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Properties of Materials II

ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

Chapter Objectives:
 Explain and analyze the mechanical properties of materials
 Differentiate different type of mechanical testing for each materials

Lesson Objectives:
• At the end of the semester, students should be able to:
 Analyze the physical properties of engineering materials and concept of
corrosion and metal alloys microstructure, phase diagram and heat treatment
processes

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Topic content

1. Mechanical Properties
2. Mechanical Testing
i. Tensile test
ii. Compression
iii. Torsion
iv. Bending
v. Hardness
vi. Impact
vii. Fatigue
viii. Creep

2. Mechanical Testing
ii. Compression Test
Applies a load that squeezes the ends of a
cylindrical specimen between two platens

(1) compression force applied to test piece and,

(2) resulting change in height

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2. Mechanical Testing
ii. Compression Test

 Many process such as forging, rolling

and extrusion subjected to
compressive forces.

 Compression test , where specimen is Disk test on a brittle material,

showing the direction of loading
subjected to compressive load and the fracture path.

 Compressing a solid cylindrical

specimen between two flat dies. (e.g.:
Disc test

2. Mechanical Testing
ii. Compression Test

 Setup for the test with size of test

specimen exaggerated

 Tensile testing machine can be used

(lower section)

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2. Mechanical Testing
ii. Compression Test
As the specimen is compressed, its height reduced and cross-sectional area increased

F
e  Eq. (1)
Ao
where Ao = original area of the specimen

2. Mechanical Testing
ii. Compression Test

• Engineering strain is defined as:

h  ho
e Eq. (2)
ho

• Since height is reduced during compression, value

of e is negative (the negative sign is usually ignored
when expressing compression strain)

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2. Mechanical Testing
ii. Compression Test: Typical engineering stress strain curve for compression

 Shape of plastic region is different from tensile test

because cross‐section increases

 Calculated value of engineering stress is higher

2. Mechanical Testing
Tensile Test vs. Compression Test

 Although differences exist between engineering stress‐strain curves in tension and

compression, the true stress‐strain relationships are nearly identical

 Since tensile test results are more common, flow curve values (K and n) from tensile test data
can be applied to compression operations

 When using tensile K and n data for compression, ignore necking, which is a phenomenon
peculiar to straining induced by tensile stresses

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2. Mechanical Testing
iii. Torsion Test

 Twisting
 Force acting to turn one end around the longitudinal axis of a rod while
the other end remains fixed.
 Torque = P (force) x r (radius), N.m
 Torque produces a shear stress and shear deformation both at 90o and
parallel to axis
 and separating stress at 45o , which causes brittle metals to fail (chalk)

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2. Mechanical Testing
iii. Torsion Test
- Twisting Force
acting to turn one
end around the
longitudinal axis of a
rod while the other
remains fixed.

Typical torsion‐test specimen; it is

mounted between the two heads of a
testing machine and twisted. Note the
shear deformation of an element in
the reduced section of the specimen.

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2. Mechanical Testing cont’

iii. Torsion Test: Shear Properties
- Application of stresses in opposite directions on either side of a thin

Shear (a) stress and (b) strain

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2. Mechanical Testing cont’

iii. Torsion Test: Shear Stress and Strain
‐ Shear stress defined as
F

A
where F = applied force; and A = area over which deflection occurs.
Shear stress

‐ Shear strain defined as


 
b
where 𝛿 = deflection element; and b = distance over which deflection occurs
Shear strain

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2. Mechanical Testing
iii. Torsion Test: Shear Elastic Stress‐Strain Relationship

In the elastic region, the relationship is defined as:

  G

For most materials, G  0.4E, where E = elastic modulus

Shear stress‐strain curve from a torsion test

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2. Mechanical Testing
iii. Torsion Test: Shear Elastic Stress‐Strain Relationship

 Relationship similar to flow curve

 Shear stress at fracture = shear strength, S
 Shear strength can be estimated from tensile strength: S ~ 0.7(TS)
 Since cross‐sectional area of test specimen in torsion test does not change
as in tensile and compression, engineering stress‐strain curve for shear ~
true stress‐strain curve

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2. Mechanical Testing
iv. Bending Test
 Two bend‐test methods for brittle materials:

‐ three‐point bending;

‐ four‐point bending.

 The areas on the beams represent the bending‐

moment diagrams, described in texts on
mechanics of solids.

Note the region of constant maximum bending moment in (b);

by contrast, the maximum bending moment occurs only at the center of
the specimen in (a).

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2. Mechanical Testing
iv. Bending Test

• Bending of a rectangular cross‐section results in both tensile and

compressive stresses in the material: (1) initial loading; (2) highly stressed
and strained specimen; and (3) bent part

initial loading highly stressed and strained specimen; and bent part

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2. Mechanical Testing
iv. Bending Test: Testing of Brittle Materials

 Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics) possess elasticity but little or no plasticity
 Often tested by a bending test (also called flexure test)
 Specimen of rectangular cross‐section is positioned between two supports, and a load is applied at its
center
 Brittle materials do not flex
 They deform elastically until fracture
 Failure occurs because tensile strength of outer fibers of specimen are exceeded
 Failure type: cleavage ‐ common with ceramics and metals at low temperatures, in which separation
rather than slip occurs along certain crystallographic planes

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2. Mechanical Testing cont’

iv. Bending Test: Transverse Rupture Strength

‐ The strength value derived from the bending test:

Where
TRS = transverse rupture strength;
F = applied load at fracture;
L = length of specimen between supports; and
b and t = dimensions of cross‐section

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2. Mechanical Testing
v. Hardness Test
Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation (e.g.: small indent or
a scratch).
Resistance to permanent indentation:
 Good hardness generally means material is
resistant to scratching and wear
 Most tooling used in manufacturing must be
hard for scratch and wear resistance
 measure of a material’s resistance to
penetration
 2 most common stationary hardness tests
 Brinell ‐ stress test
 Rockwell ‐ strain test

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2. Mechanical Testing
v. Hardness Test
General procedure

Rockwell hardness tester

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2. Mechanical Testing cont’

v. Hardness Test cont’: Technique

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2. Mechanical Testing
v. Hardness Test

• Commonly used for assessing material properties because they are quick and convenient
• Variety of testing methods are appropriate due to differences in hardness among different materials
• Vickers (HV) and Knoop (HK)‐ similar to Brinell (stress tests), but microhardness
• Other test methods are also available, such as Scleroscope, and durometer
• Scleroscope ‐ rebound of a tup or hammer.
• Mohs ‐ scratch test

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2. Mechanical Testing
v. Hardness Test: (a) Brinell hardness

 Widely used for testing metals and

nonmetals of low to medium hardness

 A hard ball is pressed into specimen

surface with a load of 500, 1500, or
3000 kg

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2. Mechanical Testing
v. Hardness Test: (a) Brinell testing
(c)

Indentation geometry in Brinell testing;

(a) annealed metal;
(b) work‐hardened metal;
(c) deformation of mild steel under a spherical indenter.

Note that the depth of the permanently deformed zone is about one order of magnitude larger than
the depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed in the
material. Source: M. C. Shaw and C. T. Yang.

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2. Mechanical Testing
v. Hardness Test: (a) Brinell Hardness Number
• The Brinell hardness number, HB is a function of both magnitude of the load and the diameter
of the resulting indentation
• Load divided into indentation area = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN)

2F
HB 
Db (Db  Db2  Di2 )
where HB = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN),
F = indentation load, kg;
Db = diameter of ball, mm, and
Di = diameter of indentation, mm

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2. Mechanical Testing
v. Hardness Test: (b) Rockwell Hardness Test

 Another widely used test

 A cone shaped indenter is pressed into specimen using a
minor load of 10 kg, thus seating indenter in material
 Then, a major load of 150 kg is applied, causing indenter to
penetrate beyond its initial position
 Additional penetration distance d is converted into a
Rockwell hardness reading by the testing machine

Rockwell Hardness Test :

(1) initial minor load and (2) major load

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2. Mechanical Testing
v. Hardness Test:
Hardness Conversion Chart

Chart for converting various hardness scales. Note

the limited range of most scales. Because of the many
factors involved, these conversions are approximate.

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2. Mechanical Testing
vi. Toughness Test
 Measure the amount of energy a material can absorb before fracturing
 Ability of metal can withstand an impact load without fracturing
 Experiment
 Impact test Izod & Charpy test Impact test Izod

 Impact testing is used for:

 Checking quality
 Tendency for brittle failure
 Temperature dependence

Charpy test

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2. Mechanical Testing
vi. Toughness Test :
Impact Test Specimen

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2. Mechanical Testing cont’

vi. Toughness Test: Impact Test

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2. Mechanical Testing
vi. Toughness Test: Impact Test

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2. Mechanical Testing
vi. Toughness Test : Ductile to Brittle Transition in Steel

 Primary function of Charpy Test

 At high temperature, the impact energy is relatively high but
drops with decrease in temperature.
 At low temperature steel can be brittle
 The sudden drop in impact energy is the ductile to brittle
transition (DBT)
 Steel should always be used above their DBT
 Ceramics and polymers also experience DBT

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2. Mechanical Testing
vi. Toughness Test: Transition Temperature

Schematic illustration of transition temperature in metals.

E.g.: Titanic hull steel transition temperature at ‐2 C

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials

 Fatigue ‐ materials that is subjected to a repetitive or

fluctuating stress that is lower than required/yield point.
 Metal parts are often design under an assumption of a
single static load with a factor of safety (e.g.: 0.5 of yield
stress).
 Metal parts in service are often subjected to repetitive
loading.
 Failure occurs after repetitious or cyclic loading.
 Examples: shafts, connecting rods and gears Fatigue crack surface:

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: Fatigue Failure

Example of fatigue
failure

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: Fatigue Failure
 A fatigue failure at a point of stress concentration
(e.g. sharp corners or notch).
 Stages of fatigue fracture are:
 Nucleation.
 Propagation (clamshell
 Fracture (Area under load are too small to
support further load).
 Surface appearance:
 smooth striations (clamshell marks)
 rough surface formed by fracture

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: Fatigue Failure
crack origin

Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 8.21 is from D.J. Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail, American Society for Metals, Materials Park, OH, 1985.)

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: Fatigue Test
• R.R. Moore reversed‐bending fatigue test
machine.
• The specimen is under bending load from
the applied weights. R.R. Moore reversed-bending fatigue test machine
• Top surface is compressed and bottom part
is stretched.
• Rotation caused the bending stress to be
alternated between the top and bottom
surface, i.e. cyclic loading
• A revolution counter records when the
fatigue failure occurs in numbers of cycle
(e.g. 106 cycles)
• Test is repeated using a number of different
loads to cause different stress level.

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: Fatigue Parameter

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: S‐N Curve
• Fatigue data is normally represented by means of S‐N
curve, a plot of stress, S against the number of cycle, N
• Stress can be σmax,σa,σmin
• S‐N curve is mainly concerned with fatigue failure at
 (N >105 cycles) – high cycle fatigue (HCF)
 ( N< 104 or 105 ‐ Low cycle fatigue (LCF)
• N increases with decreasing stress level
• Fatigue limit or endurance limit is normally at 107 or
108, Below this limit, the material presumably can
ensure an infinite number of cycle before failure
• Nonferrouns metal, i.e aluminium do not have fatigue
limit ‐> fatigue strength is defined at~108 cycles.

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: S‐N Curve

 Data from the test are plotted as Stress (S) versus Number of cycles (N)
 There is a general decrease of the level of stress to cause failure as the number cycles
is increased.
 For carbon steel, there is levelling off in the decrease.
 The maximum stress that cause fatigue failure, regardless of the number of cycles.
 Endurance limit of fatigue limit
 Carbon steels have an endurance limit of 0.4‐0.5 time its UTS
 A component can have an infinite life if design with stress level below the endurance
limit

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: Endurance Limit

 Infinite life design is not always possible.

 E.g. Aluminium does not have an endurance

limit.

 Small cyclic stress can cause fatigue failure

 Components need to be very light.

 Other methods are available for fatigue life
calculation (Advance course).

 Aircraft parts are design to have finite life and

need to be change at a specified intervals.

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2. Mechanical Testing
vii. Fatigue in Materials: Factor Affecting Fatigue Strength

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Activities

• Find an example to discuss the factors affecting fatigue strength

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep

• Creep is a permanent deformation, under a constant static load over a period of time.
• A process of slow plastic deformation
• Even though the static load initially does cause permanent deformation (i.e. stress
level below yield stress).
• At an elevated temperature (for most metals).
• Polymers are very susceptible to creep even at room temperature!
• Creep is important in high temperature applications, e.g. gas turbines, steam lines,
nuclear reactors.

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep

• A creep test involves in subjecting a specimen to a

constant tensile load at a certain temperature.

• Measurements are taken for changes in length

(strain) at various time increments. Laboratory Creep Testing Equipment

• The creep test results are presented as Creep

strain vs. time, at a constant stress and
temperature.

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep: Creep curve
• Three stages of creep;
 Primary,
 Secondary and
 Tertiary
• Begins with an instantaneous rapid elongation as
the load is applied.
• Creep rate dƐ/dt, slope of the creep curve.
• Primary creep is where the creep rate progressively
decreases with time.
• Secondary creep is where the creep rate is constant
(steady state creep)
• Tertiary creep is where creep rate rapidly increase
with time to the strain at fracture.
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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep: Creep curve‐ Effect of Stress and Temperature

• Shape of creep curve depends strongly on the

applied load (stress) and temperature.
• The secondary creep is a constant creep rate and
referred to as the minimum creep rate.
• For design data purposes, a specimen is subjected
to a minimum creep rate of 10‐5 percent/hour.
• This data is used for design purposes.
• To be learned in advanced mechanical engineering
courses.

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep: Creep curve‐ Effect of Stress and Temperature

• Static load ( Ultimate Tensile Strength, although static load are design to a factor of
safety to yield strength)

• Impact load (Design to absorb impact load without fracturing, Fracture Toughness)

• Cyclic load (Failure happens without overloading, Fatigue Limit/advance method)

• Creep load (Creep failure for at high temperature for metal, design with constant
creep rate in mind/advance method)

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep: Fracture of Metals

• Fracture is the separation of a solid under stress into two or more parts.

• Ductile Fracture – Brittle Fracture, or a mixture

• Ductile Fracture of a metal occurs after extensive plastic deformation and is

characterized by slow crack propagation

• Brittle Fracture happens with almost no plastic deformations. Occurs in which the
separation rather than slip occurs along certain crystallographic planes with rapid
crack propagation:‐ common with ceramics and metals (BCC) at low temperatures and
high strain rate

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep: Ductile Fracture
a) early stage of necking;
b) small voids begin to form within the necked region;
c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack;
d) the rest of the cross‐section begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing;
e) the final fracture surfaces, known as cup‐ (top fracture surface) and
cone‐ (bottom surface) fracture.

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep: Ductile Fracture

• Surface of ductile fracture in low‐carbon steel,

showing dimples.
• Fracture is usually initiated at impurities,
inclusions, or preexisting voids (microporosity) in
the metal.

Source: K.‐H. Habig and D. Klaffke. Photo by BAM Berlin/Germany.

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep: Brittle Fracture

• Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable

deformation and rapid crack propagation. The direction of
crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction
of the applied tensile stress and field relatively flat fracture
surface
• When gradual tensile load is applied on material in tensile
test, at the end of elastic limit, without any prior indication
material breaks. This type of fracture is called Brittle
fracture

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2. Mechanical Testing
viii. Creep: Brittle Fracture
• Brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals propagates along the matrix of the grains.
• Brittle fracture can also happens along grain boundaries if the grain boundaries are weaken by brittle
film or segregation.
• Stages of Brittle fractures:
 Plastic deformation concentrates dislocation along slip planes at obstacles.
 Shear stress build up at the blocked area, micro cracks nucleated separating slip planes.
 Further stress and stored elastic energy quickly propagates cracks into fracture.
• Torque produces a shear stress and shear deformation both at 90o and normal to axis of shaft
• Brittle fracture of metals fail at 45

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2. Mechanical Testing
‐ Mechanical Properties in Design and Manufacturing

• Mechanical properties determine a material’s behavior when subjected to mechanical stresses

• Properties include elastic modulus, ductility, hardness, and various measures of strength
• Dilemma: mechanical properties desirable to the designer, such as high strength, usually make
manufacturing more difficult

The manufacturing engineer

should appreciate the design
viewpoint and the designer
should be aware of the
manufacturing viewpoint

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2. Mechanical Testing
Design (Safety) Factor

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