bound in complex organic molecules and is referred to
simply as organic nitrogen.
 Organic nitrogen may be biologically converted to free ammonia (NH 30) or to the ammonium ion (NH4+)
by one of several different metabolic pathways. These two species together termed ammonia nitrogen
exist in equilibrium according to the following relationship. Ammonia nitrogen will be biologically
oxidized to nitrate if molecular oxygen is present then
3
NH4+ + O 2  NO 2   2H   H 2 O
2

16
 1
NO2   O  NO3 
2
o These reactions result the utilization of about 4.6 mg of O2 pear each mg of NH4+ - N oxidized, with about 7.1
mg of alkalinity needed to neutralize the acid (H+) produced.
o In raw wastewater, the predominant forms of nitrogen are organic nitrogen and ammonia.
o Biological treatment results in conversion to nitrate provided the processes are aerobic and the treatment
periods are long enough. Because of oxygen demand exerted baby ammonia and because of other
environmental factors, removal of ammonia may be required. The most common processes for removing
ammonia from wastewater are (1) stripping with air and (2) biological nitrification-denitrification.
Air Stripping – Air stripping operations consist of converting ammonium to the gaseous phase and
then dispersing the liquid in air, thus allowing transfer of ammonia from the wastewater to the air.
Nitrification-denitrification – Ammonia nitrogen can be converted to gaseous nitrogen, N2, by
biological processes. In this form, nitrogen id essentially inert and does not react with wastewater itself or with
other constituents of the wastewater. Since N2 is the principal constituent of air, treated wastewater is likely to be
already saturated with molecular nitrogen and the additional N2 is simply released to the atmosphere.
Phosphorus Removal
 The principal forms are organically bound phosphorus, polyphosphates, and orthophosphates.
Organically bound phosphorus originates from body and food waste and upon biological decomposition
of these solids, is released as orthophosphates. Polyphosphates are used extensively in synthetic
detergents and often contribute up to one-half the phosphorus in wastewater and can be hydrolyzed to
orthophosphates.
 Thus the principal form of phosphorus in wastewater is assumed to be orthophosphates, although the
other two forms may coexist.
 Orthophosphates consist of the negative radical PO 43-, HPO42-, and H2PO4- and may form chemical
combinations with cations or positive radicals. In most cases the compounds are quite soluble and
phosphate removal in conventional primary treatment is negligible.
 The principal means of phosphorus removal is chemical precipitation. At slightly acidic pH, orthophosphates
combine with trivalent aluminum or iron cat ions to form a precipitate.
Al3 - + (H2PO4)(3-n) -  AlPO4  + nH-
Fe3 - + (H2PO4)(3-n) -  FePO4  + nH-
At high pH values, calcium forms an insoluble complex with phosphate. The addition of lime can provide
both the calcium and the pH adjustment necessary
5Ca(OH)2 + 3 (H2PO4)(3-n) -  Ca2(OH) (PO4)3 + n H2O – (9-n) OH-
This reaction requires pH of at least 9.0 for significant phosphorus removal. Higher pH values generally increase
removal efficiencies. However, recarbonation may be necessary to lower the pH after the precipitation process has
removed the phosphorus.
Suspended Solids Removal
The methods available for removing residual suspended solids from wastewater include centrifugation, air
floatation, mechanical microscreening and granular-media filtration. Sand filters have been used to polish effluents
from septic tanks. Imhoff tanks, and other anaerobic treatment units. Since they are alternatively dosed and
allowed to dry, the term intermittent sand filter is used. Effluent concentrations of less than 10mg./l of BOD
and suspended solids have been reported at filtering rates of 0.37 to 0.56 m 3/m2.d.

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