20

THE SELECTION OF PLANT FIBERS AND

WOOD IN THE MANUFACTURE OF ORGANIC
HOUSEHOLD ITEMS FROM THE EL-GABALEIN
AREA, EGYPT

Nahed Mourad Waly

The Archaeobotany Laboratory

Cairo University Herbarium, Giza, Egypt

ABSTRACT

Samples of basketry, matting, and rope as well as wooden artefacts were examined
to identify the plant species used in their manufacture. Ten plant species native to Egypt
were recorded, of which seven were fiber-producing and three woody plants. These com-
prise flax (Linum usitatissimum ), haifa grass (Desmostachya bipinnata), foxtail sedge
(Cyperus alopecuroides), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), bitter rush (Juncus rigidus),
common reed (Phragmites australis), garawan ( Ceruana pratensis), and the woody taxa
are Nile tamarisk (Tamarix nilotica), desert tamarisk ( Tamarix aphylla) and desert acacia
(Acacia raddiana). The results indicate that particular plant species and parts of plants
were carefully selected to take advantage of their physical properties.
Keywords: basketry, matting, rope, household items, plant fiber, wood, el-Gabalein,
Egypt.

1. INTRODUCTION

The exceptional preservation conditions at archaeological sites in Egypt have al-

lowed the survival of many organic household goods, such as basketry, matting, rope,
brooms, brushes, and textiles. Many of these artefacts have used fiber and timber plants in
their manufacture, and their good preservation enables detailed anatomical features to be
recorded. In this paper a collection of such artefacts is examined in order to identify which
plant species were used and to try and detect any pattern in the choice of plant species for
particular purposes.
The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa. edited by Van der Yeen.
Kluwer Academic I Plenum Publishers, New York, 1999. 261
262 N.M. Waly

Table 1. Cultural period and date of the objects analyzed, by sample number
Sample Cultural period and date
QAll, QA41, QA1172 and QA1175 Middle Kingdom (2040- 1780 BC)
QA4, QA35, QA54, QA79, and QA103-105 Late Period (712- 332 BC)
QA122, QA123, QA124, QA141, QA142 Graeco-Roman Period (332 BC - AD 395)
QA146 and QA159

All the artefacts studied here are kept in the museum of the Department of Anatomy,
Faculty of Medicine, Qasr el-Aini, of the University of Cairo. They date to a number of
different cultural periods (see Table I for details), but all originate from the el-Gabalein
area of Egypt, situated between the present-day towns of Luxor and Esna, on the boundary
of the 3rd and 4th nomes of ancient Upper Egypt. In both ancient Egyptian and Arabic the
name means 'the two hills', a reference to two conspicuous hills on the west bank of the
Nile at this point (Baines and Malek, 1980). Tombs, mainly of the I st Intermediate Period
(2134-2040 BC) are located on the western hill, and a temple dedicated to Hathor on the
eastern hill, with the town on the plain below. The temple existed as early as the 3rd Dy-
nasty (268~2613 BC) and was still functioning in the Graeco-Roman period (Baines and
Malek, 1980: 82-83).

2. ANATOMICAL DESCRIPTIONS
Thin sections (30-50 Jlm) of each object were examined by light microscopy for de-
tails of characteristic anatomical features. Procedures and descriptions follow Fahn,
Werker and Baas ( 1986), Greiss ( 1957) and Waly ( 1995). The examined samples, although
very brittle, were generally well preserved, desiccated due to the arid conditions in Egypt.
Some specimens, however, were poorly preserved with most of their cells having disinte-
grated; in these cases the use of modem material for comparative purposes was particu-
larly crucial. Below the anatomical features displayed by the archaeological material is
described. For more detailed descriptions the reader is referred to Catling and Grayson
(I982), Fahn et al. (1986), Greiss (1957), and Waly (1995).
The samples examined are numbered as follows: each sample is preceded by the
symbol QA (denoting Qasr el-Aini) followed by the number of the sample, and then the
number of the object (e.g. QA54.a I, a complete head-rest, is specimen a I of sample 54).

2.1. Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera L.

In cross-section, the epidermis of the upper and lower surfaces of the leaflets forms
a slightly undulating layer. The mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy
layers. Patches of thick-walled lignified fibers and large oval-shaped collateral vascular
bundles are embedded at irregular intervals in the mesophyll. Between the collateral vas-
cular bundles small rounded reduced bundles are present. Each vascular bundle has a cap-
like sheath of thick-walled fibers (Figure I).
QA41.5 Rope and wood fragment.
QA122-124.al Three pieces of matting 40 em wide, bound by palm strip.
QA122-124.a8 Four horizontal cylindrical pieces of basketry each 40 em long and 3 em in diameter. The
central core of each piece is a group of culms of reed, bound externally by strips of date
palm leaflets.
QA122-124.al0 Part of a basket, the central core is haifa grass and the outer coiling is of date palm leaflet
strips wrapped in a piece of flax textile;
QA1172 Fiber ring.
The Selection of Plant Fibers and Wood 263

Figure 1. Location map.

2.2. Haifa Grass, Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf

In cross-section, the epidermis of the lower surface of the leaf is undulating and
composed of roundish cells and elongated silica cells. The margin is occupied by a trian-
gular sub-epidermal patch of thick-walled lignified fibers. There is no differentiation be-
tween palisade or spongy tissue. Vascular bundles do not occupy the entire space between
the upper and lower epidermis.
QA122-124.al Three pieces of matting 40 em long, I 0 em wide, bound by a palm strip.
QA122-124.a.IO Part of a basket, the central core is haifa grass, the outer coiling is of palm leaflet
strips wrapped in a piece of flax textile.
QAI41-142.a3/a4 Piece of rope c. 30 em long, made of coiled haifa grass leaves.
QAI41-142.a6 Matting of haifa grass leaves, 40--60 em long, bound together with leather strips.

2.3. Bitter Rush, Juncus rigidus Desf.

In cross-section, the culm is circular in outline. Epidermal cells are radially elon-
gated with a thick cuticle. The outermost region forms a continuous zone of chlorenchyma
cells in which elongated patches of sclerenchyma are embedded. Small reduced vascular
bundles are scattered in this zone. Larger vascular bundles of variable size with spindle-
shaped sheaths are distributed in the ground tissue (Figure 2). For more detailed descrip-
tions see Cutler (1969).
QA146 Piece of matting, c. 50 em long.

2.4. Foxtail sedge, Cyperus alopecuroides Roxb.

In cross-section, the culm is more or less triangular in outline. The epidermal cells
are uniform in size and shape, covered with thin cuticle. The outermost zone of the ground
tissue is formed of alternating patches of fibers and reduced vascular bundles embedded in
thin walled parenchyma. The remaining part of the ground tissue consists of polygonal
thin-walled parenchyma and aerenchyma where vascular bundles are scattered. Each bun-
dle is surrounded by a thick-walled sheath. The central zone of the ground tissue is
arenchymatous with wide air lacunae (Figure 3).
264 N.M. Waly

Figure 2. Transverse section of leaflets of Phoenix da ctylifera; xl25 (QA122-124.a8).

QAII.al Two pieces of thin ropes of coiled culms.

QA 122- 124.a5 Fragment of matting, 30 em x I 0 em , of culms, bound at intervals with similar material.
QA122- 124.a9 Longitudinal piece of basketry 15 em x 5 em; the central core is made of sedge culms which
are bound together by rope in perpendicular direction, woven from date palm leaflets.
QA146.al Fragment of matting.

2.5. Common reed, Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trio. ex Steud.

In cross-section, the culm is rounded and hollow. The epidermis is thick-walled and
intercalated with suberized silica cells and stomata. The outer cortex consists of large
cells, with air lacunae formed from the disintegration of patches of thin-walled paren-
chyma. The outer undulating thick walled cells surround the inner cortex where small vas-
cular bundles are embedded. Large vascular bundles are scattered in the ground tissue
unsheathed by thick-walled lignified cells (Figure 4). For a more detailed description see
Schweingruber ( 1990).
QA 122-124.a8 Four horizontal cylindrical pieces of basketry, each 40 em long and 3 em in diameter. The
central core of each piece is a group of culms of reed bound externally by strips of date
palm leaflets.
The Selection of Plant Fibers and Wood 265

Figure 3. Transverse section of the culm of }uncus rigidus ; x50 (QA 146).

Figure 4. Transverse section of the culm of Cyperus a/opecuroides; x50 (QA 122- 124.a5).
266 N.M. Waly

Figure 5. Transverse section of the culm of Phragmites australis; x50 (QA 122-l24.a8).

2.6. Garawan, Ceruana pratensis Forssk.

The stem is circular in cross-section. The epidermal cells are rectangular, covered
with thick cuticle, followed by a continuous ring (up to 6 layers) of collenchyma, inter-
rupted by patches of chlorenchyma. The ring of primary and secondary phloem is capped
at wide intervals by patches of lignified fibers. The complete ring of cambium produces a
complete cylinder of secondary xylem intercalated with xylem rays of lignified paren-
chyma cells (Figure 6).
QA35.a2 Piece of matting.
QA79.al Bunch of flowering and fruiting branches, 12-15 em in diameter.
QA122- l24.a2 Decayed fragment of a basket. The central core is made of sterile branches of garawan.
which are bound by coiled branches of the same plant.
QA l22- l24.a4 Basal part of a basket spiral coiled in a circle. 12 em in diameter. The coiled branches
are of sterile garawan which are bound together at intervals of 3 em by thinner
garawan branches. (Figure 5).
QA122- 124.a7 Boat-shaped basketry fragment made of sterile branches of garawan bound horizontally
at intervals by thin coiled branches of the same plant.
QA141-142.a6.i Garland or bouquet of flowering branches.
QA 141-142.a6.ii A bouquet of flowering and fruiting branches.
QA146.a2 Basketry fragment.

2.7. Flax, Linum usitatissimum L.

The stem is rounded in transverse section and the epidermis has a well-developed
cuticle. The outer cortex consists of two to four layers of chlorenchyma; below this are the
pericyclic fibers. In mature stems, the phloem and xylem form a continuous cylinder,
The Selection of Plant Fibers and Wood 267

Figure 6. Basal part of a basket, spiral coiled

into a circle, 12 em in diameter. The coiled
branches are of sterile garawan, bound together at
intervals of 3 em by thinner garawan branches
(QA122- 124.a4.).

crossed by medullary rays. A well-defined cambial zone is recognizable between the

phloem and xylem (Catling and Grayson 1982: 13). For more detailed description of all
features the reader is referred to Catling and Grayson ( 1982).
QA ll .a2 and a3 Rope fragments of coiled flax fibers (Figure 7).
QA4.a6 Piece of textile.
QA I 03-1 05.a 1/2/3 Knotted piece of textile.
QA 122- 124.a3 Coiled rope 6 em x I em.
QAI41-142.al Piece of textile.
QA146.a4 Fragment of textile.

2.8. Desert Acacia Acacia raddiana Savi

In transverse section, the secondary xylem consists of solitary vessels or vessels in
small clusters, the diameter of the vessels ranging between 50--190 urn, parenchyma para-
tracheal aliform to confluent bands, alternating with fiber bands. Rays multiseriate, inter-
rupting xylem vessels (Figure 8).
QA II Complete head-rest.

2.9. Nile Tamarisk, Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge

In transverse section the secondary wood is characterized by ring porous or semi-
ring porous and the cells are mostly solitary or in small clusters. Vessels of two sizes oc-
268 N. M. Waly

Figure 7. Transverse section of the stem of Ceruana prate(lsis; x50 (QA 122- 124.a4).

Figure 8. Transverse section of the stem of Linum usitatissimum; x 125 (QA 11.a2).
The Selection of Plant Fibers and Wood 269

Figure 9. Transverse section of the stem of .~ cacia raddiana: x50 (Q A II).

cur, ranging between 20-26 urn for small vessels and 80-160 urn for large vessels; paren-
chyma vasicentric (Figure I 0).
QA35.a3 and all Fragment of a wooden stick.
QA41.a2/a3/a5 Fragments of a wooden stick.
QA54.al Complete head-rest .
QA159.al Fragment of wood.
QA1172 Incomplete head-rest.
QAII75.a2 Complete head-rest (Figure 9).

2.10. Desert Tamarisk, Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst.

In transverse section, the secondary xylem consists of semi-ring porous vessels, soli-
tary or in clusters from 2-6 vessels of two size diameters ranging between 23 -I 00 urn for
small vessels and 110-160 urn for large vessels (but can reach 280 urn); parenchyma va-
sicentric, rays wide and heterocellular.
QA79.al Incomplete head-rest.

3. DISCUSSION
A summary of the identifications is given in Table 2. Most of the plant species found
were used for more than one purpose. Vegetative parts such as leaves, thin branches and
culms were used for making baskets, mats and rope; items such as head-rests and sticks
were manufactured from woody stems.
270 N.M. Waly

Figure 10. Complete head-rest (QA-1175.a2).

Basketry and mats are characterized as being either hard or soft. Hard basketry and
matting were made of herbaceous branches or culms. The identified material for such hard
basketry included thin branches of garawan (Ceruana pratensis), branches and culms of
bitter rush (Juncus rigidus) and common reed (Phragmites australis). The anatomical fea-
tures of these plant parts shed some light on why they were used for this purpose. For ex-
ample, in Ceruana pratensis the hardness of the branches is caused by the fact that the
secondary xylem forms a complete cylinder, intercalated with xylem rays of lignified pa-
renchyma. Its elasticity is achieved by the patches of fibers overlying the primary and sec-
ondary phloem at wide intervals (Figure 6). The hardness and elasticity of the culms in
Juncus and Phragmites is provided by scattered vascular bundles in a ground tissue. Each
bundle is surrounded by a lignified sheath (Figures 2 and 4).
Soft basketry or matting was made of woven culms of the foxtail sedge (Cyperus
alopecuroides), leaf strips of haifa grass (Desmostachya bipinnata) and the leaflets of date
palm (Phoenix dactylifera). The anatomical features of these vegetative parts influence their
elasticity and durability. The vascular bundles and the fiber patches in haifa grass are distrib-
uted along the leaf blade, while those of the date palm are provided with thick bundle sheaths
which are as thick as vascular elements (Figure I). In foxtail sedge the hardness of the culm is
due to the presence of sclerenchyma patches in the outer zone of the ground tissue.
Plant materials used in rope and textile need both durability and elasticity, and these
are provided by the presence of fiber patches in date palm leaflets, haifa grass leaf and
The Selection of Plant Fibers and Wood 271

Figure 11. Transverse section of the stem of Tamarix ni/()(ica; x50 (QA54.al ).

flax stem. However, the quality of rope, its strength or fragility, depends on the thickness
of the walls of the fiber cells. The thick-walled and lignified fiber cells of the date palm
bundle sheath is suitable for the manufacture of strong and durable ropes. The thin-walled
fiber cells of haifa grass leaves make less durable ropes. The pericyclic fibers of flax are
thick-walled and cellulosic and, therefore, can produce durable rope, but are more com-
monly used for weaving textiles (Figure 7).
The items made of wood (the head-rests and sticks) were manufactured from the timber
of tamarisk (Tamarix aphylla and T nilotica) and the desert acacia (A. raddiana), which are
characterized by hardness and durability due to the presence of higher percentages of lignified
wood fibers and the presence ofuni-and multi seriate lignified rays (Figures 8 and I 0).

Table 2. Summary of the use of specific plants

Species Basket Mat Rope Weaving Head-rest Stick

Phoenix dactylifera lv lv Ish
Desmostachya bipinnata lv lv Jv
Juncus rigidus cJ
Phragmites australis cl
Cyperus a/opecuroides cl cJ cl
Ceruana pratensis st st
Linum usitatissimum st St st
Acacia raddiana tr
Tamarix nilotica tr tr
Tamarix aphylla tr
Key: lv = leaf, Ish =leaf sheath. cl =culm , st = stem, tr = trunk
272 N.M. Waly

4. CONCLUSION

This study of the organic household items from the el-Gabalein area suggests that
the inhabitants of this rural area were selecting local plants for the production of objects
used daily. This contrasts with the artefacts and furniture found in Tutankhamun's tomb,
some of which I studied as part of my PhD research. With the exception of Christ's thorn
or sidder (Zizyphus spina-christi) which is native to Egypt, all other plant species used in
the manufacture of the objects found in this tomb were of foreign origin (seven different
species: Waly, 1996). It will, of course, be of enormous benefit and interest to carry out a
synthesis of the organic household items recovered from other parts of Egypt to identify
more general patterns of selection and use, both regionally and chronologically.
The most interesting aspect of this current study is the fact that the plant species and
plant parts used in the manufacture of these objects appear carefully chosen for their in-
tended purpose. This study suggests that the makers of the artefacts were clearly aware of
the physical properties of the plant species and plant parts. These properties are directly
related to the anatomical structure of the plants, which has been identified using modern
techniques.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My deepest gratitude is extended to the Bioanthropology Foundation for the finan-

cial support and research facilities provided. Thanks are also due to Professor Dr F. Gabal-
lah, Head of the Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University for all the
facilities provided in the Museum of that Department. Sincere thanks are due to Professor
Dr M. Nabil el-Hadidi for reading through the manuscript and for his useful comments.
Cairo University and the Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology kindly
provided funds for my travel to the United Kingdom.

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Catling, D. and Grayson, J. ( 1982). Identification of Vegetable Fibres. London: Chapman and Hall.
Cutler, D. F. ( 1969). Anatomy of the Monoco~vledons IV Juncales. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Fahn. A .. Werker, E. and Baas, P. ( 1986) Wood Anatomy and Identification of Trees and Shrubs from Israel and
Acljacent Regions. Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
Greiss, E. A. M. ( 1957). Anatomical identification of some Ancient Egyptian plant materials. Memoires de 1'/n.~ti­
tut d 'Egypte 35.
Schweingruber, F. H. (1990). Anatomy of European Woods. Bern and Stuttgart: Verlag Paul Haupt.
Waly, N.M. (1995). Documentary and Comparative Anatomical Study of the Wood and Charcoal Plants ofAncient
Egypt. Ph.D. Thesis. Faculty of Science, Cairo University.
Waly, N. M (1996). Identified wood specimens from Tutankhamun's funerary furniture. Taeckholmia 16,65-78.