MODULE 4 • After the section is made, draw a free-body diagram of the segment that

has the least number of loads on it. At the section indicate the unknown
INTERNAL LOADINGS DEVELOPED IN STRUCTURAL resultants N, V, and M acting in their positive directions.
MEMBERS • Moments should be summed at the section about axes that pass through
OBJECTIVE: the centroid of the member’s cross-sectional area, in order to eliminate
the unknowns N and V and thereby obtain a direct solution for M.
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a quantity having a
negative magnitude, the assumed directional sense of the quantity is
opposite to that shown on the free body diagram.

4.1. INTERNAL LOADINGS AT A SPECIFIED POINT MODULE EXERCISES:

Before presenting a method for finding the internal normal force, shear 4.1. The building roof shown in the photo has a weight of 1.8 kN/m2 and is
force and bending moment, we will need to establish a sign convention to define supported on 8-m long simply supported beams that are spaced 1m apart.
their positive and negative values. An easy way to remember the sign convention is Each beam, shown transmits its loading to two girders, located at the front
to isolate a small segment of the member and note that positive normal force tends and back of the building. Determine the internal shear and moment in the
to elongate the segment, positive shear tends to rotate the segment clockwise, and front girder at point C. Neglect the weight of the members.
positive bending moment tends to bend the segment concave upward, so as to “hold
SOLUTION:
water”.
The following procedure provides a means for applying the method of
sections to determine the internal normal force, shear force, and bending moment
at a specific location in a structural member.

• Before the member is cut or sectioned, it may be necessary to determine

the member’s support reactions so that the equilibrium equations are
used only to solve for the internal loadings when the member is
sectioned.
• If the member is part of a pin-connected structure, the pin reactions can
be determined using the methods to solve for reactions.
• Keep all distributed loadings, couple moments, and forces acting on the
member in their exact location, then pass an imaginary section through
the member, perpendicular to its axis at the point where the internal
loading is to be determined.
 SOLUTION:
The roof loading is transmitted to each beam as a one-way slab. The tributary
loading on each interior beam is therefore 1.8 kN/m2 (1m) = 1.8 kN/m. The Segment AC will be considered since it yields the simplest solution. The distributed
two edge beams support 0.9 kN/m. The reaction of each interior beam on load intensity at C is computed by proportion, that is,
the girder is 6𝑓𝑡 3𝑘 1𝑘
𝑤𝑐 = ( )( ) =
(1.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚) (8𝑚) 18𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
= 7.2 𝑘𝑁
2 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
2(3.6𝑘𝑁)+11(7.2 𝑘𝑁)
The column reaction is 2
= 43.2 𝑘𝑁 9 − 3 − 𝑉𝑐 = 0 𝑉𝑐 = 6𝑘
Equations of Equilibrium: ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0; −9(6) + 3(2) + 𝑀𝑐 = 0 𝑀𝑐 = 48𝑘. 𝑓𝑡
43.2 − 3.6 − 2(7.2) − 𝑉𝑐 = 0; 𝑽𝒄 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟐 𝒌𝑵
∑ 𝑀𝑐 = 0
𝑀𝑐 + 7.2(0.4) + 7.2(1.4) + 3.6(2.4) − 43.2(1.2) = 0

𝑴𝒄 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟐 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

4.2. Determine the internal shear and moment acting at section passing through
point C in the beam shown.
4.2. SHEAR AND MOMENT FUNCTIONS
The design of a beam requires a detailed knowledge of the variations of the
internal shear force V and moment M acting at each point along the axis of the beam.
The internal normal force is generally not considered for two reasons: (1) in most
cases the loads applied to a beam act perpendicular to the beam’s axis and hence
produce only an internal shear force and bending moment, and (2) for design
purposes the beam’s resistance to shear, and particularly to bending, is more
important than its ability to resist normal force.
The following procedure provides a method for determining the variation
of shear and moment in a beam as a function of position x.

• Determine the support reactions on the beam and resolve all the
external forces into components acting perpendicular and parallel to the SOLUTION:
beam’s axis.
The reactions at support are:
• Specify separate coordinates x and associated origins, extending into
regions of the beam between concentrated forces and/or couple
moments, or where there is a discontinuity of distributed loading.
• Section the beam perpendicular to its axis at each distance x, and from
the free-body diagram of one of the segments determine the unknowns
V and M at the cut section of x. On the free-body diagram, V and M
should be shown acting in their positive directions, in accordance with
the sign convention.
• V is obtained from ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 and M is obtained by summing moments
about the point S located at the cut section. ∑ 𝑀𝑠 = 0. A free-body diagram of the beam segment of length x is shown. Note that the
𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑉 intensity of the triangular load at the section is found by proportion; that is,
• The results can be checked by noting that = 𝑉 and = 𝑤, where 𝑤 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 30, or 𝑤 = 𝑥/15. With the load intensity known, the resultant of the
w is positive when it acts upward, away from the beam. 𝑥
distributed loadings is found in the usual manner as shown in the figure.
Thus,
MODULE EXERCISES: ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
4.3. Determine the shear and moment in the beam shown as a function of x. 1 𝑥
30 − ( ) 𝑥 − 𝑉 = 0 𝑉 = 30 − 0.0333𝑥 2
2 15

∑ 𝑀𝑠 = 0
1 𝑥 𝑥
600 − 30𝑥 + [2 (15) 𝑥] 3 + 𝑀 = 0 𝑀𝑠 = −600 + 30𝑥 − 0.01𝑥 3
𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑉 𝑥
Note that = 𝑉 and =− = 𝑤, which serves as a check of the results.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 15
4.4. Determine the shear and moment in the beam shown as a function of x. 1588 − 108𝑥2 + 48(𝑥2 − 6) + 𝑀 = 0 𝑀𝑠 = 60𝑥2 − 1300
These results can be partially checked by noting that when 𝑥2 = 20𝑓𝑡, then 𝑉 =
𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑉
60𝑘 and 𝑀 = −100𝑘. 𝑓𝑡. Also, note that 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉 and 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑤.

4.3. SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR A BEAM

If the variations of V and M as functions of x obtained, the graphs are termed
the shear diagram and moment diagram, respectively. In cases where a beam is
subjected to several concentrated forces, couples, and distributed loads, plotting V
and M versus x can become quite tedious since several functions must be plotted.
𝑑𝑉
SOLUTION: The slope of the shear diagram at a point (𝑑𝑥 ) is equal to the intensity of
the distributed load 𝑤(𝑥) at the point.
The reaction at the fixed support are 𝑉 = 108𝑘 and 𝑀 − 1588𝑘. 𝑓𝑡.
𝑑𝑉
Since there is a discontinuity of distributed load at 𝑥 = 12𝑓𝑡, two regions of 𝑥 must = 𝑤(𝑥)
be considered in order to describe the shear and moment functions for the 𝑑𝑥
entire beam. Here 𝑥1 is appropriate for the left 12ft and 𝑥2 can be used for 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓
}={
the remaining segment. 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝑀
0 ≤ 𝑥1 ≤ 12. Notice that V and M are shown in the positive directions. The slope of the moment diagram ( ) is equal to the intensity of the shear
𝑑𝑥
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 at the point.

108 − 4𝑥1 − 𝑉 = 0 𝑉 = 108 − 4𝑥1 𝑑𝑀

=𝑉
𝑑𝑥
∑ 𝑀𝑠 = 0
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓
} = {𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟
1588 − 108𝑥1 +
𝑥
4𝑥1 ( 1 ) + 𝑀=0 𝑀𝑠 = −1588 + 108𝑥1 − 2𝑥1 2 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
2
The change in the shear between any two points on a beam equals the area
12 ≤ 𝑥2 ≤ 20. under the distributed loading diagram between the points.
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∆𝑉 = ∫ 𝑤(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
108 − 48 − 𝑉 = 0 𝑉 = 60
∑ 𝑀𝑠 = 0
 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛
}={
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 • If the numerical value of the moment is to be determined at a point, one
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 can find this value either by using the method of sections as discussed,
The change in the moment between the two points equals the area under the which states that the change in the moment is equal to the are under the
shear diagram between the points. shear diagram.
• Since 𝑉(𝑥) is integrated to obtain M, if 𝑉(𝑥) is a curve of degree n,
∆𝑀 = ∫ 𝑉(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 then 𝑀(𝑥) will be acurve of degree 𝑛 + 1.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

}={ MODULE EXERCISES:
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
The following procedure provides a method for constructing the shear and 4.5. The two horizontal members of the power line support frame are subjected to
moment diagrams for a beam. the cable loading shown. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for each
member.
• Determine the support reactions and resolve the forces acting on the
beam into components which are perpendicular and parallel to the SOLUTION:
beam’s axis.
The moment at the end points 𝑥 = 0,
• Establish the V and x axes and plot the values of the shear at the two 𝑀 = 0 and 𝑥 = 6𝑚, 𝑀 = 0 is plotted
ends of the beam. first. The slope of the moment diagram
𝑑𝑉
• Since 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑤, the slope of the shear diagram at any point is equal to within each 1.5m long region is constant
the intensity of the distributed loading at the point. because V is constant. Specific values of
• If a numerical value of the shear is to be determined at the point, one the moment, such as at C, can be
can find this value either by using the method of sections or by using determined by the method of section, or
the above equation, which states that the change in the shear force is by finding the change in moment by the
equal to the area under the distributed loading diagram. area under the shear diagram.
• Since 𝑤(𝑥) is integrated to obtain 𝑉, if 𝑤(𝑥) is a curve of degree n,
𝑀𝐴 = 0
then 𝑉(𝑥) will be a curve of a degree 𝑛 + 1.
• Establish the M and x axes and plot the values of the moment at the 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑀𝐴 + ∆𝑀𝐴𝐶
ends of the beam.
𝑑𝑀 𝑀𝐶 = 0 + (−4)(1.5) + 2(1.5)
• Since = 𝑉, the slope of the moment diagram at any point is equal to
𝑑𝑥
the intensity of the shear at the point. 𝑀𝐶 = −3 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑑𝑀
• At the point where the shear is zero, = 0, and therefore this may be
𝑑𝑥
a point of maximum or minimum moment.
4.6. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam. 𝑑𝑀
The maximum value of moment is at 𝑥 = 5.20𝑚 since 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉 = 0 at this point.
From the free-body diagram, we have,
∑ 𝑀𝑠 = 0
1 5.20 5.20
−30(5.20) + 2 [20 ( 9
)] (5.20) ( 3 ) + 𝑀 =0

𝑀 = 104 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
SOLUTION:
The end points 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉 = +30 𝑘𝑁 and 𝑥 = 4.7. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the compound beam shown. Assume
9𝑚, 𝑉 = −60𝑘𝑁 are first plotted. the supports at A and C are rollers and B and E are pin connections.
Note that the shear diagram starts
with zero slope since 𝑤 = 0 at 𝑥 =
0, and ends with a slope of 𝑤 =
−20𝑘𝑁/𝑚.
The point of zero shear can be found by using
the method of sections from a beam
segment of length x.
SOLUTION:
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
1 𝑥
30 − 2 [20 (9 )] 𝑥 = 0

𝑥 = 5.20𝑚
For 0 < 𝑥 < 5.20𝑚 the value of shear is
positive but decreasing and so the
slope of the moment diagram is also
positive and decreasing. At 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑀
5.20𝑚, 𝑑𝑥
= 0. Likewise for
5.20𝑚 < 𝑥 < 9𝑚, the shear and so the slope of the moment diagram are
negative increasing as indicated.
 MODULE EXERCISES:
4.8. Draw the moment diagram for the tapered frame shown. Assume the support at
A is a roller and B is a pin.

SOLUTION:

4.4. SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR A FRAME

Recall that a frame is composed of several connected members that are The support reactions are shown on the free-body diagram of the entire frame. Using
either fixed or pin connected at their ends. The design of these structures often these results, the frame is then sectioned into two members, and the internal
requires drawing the shear and moment diagrams for each of the members. This reactions at the joint ends of the members are determined.
requires first determining the reactions at the frame supports. Then, using the
method of sections, we find the axial force, shear force, and moment acting at the
ends of each member.
When drawing the moment diagram, one of two sign conventions is used
in practice. In particular, if the frame is made of reinforced concrete, designers often
draw the moment diagram positive on the tension side of the frame.
4.9. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the frame
shown. Assume A is a pin, C is a roller, and B
is a fixed joint. Neglect the thickness of the
members.
SOLUTION:
Notice that the distributed load acts over a length of
10√2ft. The reactions on the entire frame are
calculated and shown on its free-body diagram.
From this diagram the free-body diagrams of
each member are drawn. The distributed
loading on BC has components along BC and
perpendicular to its axis of (0.1414k/ft)cos 45° = 0.1 k/ft as shown. Using
these results, the shear and moment diagrams are also shown.
4.5. MOMENT DIAGRAMS CONSTRUCTED BY THE
METHOD OF SUPERPOSITION
Since beams are used primarily to resist bending stress, it is important that
the moment diagram accompany the solution for their design. If we use the principle
of superposition, however, each of the loads on the beam can be treated separately
and the moment diagram can then be constructed in a series of parts rather than a
single and sometimes complicated shape.
Most loadings on beams in structural analysis will be a combination of the
loadings. Construction of the associated moment diagrams has been discussed. To
understand on how to use the method of superposition to construct the moment
diagram consider the simply supported beam as shown.
 Note that this same moment diagram is produced for the cantilevered beam 4.11. Draw the moment diagrams for the beam shown, using the method of
when it is subjected to the same statically equivalent system of loads as the simply superposition. Consider the beam to be cantilevered from the pin at A.
supported beam. Rather than considering all the loads on this beam simultaneously
SOLUTION:
when drawing the moment diagram, we can instead superimpose the results of the
loads acting separately on the three cantilevered beams as shown. In some cases it
is often easier to construct and use a separate series of statically equivalent moment
diagrams for a beam, rather than construct the beam’s more complicated resultant
moment diagram.

MODULE EXERCISES:
4.10. Draw the moment diagrams for
the beam shown, using the
method of superposition.
Consider the beam to be
cantilevered from the
support at B.
SOLUTION:
MODULE REVIEW: 5. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam. Indicate values at the
supports and at the points where a change in load occurs.
1. Determine the internal normal force,
shear force and bending moment at
point C in the beam.

2. Determine the internal normal force,

shear force, and bending moment acting
at point C in the beam. 6. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam.

3. Determine the internal shear and moment in the beam as a function of x

throughout the beam.

7. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for each of the three members of the frame.
Assume the frame is pin connected at A, C, and D and there is a fixed joint at
B.

4. The boom DF of the jib crane and the

column DE have a uniform weight of
50lb//ft. If the hoist and load weigh 300
lb, determine the internal normal force,
shear force, and bending moment in the
crane at points A, B and C.
8. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for each member of the frame. The
members are pin connected at A, B and C.

9. Draw the shar and moment diagrams for each member of the frame. The joints at
A, B and C are pin connected.

10. Draw the moment diagrams for the beam using the method of superposition.