Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Architecture trends and challenges in sub-Saharan Africa’s construction

industry: A theoretical guideline of a bioclimatic architecture evolution
based on the multi-scale approach and circular economy
P.V. Genovese a, b, A.N. Zoure c, *
a
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, 310058, Xi Hu district Yuhangtang Road n. 866, Hangzhou, China
b
International center of History, Critics of Architecture and Restoration of Historical Heritage, Hangzhou, 310058, China
c
School of Architecture, Tianjin University, Weijin Road Campus: No. 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Architecture developed when humans decided to settle, beginning with vernacular architecture that influenced
Bioclimatic architecture many subsequent concepts. In sub-Saharan nations, the notion of bioclimatic architecture has garnered a growing
Circular economy amount of interest from numerous stakeholders at various levels. Adopting bioclimatic design, which is the most
Multi-scale approach
appropriate for these developing countries, may facilitate the shift to more sustainable building practices.
Evolution
Adaptive approach
However, bioclimatic architecture has several obstacles to its successful acceptance and spread in the built
Theoretical guideline environment of sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, this article aims to systematically evaluate existing literature to
determine the implications, issues, contributions, and challenges of bioclimatic design in the sub-Saharan con­
struction industry. This study examines the bioclimatic approach to architecture, its impact on contemporary
design, and its limitations in the sub-Saharan African building sector. It also suggests a new pathway towards an
adaptive bioclimatic architecture approach based on a circular economy and multi-scale approach. An adaptive
bioclimatic architecture framework for buildings is presented. The main problems for bioclimatic architecture
adoption determine future research direction, frameworks, and approaches to develop toward adaptive biocli­
matic design. This review will assist the relevant stakeholders and decision-makers implement more sustainable
and locally adapted buildings in sub-Saharan countries.

1. Introduction temperatures [9]. It is crucial to find construction trends more suited to

In the past few years, residential and commercial buildings have
utilized more than 60% of the world’s electricity [1]. Between 2007 and
2035, global oil, coal, and gas demand is projected to increase by
30–50% [2], whereas CO2 emissions from energy production will rise
dramatically by 2050 [3]. Sub-Saharan Africa has considerable cooling
needs due to high temperatures resulting in a constant increase in energy
demand reflecting urban growth. It is a worrying tendency, and there
have been few efforts to combat it [4–7]. Sub-Saharan Africa has the
most impoverished population, yet its population expansion rate is
approximately double that of any other part of the world [8,9]. Focusing
on the built environment of sub-Saharan countries indicates the exten­
sive application of inappropriate standards designed for Western con­
texts. As a consequence, air conditioning (approximately 45% of the
energy utilized in buildings) is widely employed to battle high
the conditions of these developing nations.
Thus, understanding the scientific and technical facts required to
construct renewable and sustainable energy policy for buildings and
cities is vital to minimize non-renewable energy usage and promoting
resilient and sustainable concepts for bespoke construction that are
derived from vernacular architecture [10,11]. As people have grown
more conscious of the effects of global warming and have sought for
potential solutions to the problem, sustainable and bioclimatic design
have gained increased significance [12,13]. According to Coch [14],
traditional design methodologies have yet to ultimately include the
bioclimatic principle for more sustainable and thermally pleasant
buildings when technological solutions are merged with environmental
awareness, passive design, and climatic conditions. "As a solution to the
problems that are inherently associated with building construction,
bioclimatic design has evolved for many years”. Our ancestors learnt

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zbrams23@gmail.com (A.N. Zoure).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113593
Received 30 December 2022; Received in revised form 11 July 2023; Accepted 25 July 2023
Available online 31 July 2023
1364-0321/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
how to adapt to diverse environmental circumstances via experimen­
tation through mistakes. It allowed them to suit their structures better to
their surroundings, which resulted in improved living conditions [15].
Theoretical investigations show that a multifaceted thread is woven
between nature and urbanites via the integration of energy-relevant
methodologies, conceptual bioclimatic space design, and the concepts
of integrated architecture, resulting in proactive energy efficiency and
being most suitable for sub-Saharan developing countries that cannot
afford high initial cost architectural concepts [14,15]. Bioclimatic ar­
chitecture (BAA) adapts to local biology and climate. Local climatic
characteristics like temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and rela­
tive humidity are all factors included in the planning, design, and con­
struction stages of a building’s lifetime. It has been done to promote a
holistic approach and cooperation with cost-effective passive solutions
[16–19].
Despite its innumerable benefits, bioclimatic design is still under­
valued and underutilized. Sub-Saharan nations are only starting to face a
growing use of fossil energy for their needs and development but also
need to begin their decarbonization process [20]. The housing standard
Fig. 1. Logic Map of the Methodology. Source: This study.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
fails to ensure performance, comfort, and health [20]. Indoor warming
necessitates active air conditioning systems, whose energy efficiency is
generally low, owing to a tendency to adopt architectural ideas from
developed nations, which are poorly adapted to sub-Saharan conditions
[21]. In sub-Saharan Africa, bioclimatic architecture’s diffusion,
acceptability, and technological adaptability are challenges to solve.
However, these challenges may be solved by using circular economy
especially for the diffusion and acceptability issue and multi-scale
approach for the technological adaptability aspect. Circular economy
(CE) can be summarized as model aims to transform the way mature
industries are prosecuted in a more sophisticated way than the linear
approach. The circular economy business model aims to keep materials
and goods in use as long as feasible to save energy and raw resources and
optimize their value. It also involves extracting valuable elements from
"end-of-life" items to reuse them in manufacture. Multi-scale approach
(MSA) on the other hand is an approach for finding answers to issues
that takes into consideration the particulars of a specific region. These
particulars might include factors such as the economy, the environment,
culture, and technology, among other things. That is to say, the
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
particulars of a given region dictate the form of the intervention that will
take place in that region, and the ultimate strategy is not generic but
rather is contingent upon the peculiarities of the given case.
Thus, this article suggests further advancement in BAA by incorpo­
rating a multi-scale approach (MSA) and circular economy (CE) in the
general bioclimatic building construction in sub-Saharan countries’
general guidelines with a sequential iterative procedure to solve the
issue of acceptance and diffusion of bioclimatic architecture in this part
of the world, which will lead to a more appropriate and adaptive concept
for these countries. A conceptual framework of BAA + MSA + CE intends
to utilize MSA and CE in all BAA process stages. This research may help
professionals implement bioclimatic construction techniques and tech­
nology throughout the design and development process, achieving the
building industry’s paradigm shift toward a more energy-efficient built
environment. The recommended framework may also help educate and
train energy-efficient building specialists about their professional re­
sponsibilities and the benefits to the construction industry.
2. Methodology
Fig. 1 illustrates this logic map’s research technique. This systematic
review examined the existing literature. Several esteemed academic
publishers’ databases were consulted using research methods tailored to
a certain subject and pertinent terms relevant to this field of study, such
as the evolution of architecture, vernacular architecture, bioclimatic
architecture, passive and low architecture, green architecture, sustain­
able architecture, regenerative architecture, circular economy, multi-
scale approach, the construction sector in sub-Saharan countries,
building industry in sub-Saharan countries. This research selected over
150 references based on pre-established criteria, including the study’s
scope, area, publishing year, manuscript type, technique and instrument
utilized, focus and focal point, selected dimensions and characteristics,
as well as taking into account urban metabolism, and chosen system
boundary. The conditions were applied to map the literature and high­
light critical results for future development.
The study consisted of two major components. The first section drew
on the existing literature to demonstrate that the evolution of archi­
tectural concepts toward greener practices or more sustainable goals had
not been adapted to developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa and to
highlight the widespread misunderstanding of BAA despite the region’s
need for it to alter the built environment. The second part of the project’s
goal was to illustrate how MSA and CE could be aligned with the current
trend of BAA to produce a new adaptive concept called the Adaptive
Bioclimatic Architecture Approach (ABAA), which would be better
suited to sub-Saharan Africa’s developing nations, where the climate is
subject to dynamic changes. Based on the comprehensive examination
and identified challenges in the articles selected, an analytical system for
ABAA practices in the context is proposed, including layout, resource
efficiency, operating model, sourcing, collaborative networks, actor
rules, understanding, risks, appropriate policy, methodologies, tools,
and approaches for assessment. A methodical strategy is recommended
after a critical review of the many obstacles blocking the successful
application of ABAA in the construction sector of sub-Saharan nations.
3. Evolution and Paradigm shift towards and away from
bioclimatic architecture approach
3.1. Vernacular architecture
The history of architecture records the evolution of architecture
through numerous traditions, geographical regions, overarching stylistic
trends, and dates. All these traditions are believed to have originated
from humans satisfying their most fundamental desire for shelter and
safety. This review is focused on the evolutionary aspect of architecture
towards more sustainable practices. The evolution of architecture to­
wards and away from bioclimatic architecture is shown in Table 1.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
Focusing on the part of the architecture that is respectful of the envi­
ronment makes it evident that its first inspiration can be traced back to
vernacular architecture. Vernacular and traditional architecture devel­
oped through time, taking into account the local climate, culture,
technology, and history. In vernacular architecture, locally sourced or
regional materials and resources are used to create a building in a style
typical to that area. Because of this close association, this kind of ar­
chitecture is highly influenced by its surroundings’ socio-economic and
cultural features [22,23]. The vernacular architecture was a foundation
of the evolution towards different trends and concepts, as seen in Fig. 2.
3.2. Bio-inspired architecture and technologies
Based on the idea that pre-existing innate structures exist for a pur­
pose and that the development of effective parallels is reliant on function
[24–30]. The approach in bio-inspired architecture is transferring
functional components of a design. Living organic tissues in nature are
excellent examples of the complex function of architecture. The inclu­
sion of several functions, processes and the combination of
single-function pieces leads to novel capabilities at a later point in
technological progress [31–34].
3.3. Organic architecture
Frank Lloyd Wright coined the phrase "organic architecture"
(1867–1959). In addition to his considerate use of natural materials, he
also portrayed a deep interest in and commitment to modern techno­
logical developments. He believed that architecture, including the
interior and the goods, should be a cohesive artistic expression in which
every part has a purpose. The organic design emphasizes a reinterpre­
tation of nature, harmony between the organic and the manufactured
environment, and a reflection of the natural order in the roof, windows,
floors, and doors [35,36]. It is accomplished by design tactics that seek
the compatibility and the well-integration with any location, resulting in
a coherent and interdependent composition between the structure itself,
its furnishings, and the environment around it.
3.4. Bioclimatic architecture
The term "bioclimatic architecture" [37] refers to the relationship
between a building’s systems, the local climate, and the building’s res­
idents (for their thermal comfort). By incorporating architectural com­
ponents wherever feasible and reducing dependency on mechanical
systems, building designs that adhere to these principles help create
comfortable environments for their occupants. It is possible to trace the
bioclimatic approach to architecture back to the design concepts used in
the vast majority of vernacular and traditional structures across the
globe, including those in sub-Saharan Africa [38]. They were developed
by "trial and error" and then disseminated orally. Traditional/vernacular
architecture evolved through time [39] according to the local climate,
culture, technology, and history. Consequently, bioclimatic data may be
"evolved" from vernacular buildings. Research publications summarized
and improved upon these methods to boost their efficacy [40–44].
Sustainable design in modern buildings is increasingly seen as depen­
dent on bioclimatic [45]. Passive and low-energy architecture (with an
emphasis on energy efficiency) and green architecture are two distinct
offshoots of BAA (focused on reducing building impact on the
environment).
3.5. Passive and low energy architecture
Low-energy and passive buildings use as little energy as possible and
produce as little carbon dioxide gas [46–50]. Conventional methods of
heating and cooling are either obsolete or tertiary. Promoting resource
conservation and reducing global climate change due to burning fossil
fuels [51] is considered impossible without passive and low-energy
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
Table 1
Architectural trends towards and away from Bioclimatic Architecture Approach.
Concepts Features
Vernacular • Adapted to local climatic conditions.
Architecture • Respect the local environment.
• Adapted to local social conditions.
• Influenced by local culture and tradition.
Bio-inspired • Generates organic pattern.
Architecture and • Nature-inspired.
technologies • Locally adapted.
Organic • Architecture creates connections between
Architecture people, homes, and nature.
Bioclimatic • Use of passive design solutions adapted to local
Architecture climatic conditions.
• Improve indoor thermal comfort of building
occupants.
• Optimize building energy efficiency.
• Use of local building materials.
• Use affordable building techniques and
technologies.
Passive and Low • Employs more advanced and expensive design
Energy techniques to build more energy-efficient and
Architecture more comfortable buildings.
• This trend has partly evolved towards
attempting to create zero-energy buildings.
Green • Respect the natural environment.
Architecture • Sustainable practices that minimize waste and
maximize utility.
• Recycles, reuses, and promotes renewable
energy.
• Maintains excellent thermal comfort for
residents inside while minimizing the building’s
environmental effect during its full lifecycle.
Sustainable • Provides for the requirements of the present
Architecture without jeopardizing the existence of the next
generation.
• Introduces environmental, social, and economic
issues in the building design.
Regenerative • Allows for flexibility, dynamism, and the
Architecture formation of resilient and thriving eco-systems.
• Using nature to create architecture by
addressing safe and healthy materials,
renewable energy, reuse, and recycling.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
Duration Challenges and difficulties to adoption and diffusion in sub- References
Saharan countries
Evolves along with • Lack of adaptations to urban context development has led [22,23]
mankind to vernacular architecture being perceived by urban [113–125]
people as architecture for the poor.
• Disadvantages some groups.
• Inappropriate design due to overlooking or disregard for
context.
• Lack of durability makes vernacular buildings less durable
and constantly requires renovations.
• Dissatisfaction due to the symbolism or meaning attached
to some elements.
Late 19th- and • Lack of studies related to sub-Saharan countries. [24–34]
early 20th-century • The lack of diffusion in sub-Saharan countries makes it a [126–130]
completely unknown concept for common people.
• Has almost non-existing technology transfer to sub-
Saharan countries (very few experts in this part of the
world with no basic regulations).
• Uses expensive techniques and technologies.
• Not adapted to the local context of sub-Saharan countries.
• Not affordable for common sub-Saharan people (cost
implication).
• A biomimetic architecture system that fails/potentially
jeopardize its users. (Potential risks).
Late 19th- and • Lack of studies related to sub-Saharan countries. [35,36]
early 20th-century • The lack of diffusion in sub-Saharan countries makes it a [131,132]
completely unknown concept for common people.
• Not fully understood by African architects.
• Has almost non-existing technology transfer to sub-
Saharan countries (very few experts in this part of the
world).
• Uses expensive techniques and technologies.
• Not affordable for common sub-Saharan people.
• Not adapted to sub-Saharan fast urban development.
Since mid-20th • Not promoted by local sub-Saharan governments. [37–45]
century • Not fully understood by African architects (generally [133–142]
mistaken as vernacular architecture).
• The lack of diffusion in sub-Saharan countries makes it a
completely unknown concept for common people.
• Has almost non-existing technology transfer to sub-
Saharan countries (very few experts in this part of the
world with no basic regulations).
• Poor knowledge of the pre-design bioclimatic simulations
process.
• Feared by local people due to increased financial risks
associated.
• Generally, this leads to a misuse of local material.
1970s–1980s • Lack of leadership of the government. [46–53]
• Lack of nationwide policy on these concepts. [92–112]
• Lack of research funding for local green materials.
• Green materials made locally are quite expensive due to
the high cost of labor.
Since the end of • Failure to adequately instruct individuals to use [54–61]
the 20th century environmentally friendly products and technology. [92–112]
• Standardization and regulation of environmentally
friendly materials and technology are restricted or
nonexistent.
• Lack of access to financing for the construction industry.
• Unfavorable opinions on locally available resources (as not
durable).
Future • The lack of diffusion in sub-Saharan countries makes it a [62–86]
completely unknown concept for ordinary people. [92–112]
• Lack of awareness of the benefits of these concepts.
• Issues in securing public funding for building projects.
• Almost non-existing technology transfers to sub-Saharan
Future countries (very few experts in this part of the world with [87–91]
no basic regulations). [92–112]
• Lack of databases from sub-Saharan countries.
• High initial cost and not affordable for common people.
• Longer time to build with a lack of available skilled
workers.
• Not appropriated with local cultures, societies, and
traditions highlighting the fact that these concepts have
not been developed for sub-Saharan developing countries.
• Still in development with some goals often difficult to
reach.
4
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
Fig. 2. Evolution and Paradigm shift towards and away from BAA. Source: This study.
design. The energy efficiency of newly constructed buildings is not
guaranteed to match the design goals [52]. Passive and low-energy
design often relies on cutting-edge, high-priced technology and ap­
proaches that are out of reach for many developing nations [53]. These
may provide technical obstacles, particularly for developing
sub-Saharan nations, in addition to social, cultural, and economic
restraints.
3.6. Green architecture
Green architecture, as defined by Roy in Ref. [54], is a way of
building that reduces hazards to people and the environment. Efficient
use of energy, water, and other resources; utilization of renewable en­
ergy sources; measures to prevent pollution and waste; and measures to
facilitate reuse and recycling are all hallmarks of green design. Superior
air quality in enclosed spaces; Fabrication using only environmentally
friendly, ethically sourced materials; To design, build, and operate with
environmental consciousness; The design, construction, and operation
of the building take into account the tenants’ quality of life; and the
building is built in a way that permits for it to adapt to its changing
surroundings [55–58]. Green architecture is advantageous; however,
there are many limitations, especially for Sub-Saharan countries. The
primary ones are high initial cost; acquiring the proper materials for the
area; lengthier construction duration; significant difficulty in regulating
air temperature; lack of available experts and skilled workers; distinct
cultures and traditions, diverse building types and ages; and diverse
environmental, economic, and social concerns [59–61].
3.7. Sustainable architecture
By reducing waste and making more responsible decisions about
resource use, energy output, building footprint, and overall ecological
impact, sustainable design seeks to lessen the detrimental impact of
buildings on the environment. Sustainable architecture is concerned
with reducing energy consumption and minimizing environmental
impact [62–64] in the design of buildings and other structures.
Depending on the guiding tenets used, the broad and complicated idea of
sustainable design may be broken down into three distinct categories.
3.7.1. Architecture about sustainability
Sustainable buildings can be achieved through various technical
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
strategies that are part of sustainable architecture. Elements include
commodities, resources, and technology that are environmentally
friendly. In contrast, strategies include environmentally friendly
methods of site selection and development, transportation impacts,
building layout and orientation, product and material selection, energy
efficiency, renewable energy use, water conservation, air quality,
occupant comfort, management, repair, refurbishment, and decon­
struction [65]. Nevertheless, sustainability-focused building design may
only sometimes lead to real sustainability. Many so-called buildings are
only sustainable because they employ particular design components and
strategies but often disregard contextual suitability and long-term con­
sequences [66–69].
3.7.2. Architecture for sustainability
Sustainable architecture projects typically have sustainability at
their core and use sustainable methods and materials wherever possible
[65]. Even if interpretation is flexible in the definitions, they are typi­
cally ranked on a scale from "weak sustainability" (which is anthropo­
centric) to "strong sustainability" (which is not anthropocentric)
[70–72]. The term "weak sustainability" is often used to refer to an
economical form of sustainability; however, to achieve true sustain­
ability, one must strike a balance among ecological, economic, and so­
cial factors [73,74]. In some instances the term "ecological
sustainability" is used to describe an approach to sustainability that
emphasizes ecology as an all-encompassing system in which every ac­
tivity has repercussions for other parts of the system and ecological
concerns as paramount [75–78].
3.7.3. Architecture as sustainability
What sets sustainable architecture apart is its method. It is part of a
more extensive process that ultimately leads to sustainability and is
described as a "transformational" approach to architecture [65]. The
sustainable architecture includes pre-design, design, construction,
operation, rehabilitation, demolition, and new-project creation. The
processes are seen as recursive and dynamic systems that link, contex­
tualize, include, integrate and broaden the scope of care and concern to
include social, environmental, non-human, and prospective factors
[79–83]. Suppose it generates sustainable circumstances based on the
realistic environment and outcomes, increases its effectiveness contin­
ually, and interacts with and supports other sustainable activities; ar­
chitecture may be seen as "sustainability" in the new paradigm [84–86].
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
3.8. Regenerative architecture
Academics in Ref. [87] remarked, "Since a building is part of greater
human endeavours, it must have this setting to function well. So, a
building may promote sustainable practices, but it cannot be sustainable
on its own." The regenerative pattern surpasses the sustainable pattern
in one crucial way. Flexible, dynamic, and the development of resilient
and flourishing ecosystems are made possible via feedback loops in a
regenerative system. The term "regenerative architecture" refers to a
building method that uses and regenerates from the surrounding
ecosystem. Architecture that co-evolves as a single entity [88–90] re­
sponds to and uses the natural and biological systems that were already
located on a site. The importance of the project site and environment is
recognized and emphasized by regenerative designers because they
appreciate the "coevolutionary, symbiotic connection between human
and natural systems" [91]. Nonetheless, more development time is
needed to fully realize the potential of this idea, which is a step beyond
just "sustainable" building design.
3.9. Barrier to diffusion and adoption of new architectural concepts and
technologies in sub-Saharan countries
It is critical to perform country-specific research on the barriers to
adopting these practices and technologies to provide context-specific
solutions to encourage their inclusion [92]. Costly green construction
supplies and solutions, poor team interactions during environmental
projects, no research on energy-efficient building adoption hurdles, a
low number of active users and specialists, lack of environmentally
friendly building interest and expertise, and skepticism regarding these
new architectural ideas and technology advantages are generally the
primary obstacles for developed countries [93–96]. Barriers are more
notable for developing nations. A lack of databases on green building
techniques and technologies and a scarcity of information on such
practices and technologies were two of the main obstacles cited in
Ref. [97]. However, in Ref. [98], the authors classify the 26 most often
possible hurdles to adopting novel architectural ideas and technologies.
To better understand these obstacles, we divided them into five broad
classes: Politics; people; data and skills; market; financial cost and
threat. Sub-Saharan countries have had a different degree of success in
adopting these new architectural principles and technologies than the
rest of the world. These governments also have to cope with issues such
as a lack of research, weak leadership and management [99].
Equipment, resources, methods, institutions, and data management
are some illustrations of technical elements in the building and design
sector [100]. However, sub-Saharan nations face severe technology
transfer issues [99]. In general, emerging nations in sub-Saharan Africa
are slower than other regions to create, acquire, and adopt cutting-edge
architectural ideas and technologies [101]. In terms of green and sus­
tainable materials and technology, the design and construction industry
in African countries, as stated by Ofori [102], typically confronts more
significant obstacles than industrialized countries. Many environmen­
tally friendly technologies are unavailable or poorly adopted in devel­
oping countries owing to several factors. Research published in
Ref. [103] highlighted four main factors that impede the transfer of
technology within design and construction projects: the transfer envi­
ronment, the learning environment, the transferor’s qualities, and the
transferee’s characteristics. The success of a technology transfer may be
impacted by cultural differences in communication styles, for example.
When there is a significant cultural gap between two people, it is more
challenging to successfully communicate technical information
[104–106]. For new ideas to be widely adopted (technological transfer),
they need to be sensitive to the area’s existing social, political, cultural,
and economic systems [107].
Although leapfrogging (skipping the development phase) might
assist less-developed countries in catching up to more-developed ones,
there are concerns that it could lead to cultural loss if the adopted
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
culture is not suited to the local environment, resources, and capabilities
[108–110]. Sustainability in emerging countries requires policy changes
at international, national, urban, transportation, supply chain, lifestyle,
and individual levels [111]. In order to promote sustainability, increase
market demand for innovative design concept technologies in con­
struction, and encourage the use of green materials, it is essential to
include all stakeholders in every stage of the process [112]. Table 1
summarizes the architecture development from BAA and the unique
obstacles in acceptance and spread that each notion encounters in
sub-Saharan nations.
3.10. A new pathway towards adaptive bioclimatic architecture approach
Human-produced greenhouse gases are increasing, and the building
sector substantially contributes to this trend. As a result, the environ­
mental performance of buildings and urban planning will contribute to
accelerating climate change. The ever-changing nature of our sur­
roundings has made it imperative to consider it nowadays. The built
environment has to be more sustainable, versatile, and resilient. Our
current period is marked by extraordinary rapidity in the rate of climate
change, with disastrous consequences for the human race. As the climate
changes, natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes will become
more frequent and severe.
All the architectural ideas explored in this study have both merits
and limitations. Table 1 shows that governmental hurdles, a lack of
communication, incorrect technology transfer, a failure to adapt, and a
failure to include local people are the primary causes of BAA’s slow
acceptance and proliferation in sub-Saharan nations. However, the other
architectural ideas (apart from vernacular architecture) face more ob­
stacles to their successful transmission in sub-Saharan Africa due to their
prohibitive cost and limited applicability. Since villages, eco-villages,
and similar initiatives in small rural areas are better served by vernac­
ular architecture, BAA is the appropriate option for cities in sub-Saharan
Africa; other models are unsuitable for developing nations. Therefore,
BAA will serve as the basis for this investigation, and MSA and CE will be
used to enhance their adaptation to these nations and develop a new
sub-part of BAA called ABAA. This latest development in the evolution of
BAA toward ABAA is seen in Fig. 3.
This research will assist in providing decision-makers with resources
to enable them to make correct and robust choices by providing them
with the knowledge necessary to formulate guidelines and policies to
encourage environmentally friendly design practices in sub-Saharan
nations. This study’s findings will also pave the way for other studies
that will apply the study’s recommended principles to the specific
construction sector setting of sub-Saharan nations. Furthermore, the
suggested framework shows promise as a valuable instructional resource
for green building. This study will encourage CE and MSA to ensure the
use of the appropriate materials and technologies in design and con­
struction. It will also motivate experts in these fields to become
increasingly knowledgeable regarding locally available environmentally
friendly materials and technology. It might assist experts better incor­
porate bioclimatic design and building technologies throughout every
step of the construction procedure. Professionals would profit from this
since they could learn more about their roles and advantages to society.
It would assist the sub-Saharan construction sector to reach its new goal
of creating a more environmentally friendly structure.
4. MSA and CE concepts and aspects
4.1. Multi-scale approach
4.1.1. An adaptive customized approach
MSA is a problem-solving approach that considers local conditions,
including the economy, climate, culture, and technology. In other
words, the intervention in a specific area relies on local features. The
final plan is neither standardized nor universally applicable but depends
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593

Fig. 3. New Paradigm shift from BAA towards ABAA. Source: This study.

on distinct local elements [143]. It is based on the Multi-scale Decision
Theory (MSDT), which integrates multiple theoretical disciplines to
handle multidimensional issues spanning organizational hierarchies,
space-time, and other topological difficulties, component size, and
complexity. MSDT is a blend of decision theory and multiscale mathe­
matics consisting of a theory that can represent and analyze
decision-making processes in a multi-layered domain. This hypothesis is
so compelling that it might be applied to even the most intricate systems.
It embraces any management and strategic planning in any context. This
approach allows for the utmost benefit at several levels and encourages
the testing and refinement of various policies at various times [144].
MSA refers to the management, the technology required in a given
scenario to enable planning, the wealth and resources of a particular
location, the climate, and the local politics and geography; promoting
simultaneous actions at multiple scales is a crucial technique for
addressing this issue [144]. The MSA methodology is adaptive to the
local environment, economics, culture, and other local circumstances. It
is characterized by a blend of top-down/bottom-up decision-making, as
seen in Fig. 4. The MSA influences all phases of the procedure. This
approach includes the planning phase, the building phase, and every
choice in every stage, all of which must be calibrated to the local con­
ditions, including the management and monitoring phases. The moni­
toring and management phase validates or modifies the theory
developed during the planning phase and alter the course of action

Fig. 4. Appropriate strategy using MSA methodology based on bottom-up and top-down. Source: This study.

7
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
based on the outcomes. MSA is particularly essential since it simulta­
neously addresses the challenge of intervention at several scales. The
fundamental goal of the MSA is to identify the best strategy in light of
regional factors such as economy, culture, and technology. Every
strategy for intervention, its justification, and most importantly, its plan
and management techniques must be appropriate to the situation.
4.1.2. An appropriate technology
Ernst Friedrich Schumacher developed the foundational notion of
MSA technology. According to Schumacher, every technology and its
application must be small-scale, labor-intensive, energy-efficient,
ecologically responsible, and locally managed [145]. All acceptable
technology is always centered on the local situation and culture, with a
thorough comprehension of the local limitations and resources. An
authentic grassroots response to financial requirements answers a
particular issue. Behind this philosophy is a vast community that con­
ceives and implements outstanding inventions suited to various cir­
cumstances. It indicates that there is no universal answer to an issue in
many cultural and economic contexts. The tools are diverse and very
practical in terms of use. The logic is to use inexpensive and flexible
technology for various situations [146,147]. The MSA method analyzes
these stages as a unified system and regulates them based on local
conditions. In the case of developing sub-Saharan countries, the expert
should focus on basic, low-cost, and adapted technologies because they
are more cost-effective and easier to repair in the event of failure.
Additionally, the technology should be very durable. A vital aspect of
the MSA is that it is a strategy for using the "suitable" technology in the
proper amount and context. The most modern or "best" technology
should not always be used for a particular intervention. It must be
Fig. 5. Butterfly diagram based on the Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Source: Ellen MacArthur Foundation [158].
8
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
chosen following local economy, local climate, policies, bioregionalism,
education, geography, local skills and knowledge, culture, local natural
resources, local average incoming, transportation, Built environment,
and costs of the primary goods [148] as seen in Fig. 4 which illustrates
the choice of an appropriate technology based on the
top-down/bottom-up MSA strategy.
4.2. Circular economy
4.2.1. A systemic solution
The term "circular economy" may be understood in several ways. CE
creates a self-sustaining system that requires less energy and resources
while having fewer adverse environmental effects. David Pearce [149,
150] helped to promote the concept during the 1990s, but the early
2000s saw the most significant literary surge [151]. Eventually, it
evolved into what was called a "new economic paradigm" (or "new
manufacturing system") [152] that necessitated novel approaches to
both doing business and producing goods. A circular economy is one that
“places an emphasis on product, reusing both components and mate­
rials, re-manufacturing, restoration, maintenance, cascading, and
improving as well as utilization of energy from the sun, the air, biofuels,
and by-products throughout the product value chain and
cradle-to-cradle life cycle," as defined by Manavalan & Jaya-Krishna
[153]. Biological and technical cycles may create circularity, as seen
in the Butterfly Diagram in Fig. 5. Technical cycles include reducing,
reusing, recycling, and re-engineering and re-making [154], whereas
natural cycles include composting and anaerobic digestion.
The term is considered a driving force in pursuing the SDGs [155]. A
circular economy fosters economic growth and shifts certain
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
manufacturing facets from the traditional "take-make-use" paradigm to
one that follows a cycle that helps ensure sustainability [156]. The
findings on the ground reveal that the existing economic paradigm is
unworkable since reserves are finite, threatening economic develop­
ment. This approach is outdated, and the energy industry needs CE. It
demands all players in an area to work together to build sustainable
balances by finding solutions that match resources and energy re­
quirements. As in the biological cycle, a CE model may speed energy
transitioning by optimizing resources to maximize efficiency and mini­
mize cost and environmental impact [157,158].
4.2.2. Critical interpretations of CE use in construction industry
The most significant benefit of implementing a strategy based on the
Circular Economy is the capacity to maximize the worth and minimize
waste by preserving the added value of commodities for as long as
feasible [159]. The Circular Economy focuses on reusing materials and
keeping money and other assets inside the economy [160]. Reusing an
item after its initial purpose has been served may often extend the
product’s useable life and increase its value [161]. Comprehensive
research on the system approach, methodological problems, aspects and
indicators, and frameworks is sparse [164]. Therefore the effective
application of CE in the construction sector is still in its infancy [162,
163]. Minimizing and recycling construction waste is a primary goal in
most CE frameworks and assessments. These are some of the most sig­
nificant obstacles:
• Design: The most troublesome part of implementing CE is consid­
ering when materials or components will be replaced throughout the
design process. Mahpour [165] noted three significant challenges of
CE during the design phase: (i) concerns about who owns and con­
trols materials that have reached their end of life; (ii) a failure to
integrate environmentally friendly methods of waste management
and possible recycling; and (iii) unclear associations in the field of
waste disposal. According to Ajayabi et al. [166], the reuse potential
of con-construction materials and components can only be unlocked
by making significant adjustments to the arrangement and interac­
tion between different architectural features and the building sys­
tem. We also need circularity and adaptability synergies [167] and
design guidelines that encourage more flexibility.
• Materials selection: Implementing bio-materials (like wood) into
CE in a cascading manner may help promote a future circular bio-
economy [168]. However, Hart et al. [169] pointed out that the
accessibility of some low-priced raw materials and the technical
limits involved with material recovery can act as a roadblock to the
acceptance and usage of the CE concept. Govindan and Hasanagic
[170] emphasized the technological limitations that would prevent
the selection of circular materials, such as the monitoring of recycled
materials, the quality of recycled items, and the unpredictability of
second or future cycles. Defining criteria for recycled products and
modular design might be used again to help overcome these
limitations.
• Supply chain: Schraven et al. [164] used a social network analysis of
perceptions of the supply chain to identify the fundamental chal­
lenges for CE in supply networks, such as a lack of incentives for
players towards circularity, a lack of reciprocal interests among
supply chain actors, significant uncertainties and hazards of consis­
tent supply, and clashing of views at all levels. Because of this, CE
must be adopted in the supply chain so that there be supply chain
cooperation that emphasizes the business model [163].
• Reverse cycle: There is a need for updated knowledge and abilities
in cascading and recycling resources back into the ground or the
manufacturing process. Included in this category are molecular
biology, polymer chemistry, supply chain management, sorting and
warehousing disciplines. The economics of circular design may be
strengthened via efficient collection and treatment systems and the
proper categorization of waste products [171,172].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
• Business model: While several CE frameworks have addressed cir­
cular buildings, a viable economic model still needs to be improved;
thus, several scholars have advocated for the use of cradle-to-grave
life cycle assessment (C2C-LCA) in the design of circular structures.
The lack of a manufacturer take-back system, the high cost of recy­
cled materials, the absence or weakness of economic incentives for
the industry to reuse recycled materials, and the life cycle cost are
just a few of the business model challenges associated with this
approach [164,170,173]. The results of this review further entrench
the conclusion of Adams et al. [174] that there is no strong economic
case for using CE in building projects. For a transition to a Circular
Economy to be successful, new ways of conducting business must be
implemented. Large, vertically integrated companies will likely drive
the adoption of circular business practices and innovations in the
traditional economy.
• Relevant policy: According to the literature, resource policy has
traditionally prioritized effective use above demand reduction [175].
Alhola et al. [176] show that public procurement may support CE
and similar kinds of business concepts by specifying criteria to in­
crease product longevity and encourage the productive use of re­
sources that have been reclaimed. CE [177] is something that both
local and national governments should be aggressively working
towards.
• Uncertainty and risk: One of the major concerns with CE adoption
is the unpredictability of recycling materials at their end-of-life
[174]. Kral et al. [178] emphasized the need to remove hazardous
substances throughout the method of recycling thus assisting to
provide a closed-loop recycling system and lessen health concerns.
• Actor collaborations: To advance CE into the building industry,
project teams must collaborate closely from the planning phase to
the final handover. Facilitating these discussions is essential for
boosting CE demand and advancing the CE agenda [179], hence
workshops and seminars in the industrial sector are necessary.
Additional challenges include ineffective communication between
the client, designer, and subcontractor, a lack of leadership skills,
and the unpopularity of ideas [174,180]. A collaborative approach to
stakeholder management and the "circularity" of materials at the end
of their useful lives may improve CE in the construction industry
[155,163].
• Stakeholder awareness: Institutional and social actors still need to
fully grasp CE [159,181]. Therefore, it is essential to increase
knowledge and comprehension of CE among varied actors and
disclose the repercussions to stakeholders through education,
training, and visionary thinking [170] to alter people’s attitudes and
actions toward re-manufactured products.
• Urban metabolism integration: Metropolitan or industry meta­
bolism has to be a part of CE [182]. Recycling waste products may
help reduce waste and complete the resource cycle [183]. Industrial
symbiosis could aid in the circularity of materials and the efficiency
of resources in expanding urban CE [184]. Studying urban meta­
bolism may uncover the causes of resource flows, patterns of mate­
rial flow, and effects of implementing CE [185].
5. Results and discussion
As outlined by Olgyay [40], the bioclimatic approach is multidisci­
plinary and mutually supportive of architectural practice. The first step
is to define what constitutes "comfortable" for humans and why Biology
is the discipline that will shed light on this mystery. The second step is
the evaluation of the climate, which is essential. And finally, using en­
gineering principles is essential for developing a workable plan for a
building’s construction. It is often believed that energy efficiency fo­
cuses on the design of more efficient mechanical systems, in addition to
the passive portions of the structure and the behavior of the residents, in
order to engage in synergies that result in an integrated solution, as
outlined by Hyde [186]. However, as is discussed in Section 3.9 of this
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
research, even if BAA is the most suited in the local context of
sub-Saharan nations, its actual use in sub-Saharan African developing
countries is frequently far from seamless.
In light of this, these issues must be addressed so that a BAA can
diffuse in line with this region of the globe. Solutions to these roadblocks
may be found in a combination of BAA principles and those gleaned
through a careful reading of the MSA and CE. A conceptual framework of
BAA + MSA + CE is designed to elevate the execution of the new
development of BAA into workflow stages, drawing on the inherent and
historical theoretical framework principles previously described in this
paper’s section 4. The first step will be to translate the varying tenets of
these three existing ideas into the core values of ABAA. In the following
phase, we will develop a comprehensive plan for the widespread use of
ABAA across sub-Saharan Africa’s construction process. Possible results
and answers that ABAA may provide will then be investigated.
5.1. Aligning MSA and CE towards BAA continuum
Greenhouse gas emissions, a primary factor in global warming, are
widely produced by the construction industry. The effectiveness of
development and urban planning on the environment will impact
Fig. 6. Adaptive Bioclimatic Architecture Approach (ABAA) key features. Source: This study.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
climate change. The built environment must be sustainable, sensitive to
regional climate and cultural norms, and resistant to natural disasters.
The creation of ABAA is an attempt to lessen the obstacles to the spread
of BAA, which has shown to be the most appropriate eco-oriented
architectural approach in sub-Saharan nations. This idea, however, is
more than simply a remedy; it is a further development of BAA into a
more fluid and flexible idea. To ensure that each design is unique and
will remain unique while still being respectful of the environment,
ABAA applies the BAA principles not only on a human-building-climate
scale but also on other scales (bigger or smaller) by considering many
different critical aspects with some interconnections for more local
adaptability. To achieve a harmonious fusion of every design with the
natural environment and an adaptation to local culture and economy by
utilizing local skills and knowledge, ABAA stresses the significance of
integrating these factors as co-evolutionary design aspects at various
scales. The main characteristics of ABAA are shown in Fig. 6:
Adaptive passive solutions based on local climatic conditions:
Climatic conditions in the area in question will confer initial signifi­
cance. Everything must be adapted to the climatic conditions of the area.
Adaptability in interior design is also crucial. Any passive solutions that
are devised must be adaptable when it comes to mitigating the harmful
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
consequences of climate change. The rapid urbanization of sub-Saharan
African nations contributes to a significant shift in the region’s climate,
as shown by Refs. [8,9]. Extreme weather may devastate low-income
communities, but passive, locally-adapted measures can help [15,16].
Widera B emphasized the need to differentiate the impoverished people
of sub-Saharan Africa from Western industrialized countries’ back­
grounds [18,114]. Following that, the plan’s primary objective will be to
identify workable solutions. As discussed in prior publications
[112–118], this will make future structures in sub-Saharan nations more
resilient.
Adaptive and locally developed construction techniques and
technologies: Rather than being imported from elsewhere, the passive
methods and technologies used should be created in-country with
consideration given to local culture, education, way of life, skills, and
expertise. Darko et al. [95,96,98] identified the government, people,
knowledge and information, market, cost, and risk as the five primary
causes of inadequate technology transfer from industrialized nations to
sub-Saharan developing countries. It will prove helpful to use building
methods and technologies that are both flexible and indigenous to the
area. It has been shown in Refs. [107–111] that all non-locally created
technologies must be altered prior transference to sub-Saharan nations.
A more locally-oriented, dynamic, and ever-changing approach is
required in sub-Saharan Africa due to elements including local context,
environment, cultural norms, and economic systems at varying scales.
[107].
Integrated building design based on local culture and economy:
Replicating Western norms and successfully advocating for their
acceptance is impossible [104,106]. Unfortunately, many
already-existing buildings in sub-Saharan countries were inspired by
developed countries’ standards that are appropriate for them rather than
for sub-Saharan countries. Hence, it is crucial to consider local culture
and lifestyle as well as the local economy when commencing any con­
struction project. African cultural roots and social systems may provide
valuable lessons for modern architects. Sub-Saharan architects and other
building specialists should refrain from emulating inappropriate West­
ern norms in this region and instead design based on local culture and
economics. Therefore, ABAA will help ease the change to an architecture
more suited to sub-Saharan realities and norms [107].
Natural capital preservation and growth: Preservation and
development of natural resources entail monitoring and controlling
finite supplies and fostering a steady flow of replenishing natural ma­
terials. All existing and planned infrastructure must be rethought to
make room for new, scalable technologies that can extract bio-based and
recycled resources. Priority areas for resource optimization include
research into various transportation and local production possibilities
for big and small-scale transformation and redistribution of these bio-
based and recycled materials, as well as enhancing and optimizing
technological efficiency suitable to sub-Saharan countries [146,147].
Buildings must be designed to work in tandem with their natural sur­
roundings and be robust in the face of environmental changes and
catastrophic events [157–161].
Yield optimization: It encourages the flow of technologically and
biologically valuable goods, components, and materials [171,172]. The
construction sector in Sub-Saharan Africa is in its early stages of growth,
which means there are ample chances for widespread rollout throughout
large urban centres. Companies need to adopt a more flexible strategy
based on sustainability, which necessitates the involvement of govern­
ments (through policies and guidelines, standards, and cyclical resource
incentives), manufacturers, and recyclers (through sustainable waste
management and manufacturing partnership.), suppliers (through
self-sustaining supply, promotion of resources and products made from
recycled waste), designers, researchers (through those who develop
technologies and invent new materials). There is potential for entre­
preneurs to benefit from this trend along the whole supply-value chain
shift [163].
Improvement of energy system efficiency: This function aims to
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
improve productivity in the building industry by locating and eradi­
cating any wasteful or unintended consequences. Optimizing energy
efficiency solutions, behaviors, or resources are critical focus areas.
These include enhancing and optimizing technological effectiveness for
transitioning and distributing. The surplus energy may be used to power
further generation or supply energy-hungry sectors. The growth of
human capital and other technical and non-technical resources by and
for Africans (policymakers, decision-makers, investors, government, and
civil society) is crucial throughout [144,145]. Established or rejuve­
nated networking and communication platforms for built environment
end users, cooperating professionals, and specialists are needed to pro­
vide a multidirectional communication platform with enabling content
in the construction sector [155,163].
Enhancement of indoor thermal comfort of building occupants:
When considering the ABAA, it is also crucial to consider the individual
scale. In order to create more efficient designs for interior thermal
comfort while using less energy, building occupants are seen as pivotal
[15,16]. In order to facilitate a swift and efficient move to a low-carbon
economy and climate-resilient buildings in sub-Saharan nations, it will
be necessary to increase the interior thermal comfort of building occu­
pants, who will, in turn, lower the cooling energy demand [114].
5.2. Implementation framework for ABAA in the sub-Saharan
construction industry
Building type, design, materials, construction components, transit
distances, local economy and culture, political context, and local skills
and knowledge all affect a framework for constructing with environ­
mental and economic sustainability [99,187]. Fig. 7 shows a
sub-Saharan construction sector ABAA implementation structure. The
system boundary continues until all materials are recycled or recovered,
like the circular paradigm. This common framework may be closed for a
single building yet open on a grander scale (combination of CE and
MSA).
The local climate, culture, energy efficiency, passive methods, local
actors, local economics, and occupants’ thermal comfort should all be
considered during the preliminary design phase. All these parameters,
however, will be adapted to the local context, economy, and knowledge
base since they promote selective disassembly, LCA valuation, and the
realization of economic values [188]. MSA-based supporting tools, such
as relevant and adapted technology and local skills and knowledge,
assist in the selection of sustainable materials and components during
the design phase [189]. Using recycled or repurposed primary raw
materials is essential, but so is using prefabricated and/or modular
structural sections (if tailored to the local environment) in construction
[17].
A particular priority is placed on the sustainable sourcing and dis­
tribution chain of commodities [190]. Garbage management procedures
should also be applied to any other types of waste generated by the
building throughout its operational lifetime and demolition. After
on-site sorting and screening, materials should be recycled and utilized
to make secondary goods (i.e. the same products or other products).
Examples include substituting steel scrap for iron ore in secondary
steelmaking. The aggregates from recycled concrete may be reused in
new concrete structures. However, market readiness and quality deter­
mine whether or not the material may be recycled into new timber
composites or for energy recovery. Some of the energy generated may be
used in the manufacturing sector in the form of cement or steel. These
materials may be reused in the first phase of a different building if
material circularity is followed.
In view of the widespread concern regarding resource depletion and
supply constraints, the need of industrial symbiosis in mitigating their
effects is stressed [191]. This includes fostering local economic growth,
protecting natural resources, and respecting bioregionalism. Industrial
symbiosis promotes circular systems by encouraging the development of
closed loops and networks of discarded materials and by-products that
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
Fig. 7. Implementation framework for ABAA in the sub-Saharan construction industry. Source: This study.
have the potential for further usage as raw material by another actor
[75]. In contrast to inert materials, which may be down-cycled for land
restoration, non-inert materials must either be burned for energy pro­
duction or disposed of in a landfill. Since no resources are recoverable
from landfills, waste-to-energy recovery should be the final stage prior
disposal.
5.3. Development of supportive policies for the sub-Saharan context
In order to completely revolutionize the construction industry, Sub-
Saharan Africa must implement ABAA. All aspects of a building’s
infrastructure, from installation to management, are subject to ABAA
regulations, which must be met per industry standards. A multi-
directional communication platform with empowering content should
be established and/or revitalized in the construction industry, focusing
on end-users, collaborating professionals, and experts in the built envi­
ronment sharing information on technological advances, international
and national policies, and shifts in strategic plan content. It is essential
for governments, businesses, recyclers, suppliers, designers, and re­
searchers to create a business strategy that takes into account regional
differences in economics, population density, and climate.
To generate more eco-friendly construction practices fitting to the
sub-Saharan environment, educational programs should integrate MSA
and CE into existing university and technical training curricula in
building and urban planning and emphasize ABAA material per estab­
lished aims. Apprenticeship programs are a common feature of technical
and higher education curricula, in which students acquire hands-on
experience while learning from experts in their chosen fields. The po­
tential for greater professional integration and future cooperation on a
building project is enhanced by matching students and professionals at
the educational level. The management of the building industry must
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
apply the life cycle strategy, with an emphasis on ABAA and imple­
mentation, to guarantee social justice on all levels. Revisions to building
material laws should consider the benefits of an ABAA built-
environment model, and hazardous materials and construction con­
sumables should be swapped out. Increasing equity on all fronts, an
ABAA procurement strategy based on building standards would do
precisely that for the built environment. For this technology to thrive,
policymakers on a global and national scale need to prioritize the in­
fluence of the constructed landscape on nature, climate, economy, and
culture by encouraging bio-climatic building, updating existing policies,
and introducing cost-effective construction incentives like tax exemp­
tions and tax holidays.
5.4. Possible ABAA implementation strategies for sub-Saharan building
This section provides an overview of the innumerable difficulties
faced by the construction sector in sub-Saharan African nations, as well
as the prospective solutions that might facilitate the successful imple­
mentation of ABAA presented in Table 2.
6. Conclusion
By analyzing the most up-to-date studies to develop its feasibility as
well as the repercussions, this study has offered vital insights into BAA,
and the obstacles impeding its adoption and diffusion in the sub-Saharan
construction industry and has helped to identify a new evolution toward
ABAA based on a combination of BAA with CE and MSA. The study’s
results and analysis suggest the following:
• Recent years have seen a spectacular increase in the amount of
scholarly papers that have been written on this subject, largely
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
Table 2
Possible ABAA implementation strategies for sub-Saharan building. Source:
This study.
Construction Industry ABAA Implementing Solutions
Challenges
Building design • Make use of modified design tools when drawing out
designs or dismantling objects.
• Allow for the spread of information and technological
understanding.
• To maximize future occupants’ thermal comfort, the
design must take into account local temperature
conditions.
• The layout and interplay of elements should be
designed with flexibility in mind.
• The government should establish rules regarding
those responsible for disposing used materials and
how they should be recycled or repurposed.
• Durability of materials and manufactured parts should
be taken into account throughout the design process.
• Design choices may be made using multi-scale opti­
mization (which takes into account several aspects all
the while optimizing).
Technology • Realistic and practical methods for facilitating ABAA
include providing apprentices with chances to learn by
doing work under the supervision of subject-matter
experts.
• Technologies must be regionally modified to suit the
needs of the local population in terms of their culture,
economics, natural resources, skills, and knowledge.
• The government may play a pivotal role in educating
the populace about ABAA and its goals, indications,
structures, laws, and policies.
• When transferring technologies, care must be taken to
preserve the status quo at the regional level.
Material selection • Encourage their usage by establishing standards for
the quality of recycled products and offering financial
incentives.
• Support the spread and use of locally sourced
materials.
• Promote locally appropriate design of components/
elements to ease material selection throughout the
design process.
• To make the most of the world’s dwindling supply of
natural resources, it would be beneficial to consider
substituting recycled and/or bio-based products for
traditional ones in certain contexts.
Supply chains • Incorporating dynamic stakeholders and creating
closed-loop value chains are essential components of
more sustainable company strategies.
• Introduce monetary incentives and a central hub to
promote the circular economy in supply networks.
• Pertaining to ABAA implementation and short-term
supply chain and collaboration difficulties, having a
firm grasp of the CE strategy and its focus on long-term
sustainability is essential.
Building construction • To achieve the successful spread and acceptance of
ABAA, local personnel should be used.
• Aim for building methods that are both local and
suitable.
• Refrain from emulating European or American
architecture; instead, promote the creation of a
uniquely sub-Saharan African look and feel that is
both functional and recognizable.
Building utilization • There has to be a shift in the way people in buildings
behave in order to increase productivity.
• To discourage people from blindly adopting foreign
lifestyles, it is essential that local culture once again
attain widespread favor on an individual level.
Building end of life • Support widespread use of waste management
strategies for improved building decommissioning.
Building demolition • In order to educate the public on the significance of
building demolition in sub-Saharan countries, policy­
makers at all levels should advocate for and dissemi­
nate a variety of paradigms.
• The correct and effective use of resources relies on
widespread adoption of recycling and reusing
practices.
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Table 2 (continued )
Construction Industry ABAA Implementing Solutions
Challenges
Business model • Implement a take-back program or make it the obli­
gation of producers to find new applications for
recycled materials.
• Designing for many recycling options in an open-loop
system or developing rules for remanufactured objects
for use in another cycle.
• Employ incentive schemes, bearing in mind the
development of requirements for recycled products
and rewards, to guarantee the model’s local economic
sustainability at all levels (regional, local, and
individual).
• Support a culturally relevant business model in your
area.
Actor collaborations • The government might play a significant role in
coordinating the efforts of several participants. The
establishment of a collaborative network and the
definition of appropriate guidelines and standards,
such as building codes, would make the
implementation of ABAA easier and more successful.
Uncertainty and risk • While certain supply chain and business risks may be
reduced at the regional and local levels, the remaining
risks can be managed with the aid of integrated
solutions (as discussed above). The quality of
reproduced goods should be ensured and material
choice made easier, for example, by following a set of
guidelines that are established. Component
remanufacturing companies may face new obstacles if
the building’s design or components are altered in the
future.
Evaluation • Future evaluations of ABAA will use a variety of
approaches, such as system dynamics modeling to
assess the interactive activity of components and
elements, the study of supply chain, and input-output
simulation, and life cycle assessment to evaluate
measurable advantages in the sense of effects on the
environment and expenses connected with those im­
pacts at varying levels of geographic scope.
thanks to the construction industry’s growing concern for its envi­
ronmental impact. Developed countries conducted the vast majority
of these studies, which aided in creating policies specific to those
countries but not to those in sub-Saharan Africa. The result is an
over-reliance on Western values that are ill-suited to life in the sub-
Sahara.
• There is a lack of acceptance and spread of innovative architectural
ideas in the nations that are situated in sub-Saharan Africa due to
their inadequacy and unsuitability. Because the backdrop in sub-
Saharan nations is vastly different from that in western developed
countries, it is essential to conduct adequate studies of each of these
countries to ensure that a new strategy would be suitable and
adaptable.
• Even if there are many obstacles in the way of its successful imple­
mentation and extension, BAA is today the architectural approach
with the highest likelihood of being adopted in nations situated in
sub-Saharan Africa. However, there is still potential for
improvement.
• There needs to be more research examining the impact on the
environment (particularly carbon emissions) and the policy frame­
work. Consequently, specialists from sub-Saharan countries have not
benefited from the transfer of technology because of a lack of study
into the local economic, cultural, and social factors of BAA in the
construction industry.
• Associating CE and MSA with BAA may be a solution towards a more
adaptive strategy that can be adopted and diffused effectively in sub-
Saharan countries.
• To help alleviate the numerous problems that countries in sub-
Saharan Africa will confront in the not too distant future, the
P.V. Genovese and A.N. Zoure
adoption and spread of ABAA requires the active participation of
local governments and other stakeholders in these nations.
The findings of this study indicate that: (i) adaptive passive solutions
based on local climatic conditions, (ii) adaptive and locally developed
construction techniques and technologies, (iii) integrated building
design based on local culture and economy, (iv) natural capital preser­
vation and growth, (v) yield optimization, (vi) improvement of energy
system efficiency, and (vii) enhancement of indoor thermal comfort of
building occupants are recommended for a more adaptive architectural
concept for sub-Saharan countries. The theoretical guideline that in­
corporates the emphasized analyses, consequences, and obstacles should
aid research advancement and encourage the efficient application of
ABAA in the sub-Saharan building sector.
This study had several limitations, but overall, it contributed to what
was known and helped shape what followed. The formal sector’s
perspective on ABAA’s utility is one approach to summarize the study’s
motivation. Since the informal sector has a significant purpose in the
building process industry in sub-Saharan nations, further study is
needed to examine their function and impact to local architecture, as
well as their views and applications for the implementation of ABAA or
any future idea. Due to the review nature of this study, no effort was
made to provide concrete suggestions for how the proposed framework
may be implemented. The next step is translating the ABAA plan into
action, with input from relevant parties; this translation will inform
estimates of the potential outcomes of different implementation strate­
gies. This study generalizes its results to sub-Saharan Africa without
conducting country- or region-specific research. More targeted studies
are needed in the future.
Author contributions
Conceptualization, A.N.Z.; methodology, A.N.Z.; software, A.N.Z.;
validation, A.N.Z., and P.V.G.; formal analysis, A.N.Z.; investigation, A.
N.Z.; data curation, A.N.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, A.N.Z.;
writing—review and editing, P.V.G.; supervision, P.V.G.; funding
acquisition, P.V.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research is funded by Zhejiang University: 876 - 211 Class
Project, funding project code: 113000*1942221R1/007, the scientific
research start-up fund of Qiushi Distinguished Professor of Zhejiang
University School of Construction Engineering and China scholarship
council number 2018TPJ026972.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Paolo Vincenzo GENOVESE reports financial support was provided by
Zhejiang University: 876 - 211 Class Project, funding project code:
113000*1942221R1/007, the scientific research start-up fund of Qiushi
Distinguished Professor of Zhejiang University School of Construction
Engineering. Abraham Nathan ZOURE reports financial support and
administrative support were provided by China Scholarship Council,
number 2018TPJ026972. Paolo Vincenzo GENOVESE reports a rela­
tionship with Zhejiang University that includes: employment and
funding grants.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
14
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023) 113593
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express sincere thanks to everyone who
contributed to this work.
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Nomenclature
BAA: Bioclimatic Architecture Approach
LCA: Life Cycle Assessment
ABAA: Adaptive Bioclimatic Architecture Approach
C2C: Cradle to Cradle
CE: Circular Economy
MSDT: Multi-Scale Decision Theory
MSA: Multi-Scale Approach