TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS

Ayala Blvd., Ermita, 1000 Manila, Philippines

Tel. No. +632-301-3001 І Fax No. +632-521-4063

Email: tup@tup.edu.ph І Website: www.tup.edu.ph

Group Report Topic No. 5

PRE-ENGINEERED BUILDINGS: A TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT
IN ARCHITECTURAL CONSTRUCTION

Submitted by:

Alcantara, Angel Mine V. TUPM-20-0189

Cabrera, Myra G. TUPM-20-8644
Cayabyab, Joanna “Lysa” L. TUPM-20-9552
Cordial, Charles Godwin T. TUPM-20-9025
Crucillo, John Robert S. TUPM-20-6704
Sayangco, Angel Ann R. TUPM-20-8945

BS Architecture - 4A

Submitted to:

Ar. Emerson Baquiran

Instructor
 Table of Contents

Page

I. Engineered Wood, Wood

……………………………………… 1
Composite & Building Boards

II. Engineered Steel Construction ……………………………………… 35

III. Hillside Construction ……………………………………… 50

IV. Underground / Tunnel

……………………………………… 67
Structures

V. Water base Construction ……………………………………… 83

Bibliography ……………………………………… 98
I. ENGINEERED WOOD, WOOD COMPOSITE & BUILDING BOARD
Presented by Joanna “Lysa” Cayabyab & Charles Godwin Cordial
Wood is a crucial construction and industrial material derived from trees, possessing
unique physical, chemical, and mechanical properties suitable for diverse industries. While it
is integral to construction, furniture, and vehicle manufacturing, improper forest use and
environmental neglect can lead to adverse effects like air pollution, biodiversity loss, and
climate change. To promote environmental preservation and sustainable wood use, various
approaches have been introduced, including planting sustainable forests, recycling wood,
using engineered wood, and exploring alternative materials like polymers and metals. The
utilization of wood waste as raw materials is emphasized for reducing forest harvesting,
preserving the environment, and achieving cost savings through resource conservation.
 Engineered Wood
Engineered wood, also called composite wood, man-made wood, or processed wood
includes a range of derivative wood products which are manufactured by binding together
strands, particles, fibers, or veneers of wood (ex. rye straw, wheat straw, rice straw, hemp
stalks, kenaf stalks or sugarcane residue, etc.) together with adhesives, to form composite
materials. These materials are engineered to precise design specifications which are tested to
meet certain construction standards.
Engineered wood is wood that has been improved using chemical, physical, and
mechanical processes. This type of wood can be used as a substitute for natural wood in many
applications such as the construction industry, furniture industry, art industry, etc., by
increasing its strength, hardness, dimensional stability, and other mechanical properties

Figure 1.1. Traditional Wood Manufacturing vs. Engineered Wood

 Advantages of Engineered Wood
1. The use of engineered wood reduces the demand for solid wood, aiding in the
conservation of natural resources.
2. Engineered wood materials can be designed to meet application-specific performance
requirements;
3. Large panels of engineered wood may be manufactured from fibers of small diameter
trees;
4. Small pieces of wood, and wood that has defects, can be used in many engineered
wood products especially particle and fiber-based boards;

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 5. Engineered wood products are often stronger and less prone to humidity-induced
warping than equivalent solid woods, although most particle and fiber-based boards
soak up water unless they are treated with sealant or paint.
6. Engineered wood products enable the construction of larger and more intricate
structural elements, expanding design possibilities.
7. This composite material has become a more cost-effective, and also more
environmentally sustainable solution than solid wood.

 Disadvantages of Engineered Wood

1. Engineered wood products require more primary energy for their manufacture than
solid lumber;
2. Some adhesives used may be toxic such as the release of formaldehyde in finished
products often observed with unrea-formaldehyde bonded products. This may make
the boards toxic and off-gas can also be deteriorate the air quality indoors;
3. Cutting and other manufacturing processes can expose workers to toxic substance;
4. Certain woods such as plywood have layers of veneers showing at the edges, and
hence the edge have to be finished wither with laminate or veneer;
5. The resistance to moisture and humidity is low with particle boards. As a result, they
expand, warp, and discolor easily.

 Engineered Wood vs Solid Wood

Solid wood - Solid wood used in construction, furniture making, etc., is made from
wood slabs sourced from wood obtained by logging fully grown trees. Natural wood is,
roughly speaking, of two types- hardwood and softwood. This distinction is generally, but not
always, based on the density of the wood.

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  Engineered Wood Products (EWP)
Engineered Wood Products are produced efficiently from a renewable resource. In
development, the way that engineered wood product is accessible in wide assortment of sizes
and measurements.
As per estimates of Forest survey of India (2017), while the annual production from
the natural forests is quite low, the production from the tree outside forest is much higher.
Most of the Industrial wood in India is produced from outside government forests and
agroforestry/ farm forestry in the country. India is one of the emerging markets in Asia pacific
engineered wood industry, currently accounting for 10% of the Asia pacific engineered wood
market share.

ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCT TYPE

A. VENEER-BASED
Veneer-based Engineered Wood Products (EWPs), also known as layered wood
composites, consist of veneer sheets or strands bonded with adhesive. These products are
predominantly crafted from peeled logs and reconstituted wood, forming large engineered
panels. The key advantage of using veneer lies in its ability to enhance wood yield from logs,
especially small-diameter ones. Veneer-based EWPs exhibit a more uniform structure and

3
consistent mechanical properties compared to solid lumber, making them well-suited for
construction materials.

1. PLYWOOD
Plywood is an engineered material created by attaching together three or more thin
sheets of wood (called plies), with each layer’s wood grains running at 90-degree angles
to the adjacent layer for better strength and durability. Being one of the most common
building materials, plywood can be made of hardwood such as mahogany and oak, or
softwood like pine and cedar. It can also be reinforced with timber, plastic, resin and
metal for added support.

Figure 1.2. Plywood.

 Parts of Plywood
a. Veneer – The visible top and bottom layer of the plywood.
b. Crossband – A second layer underneath the top and bottom veneer. These sheets
typically run across the grain to provide additional stability.
c. Core – This makes up the inner part of the plywood. (veneer- or particle-based)
Plywood in the Philippines has several uses in the construction industry, from
home improvement to mega construction projects. Most commonly, plywood is used
to fashion partition walls, doors, window shutters and false ceilings. It is also used for
packaging, building furniture, including tables and cabinets, and creating other
outdoor units such as aircraft and boats.

 Advantages of Plywood
 Durability - Plywood is created in such a way that its overall structure becomes highly
resistant to cracks and splits. This is primarily due to the fact that its strength comes
from the parent wood it's originally made from, as well as the added support and
properties gained from further reinforcement.
 Impact-resistance - Plywood is designed to carry twice its design load, making it an
ideal flooring and frame material that can withstand strong cyclones and earthquakes.
 Water- and fire-resistance - Especially when coated with paint or varnish, plywood is
greatly resistant to damages from constant exposure to moisture and humidity. It can
also be reinforced with non-combustible materials to make it fireproof.

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 Flexibility - Plywood can be easily cut into custom dimensions according to the
client's needs. Thickness can be customized as well.
 Insulation - Plywood is a suitable thermal and sound insulating material, and can be
used on floors, ceilings and roofs.

 Applications of Plywood

 Typical Species:
Plywood can be made from various types of wood.

Figure 1.3. Plywood – Softwood.

Softwoods are commonly used to make veneer for plywood in North America:
 Douglas fir
 Western hemlock
 Spruces
 Pines
 Firs

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 Figure 1.4. Plywood – Hardwood.

Hardwoods are most popular veneer production. These species do not have
distinguished earlywood and latewood zones, which are characterized by uniform
density and structure, making them easy to be peeled to produce thin and durable
veneer.
 Birch
 Alder
 Linden
 Lauan (Philippine Mahogany)

 Different Types of Plywood in the Philippines:

1. Ordinary plywood - a sheet material manufactured from thin layers or plies of wood
veneer that are glued together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up
to 90 degrees to one another.
2. Structural plywood - Known as sheathing plywood, structural plywood is used for
both indoor and outdoor framing, bracing and flooring.
3. External plywood - This type of plywood consists of multiple veneers, allowing it to
be water- and weather-resistant, and suitable for outdoor and heavy-duty applications.
4. Internal plywood - This type of plywood is typically used to create furniture and other
aesthetic structures within a home or building.
5. Marine plywood - This is made from layers of high-quality veneers that enable the
plywood to be regularly used in wet and humid environments. It’s marine-grade
plywood glued with waterproof adhesives. This plywood is not treated with
chemicals; hence it is not rot-resistant. Marine plywood is a popular choice for
exterior structures, including plant boxes, benches and gazebos.

 Production Process

6
 Figure 1.5. Plywood Production Process.
 Grades of Plywood
Plywood has two grades, one for the front face veneer and another for the back
veneer.
For example, plywood with a grade A/B means the top face is graded A and the
bottom face is graded B.
 A-grade - This is the highest quality of plywood, having a smooth and paintable
surface.
 B-grade - The plywood is less smooth and has minor flaws such as splits and knots,
which can still be repaired.
 C-grade - Knots up to 1 ½ inches in diameter and knotholes up to 1 in in diameter are
present.
 D-grade - Knots and knotholes measure as much as 2 ½ inches in diameter.

Another way is labelling it either G1S or G2S:

2. G1S – Good one side
 Designates that only the top face is appearance grade.
 The back face could have defects or be a different species.
 This type of plywood is typically used where you will only see one side of the
plywood (such as cabinets or furniture).
3. G2S – Good two side
 Designated that both faces are appearance grade.
 This plywood is used in instances you would see both sides of the wood such as
doors, partitions, and shelving.

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 Marine Plywood Certification
Marine plywood is face graded using the A-D scale, however, it will be stamped
with an additional certification:
 BS 1088 – To meet this specification, the plywood must meet stringent requirements
relating to adhesives, face, core veneers, manufacturing defect limitations, moisture
content, finishing, size, and thickness. If the marine plywood has met the BS 1088
certification, the sheet will be stamped.
 BS 6566 – A lower British Standard specification that’s less stringent than BS 1088.
The BS 6566 designation relaxes requirements around species and surface defects on
the faces.

 Standard Sizes of Plywood

Plywood is commonly available in:
3’ x 6’ (900mm x 1800mm) and 4’ x 8’ (1220mm x 2440mm)

Standard thickness are:

3/16” 4.5mm for double wall partitions and ceilings
1/4” 6.0mm for double wall partitions
3/8” 10.0mm for drawer and shelves
1/2” 12.0mm for drawers and shelves
3/4” 19.0mm for drawers, shelves, cabinet, and closet doors
1” 25.0mm for cabinet and closet doors, and sub-floors

Plywood can also be classified according to its ply:

3-ply is one of the most
common types of plywood.
This kind has three layers of
veneer and is layered enough
3-Ply to be strong and durable but
can look more decorative than
plywood with more plies,
making it a good choice for
indoor use.
5-Ply 5-ply pieces of wood have five
layers of veneers. This is

8
 another common type of
plywood used for projects that
require less durability and
strength than those needed for
exterior use.

Multi-ply plywood is mostly

for exterior use and roofing. It
can comprise several veneers,
usually seven or more, to
Multi-Ply
create an incredibly strong,
unyielding frame for a home
that can stand up to wind and
damage.

 Top Plywood Suppliers in Philippines

a. VINAWOOD - This is the highest quality of plywood, having a smooth and paintable
surface. This is the number one choice for plywood products. Along with the
Philippines, its headquarters situates in Vietnam. Famous for delivering smooth and
strong plywood to contractors from the Philippines and 35 other countries globally, its
clients swear by its products.
VINAWOOD Plywood Company aims at minimizing deforestation and still
fulfilling the wood product demands. That is why they have implied such techniques
where no speck of wood is wasted, and the top-notch product is served.
b. Santa Clara Marine Plywood - They are famous for delivering high-quality wood
products. Its plywood is strong and durable enough to endure extreme pressure and
weather conditions. As a result, its wood products are ideal for shipbuilding, home
building, furniture building. You can also use these items as wall panels, roof panels,
etc.
This supplying company has two plants, located in Agusan and Davao. They
deliver to both local and international clients.
c. Ersoy Plywood - Plywood is made by layering and gluing together thin sheets of
wood veneer. Every pile has wood grains placed at 90 degrees from the adjacent ones
in this product. The condition of adhesive, veneer, and the manufacturing process
defines the overall quality of the plywood.
d. Sirawai Plywood and Lumber Corporation - MLIM utilizes high-end adhesive that
has resistant properties to moisture and high temperatures. Moreover, the thorough
manual inspection of each plywood sheet ensures that each product delivered to the
buyers is in the best position possible.
e. Steel Innovation Philippines - Founded in 2018, with a small improvised office at
home in Manila, then first engaged in reclamation projects and truck haulings but later
on dreamed to provide quality steel products and construction supplies Nationwide.

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 Prices of Plywood in the Philippines
Suppliers Specification
Cost
(Philippines) s

Steel Innovation Philippines

4’ x 8’ x 1/4” P 350.00 / pc

Ordinary Plywood
4’ x 8’ x 1/2” P 580.00 / pc

4’ x 8’ x 3/4” P 860.00 / pc

4’ x 8’ x 1/8” P 282.28 / pc
PH General Price (2023) –
4’ x 8’ x
theprojectestimate.com P 400.36 / pc
3/16”

4’ x 8’ x 1/4” P 431.65 / pc

4’ x 8’ x 1/2” P 716.30 / pc

4’ x 8’ x 3/4” P 1221.58 / pc

Marine Plywood
4’ x 8’ x 1/4” P 435.00 / pc
–
NCR General Price

philconprice.com

4’ x 8’ x 1/2” P 790.00 / pc
PLYWOOD

(2021)

4’ x 8’ x 3/4” P 1,374.00 / pc

2. LAMINATED VENEER LUMBER (LVL)

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is most widely used of the structural composite
lumber products. It is produced by bonding thin wood veneers together in a large billet.
The grain of all veneers is parallel to the long direction. The LVL billet is then sawn to
desired dimensions depending on the construction applications.

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 Figure 1.6. Laminated Veneer Lumber.

 Production Process
Typical veneer thickness for LVL production is 3.2 mm. Rotary peeling of the
logs is carried out on a lathe, which incorporates geometry and positioning of a knife
as main manufacturing parameters important role to the quality of the veneer.

Figure 1.7. Rotary Peeling.

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 Figure 1.8. LVL Production Process.

 Applications of LVL
 LVL is mainly used as structural framing in residential and industrial buildings.
 LVL is utilized to manufacture headers, edge joists for floor frameworks, columns,
joists and studs. It is also utilized for a wide scope of millwork, like doors, windows,
and practically any item that require high grade lumber. It is additionally utilized for
truck decks, fabricated housing, and some structural lumber such as window and door
headers. LVL is mainly used as structural framing in residential and industrial
buildings.

Figure 1.9. Applications of LVL.

 Advantages of LVL

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 Size - The size of LVL is not limited by log size, due to its manufacturing method.
 High Strength - LVL is one of the strongest wood-based construction materials
relative to its density.
 Consistency and Predictability - Manufactured with homogeneous quality and
minimal defects, LVL allows for the prediction of mechanical properties in the final
product, ensuring reliability and consistency in performance.
 Versatility - LVL can be produced in various shapes to suit specific construction
needs, enhancing its adaptability to different applications.
 Efficient - LVL offers the advantage of using wood resources efficiently, maximizing
the use of wood in its manufacturing process.

 Disadvantages of LVL
 Enhancement of strength properties of LVL by densification of veneer during the
press is very limited.
 Although its dimensional stability is better than solid wood, the product may result in
some defect, such as warping, if it is not properly stored in the warehouse.
 LVL is prone to decay when exposed to high moisture content or when used in an
unventilated area. Hence, LVL should be treated with preservatives to protect against
decay or infestation for such applications.
 Also, LVL requires high capital investment to have relatively low production cost.
Therefore, high demand is necessary to have a profitable operation.

 LVL Typical Species

LVL can be made from different softwood and hardwood species; however, in
North America, Douglas-fir, larch, southern yellow pine, hemlock, aspen, and yellow
poplar are the most widely used wood species for producing LVL.

 LVL Specifications
Thickness:
 The most common thickness of LVL is 45 mm (1-3/4 in), from which wider beams
can be easily constructed by fastening multiple LVL plies together on site.
 LVL can also be manufactured in thicknesses from 19 mm (3/4 in) to 178 mm (7 in).

LVL Beam Depths:

 Commonly used LVL beam depths are 241 mm (9-1/2 in), 302 mm (11-7/8 in), 356
mm (14 in), 406 mm (16 in), 476 mm (18-3/4 in) and 606 mm (23-7/8 in).
 Other widths and depths might also be available from specific manufacturers.
Length:

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 LVL is available in lengths up to 24.4 m (80 ft), while more common lengths are 14.6
m (48 ft), 17 m (56 ft), 18.3 m (60 ft) and 20.1 m (66 ft).
 LVL can easily be cut to length at the jobsite.

 LVL Grading
LVL is a proprietary product; therefore, its engineering properties and sizes can
differ from one manufacturer to another. As a result, there is no general production
standard or design values in the LVL industry.

 Top Global LVL Suppliers (2020)

a. Murphy Plywood
Established: 1909
Headquarters: Oregon, United States
Website: https://www.murphyplywood.com/

A high performance more sustainable alternative to lumber, Murphy’s Laminated

Veneer Lumber (LVL) beams, headers, and columns are used in structural applications
to carry heavy loads with minimum weight. Murphy structural LVL products are
manufactured in a controlled environment resulting in straighter, stronger, and more
uniform product compared to milled lumber, creating a more stable and reliable
product than dimensional lumber because it doesn’t twist and warp or shrink over
time.

b. Metsä Group
Established: 1947
Headquarters: Oregon, United States
Website: https://www.murphyplywood.com/

A high performance more sustainable alternative to lumber, Murphy’s Laminated

Veneer Lumber (LVL) beams, headers, and columns are used in structural applications
to carry heavy loads with minimum weight. Murphy structural LVL products are
manufactured in a controlled environment resulting in straighter, stronger, and more
uniform product compared to milled lumber, creating a more stable and reliable
product than dimensional lumber because it does not twist and warp or shrink over
time.

c. Chesapeake Plywood LLC

Established: 2001
Headquarters: Baltimore, United States
Website: https://chesapeakeplywood.com/

Cheesecake Plywood offers a wide range of products, such as wholesale hardwood,

plywood, fire-rated products, environmentally friendly FSC, marine wood, hardboard,
particleboard, melamine, and no added formaldehyde sheet goods, among others. The

14
 company’s direct wholesale plywood distribution allows them to service furniture
manufacturers, cabinet industry, store fixtures, display companies, casework
companies, etc.

 LVL Cost (Barrenjoey Timber)

 H2 Treatment – wood treatment for termite attacks.

3. PARALLEL STRAND LUMBER

Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL), ordinarily knows as Parallam, is known as a composite
of veneer strands with wood fibers aligned primarily along the length of the member, i.e.,
the longitudinal direction of wood. PSL is overall similar to laminated strand lumber
(LSL) and oriented strand lumber (OSL) but is made up of veneer strands (sometimes
called veneer strips).

15
 Figure 1.10. Parallel Strand Lumber.

 Production Process

Figure 1.12. PSL Production Process.

 Applications of PSL
 It is utilized for enormous individuals in residential construction and as middle and
huge individuals in commercial building construction.
 Common applications of PSL in construction include headers, beams and lintels in
light-frame construction and beams and columns in post and beam construction.

Figure 1.11. Applications of PSL.

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 Benefits of PSL
 Consistent performance
 Available in long lengths
 Excellent connection performance
 Visually appealing in exposed applications
 Efficiently uses natural resources.

 PSL Typical Species: Southern Pine, Yellow Poplar, Douglas Fir, Western Hemlock

 PSL Specifications
PSL Beams:
 PSL beams are available in thicknesses of 68 mm (2-11/16 in), 89 mm (3-1/2 in), 133
mm (5-1/4 in), and 178 mm (7 in) and a maximum depth of 457 mm (18 in).
PSL Columns:
 PSL columns are available in square or rectangular dimensions of 89 mm (3-1/2 in),
133 mm (5-1/4 in), and 178 mm (7 in).
Length:
 PSL can be made in long lengths but it is usually limited to 20 m (66 ft) by
transportation constraints.

The beam-like PSL products can be also ripped into thin boards for non-structural
applications.

Figure 1.12. Ripping.

 PSL Grading
PSL is a proprietary product, the same as LVL. Therefore, specifications and
dimensions are unique to each manufacturer.

 Global Key Manufacturers of PSL

a. Weyerhaeuser

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 Founded in 1900, is one of the world’s largest integrated forest products companies. It
operates in various segments, including Timberlands, Wood Products, and Real Estate.
The company has a long history of producing high-quality lumber products and is known
for its sustainable forestry practices. Weyerhaeuser’s presence in the PSL market has
expanded due to the growing demand for engineered wood products. The company has
experienced robust market growth, driven by the rising preference for sustainable
construction materials. According to a report by Grand View Research, the global
engineered wood market, which includes PSL, is expected to reach USD billion by 2027.
b. Cudahy Lumber
Established in 1873, is a leading manufacturer and distributor of lumber and engineered
wood products. The company specializes in the production of PSL and other engineered
lumber solutions. Cudahy Lumber has established a strong reputation for providing high-
quality products to the construction and building materials industry. The company has
witnessed significant market growth, fueled by the increasing adoption of engineered
wood products in residential and commercial construction projects.

 PSL Cost (Barrenjoey Timber)

Brand: Ashby Lumber

B. PARTICLE-BASED
Particle-based engineered wood refers to a type of manufactured wood that is made from
small wood particles, such as chips, shavings, or sawdust, which are waste products of wood
after a lumbering process. These particles are combined with a strong binder, often a resin or
other adhesive, to form a solid sheet or board.

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 Figure 1.13. Particle-Based Engineered Wood Product.

1. ORIENTED STRAND BOARD (OSB)

Oriented Strand Board (OSB) is a type of wood panel that is made from thin layers or
strands of wood chips, which are then glued together using heat and pressure. It is a
popular alternative to plywood in industrial wood packaging due to its strength,
durability, and cost-effectiveness.

Figure 1.14. Oriented Strand Board.

 Production Process

Figure 1.15. OSB Production Process.

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 Parts of OSB
The internal structure of OSB is regular. The upper and lower surface layers are
arranged in the longitudinal direction of the fiberboard. And the core shavings are
arranged horizontally to form a three-layer structural slab.

Figure 1.16. Parts of OSB.

 Application of OSB
OSB is extensively used for wall sheathing, floor underlayment, roof cover and I-joist
in both commercial and residential building. OSB also is used in furniture, reels, trailer
liners and recreational vehicle floors.

Figure 1.17. Applications of OSB.

 Benefits of OSB
 Strength: As the strands within the board are arranged in cross-directions to each
other, it provides excellent stability and resistance to warping, twisting, or shrinking.
It can withstand heavy loads, making it ideal for transporting goods or storing heavy
items.
 Durability: Oriented Strand Board is made by pressing multiple layers of wood
strands together with adhesive, resulting in a strong and durable panel that can
withstand the elements.
 Cost-effectiveness: Oriented Strand board is an affordable material compared to other
building materials like plywood, making it a popular choice for builders and
homeowners on a budget. Another advantage is its affordability compared to other
materials such as plywood or solid wood. Its lower cost means that companies can
invest in higher quality packaging or use the savings for other parts of their business.
 Versatility: Oriented Strand Board can be used for a variety of applications, including
flooring, roofing, and wall sheathing. Oriented Strand Board is a lightweight

20
 material, making it easy to handle and install, and it can be cut to almost any size or
shape.
 Eco-friendliness: Oriented Strand Board is made from wood strands and engineered
wood products, making it a sustainable and environmentally friendly material.

 OSB Typical Species

Small diameter wood, thinning wood, wood core as the main raw materials, generally:
 Eucalyptus
 Fir
 Poplar
 and other native wood.

 LVL Specifications
Square Edge:

Tongue & Groove:

 Exposure 1 – OSB suitable for uses not permanently exposed to the weather.
Panels classified as Exposure 1 are intended to resist the effects of moisture on
structural performance as may occur due to construction delays, or other
conditions of similar severity.

 Grades of OSB
Defined in terms of their mechanical performance and relative resistance to moisture. These
are:
a. OSB/1 – General purpose boards and boards for interior fitments (including furniture)
for use in dry conditions.
b. OSB/2 – Load-bearing boards for use in dry conditions.
c. OSB/3 – Load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions

21
d. OSB/4 – Heavy-duty load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions.

 OSB Cost and Supplier (Philippines)

Suppliers Illustration Specifications Cost
Oriented Strand Board (OSB)

P 1,887.00 /
18mm x 4’ x 8’
pc

Cebu Home
Builders

P 1,372.75 /
12mm x 4’ x 8’
pc

2. PARTICLE BOARD
Particleboard, also known as chipboard, was much more readily accessible at the time
as it’s made from a combination of waste materials – such as planer shavings, offcuts or
sawdust – and mechanically produced wood chips. The chips are glued together and then
compressed under heat in to a large board shape. It is then dried and cut into various sizes
to be sold.

Figure 1.18. Particle Board.

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 Production Process

Figure 1.19. Particle Board Production Process.

 Types of Particle Board

1. Single-layer particle board - Single-layer particle board consists of wood
particles of the same sizes which are pressed together. It is a flat and dense
board that can be veneered or plastic laminated but not painted. This is a
water-resistant type of particle board but is not waterproof. Single-layer
particle boards are suitable for interior applications.
2. Three-layer particle board - Three-layer particle board
consists of a layer of large wood particles sandwiched between
two layers made of very small and highly dense wood
particles. The amount of resin in the outer layer is more than
in the inner layer. The smooth surface of a three-layer particle
board is ideal for painting.
3. Graded-Density particle board - Graded-Density particle board consists of a layer
of coarse wood particles which is sandwiched between two layers made of fine
wood particles. This type of particle board is used to make cabinets and
wooden furniture.
4. Melamine particle board - Melamine particle board is made
by fixing a decor paper infused with melamine on the surface
of the particleboard under high heat and pressure. The wood
particles in a melamine particle board are bonded using
melamine-urea formaldehyde resin and wax emulsion. This
makes it water-resistant. Melamine particle board resists
scratches. It comes in a plethora of colors and textures.
Applications of melamine particle board include wall paneling, furniture, wall
cladding, wardrobes, and modular kitchen.

23
5. Cement-bonded particle board - Cement-bonded particle board
has magnesium-based cement or Portland cement as the
bonding agent. Cement content is 60% while wooden particles
such as wooden shavings, sawdust, and wood chips make up
20% of the composition. The remaining 20% is water. Due to
the presence of cement, this type of particleboard is resistant to
moisture, fire, termites, and rot. High moisture resistance
makes them suitable for constructing false ceilings, walls, and permanent coverings
for concrete floors and walls for buildings located in areas with high humidity. They
are also used for making fire-resistant furniture products.
6. Veneered particle board - A veneered particleboard means that it
has a thin slice of wood called veneer attached to its surface. The
veneered particleboard appears like a natural wooden board.
Furthermore, a veneered particleboard is also more resistant to
warping as compared to a conventional particleboard.
7. Laminated particle board - When a thin laminate sheet is attached to the surface of a
plain particleboard, it becomes laminated particleboard. A laminate sheet not only
improves the aesthetics of the particleboard but also increases its durability.

 Application of Particle Board

 Flooring - widely used as covering for hardwood floors, as hardwood boards have low
resistance to scratches to protect them. Wood veneer particle board or laminated
particle board is used in flooring where finished aesthetic look is desired.
 Flooring Underlayment - Particle board is extensively used as flooring underlayment
or as a base for parquet flooring, wood flooring, or for carpets. For this purpose, the
particle boards are treated with special chemicals and resins to make them waterproof
or termite proof.
 Wall Partition - article boards are used in wall partitions, as they are non-load bearing
members in the structure. For cost-effective options, particle boards can be used as
they have thermal and sound insulation properties. Laminated particle boards are
extensively used in wall panels as they give finished walls. You can select from a
variety of design in laminated particle boards for wall panels.
 False Ceiling - Due to their thermal insulation properties they are extensively used in
false ceilings for centrally air-conditioned rooms. Particle boards are extensively used
as ceiling tiles for auditoriums, computer centers, cinema halls and theaters and in as
display boards in commercial establishments. In building construction it is used in
false ceiling and paneling due to its thermo-acoustic insulation properties.

 Disadvantage of Particle Board

24
 Particle board is cheaper, denser and more uniform than conventional wood and
plywood. It is a good substitute when cost is more important than strength and
appearance.
A significant disadvantage of particle board is its susceptibility to expansion and
discoloration from moisture absorption, particularly when it is not stained, painted or has
a sealer applied to it.

 Particle Board Specifications

 Particle Board Supplier (Philippines)

Suppliers
Illustration Specifications
(Philippines)

Thickness: 9, 12, 15,

18 & 25mm
Particle
Board Top Asia
Corporation
Panel size: 1220mm
x 2440 mm (4’ x 8’)

 Particle Board Cost (Philippines)

Suppliers
Illustration Specifications Cost
(Philippines)

12mm x
P 680.00 /
Citi Hardware 1220mm x
pc
2440mm

C. FIBER-BASED
25
1. HARDBOARD
A paneling material made by reducing and refining wood chips into small, threadlike
fibers, and then pressing them under heat in hydraulic pressure into dense, smooth, and
very rigid panels. In the production process the pulp is exploded under pressure. Heat and
steam is applied to leave fine, fluffy brown fibers. These fibers are transformed into mats,
which are held together with lignum and other glues. The mats are than pressed between
steam-heated metal plates to give grainless sheets with one smooth, glossy surface and
one textured surface. To prevent warping, moisture is added in a humidification chamber.

Figure 1.20. Hardboard.

Hardboards are a cheaper option than plywood where strength is not required.
Hardboard has a smooth surface on one side and a screened surface on the other. It is
sometimes known as Masonite, after the man who invented it.
 Three Types of Hardboard:
a. Standard Hardboard
A light brown in color and has a fairly hard, smooth
surface on one side and a screened impression on the other. It
is flexible and easy to bend. It is suitable for interior use only
and where it is not subject to moisture.
b. Panel Hardboard
Somewhat denser than the Standard but not as dense as
Tempered.
c. Tempered Hardboard
The densest type, made by impregnating standard
board with tempering compound of oils and resins and baking
it to polymerize the tempering materials. It is dark brown in
color, brittle and stiff, with improved machining qualities and
greater resistance to moisture and water penetration, making it
ideal for exterior use.

 Uses of Hardboard:
 Hardboard is used in a variety of applications including furniture components, wall
paneling, moulded door skins, underlayment and perforated boards. Other materials
may be added during the manufacturing process to improve certain properties, such as
resistance to abrasion and moisture, and to increase strength and durability.
 Hardboard panels and hardboard sheets is a composite panel manufactured primarily
from inter-felted ligno-cellulosic fibers consolidated under heat and pressure.

26
 Advantages of Hardboard:
 Hardboard offers several advantages, including its high strength-to-weight ratio,
dimensional stability, and resistance to warping or splitting. It is commonly used in
construction, interior finishes, furniture manufacturing, and as a substrate for
laminated surfaces.

 Disadvantages of Hardboard:
 Hardboard cannot be used outside because it absorbs water.

2. FIBERBOARD
Fiberboards are finishing materials made from vegetable fibers such as corn or
sugarcane stalks pressed into sheets. It is not very strong but has good insulating
properties therefore it is usually used for ceiling only. It is generally 4’x8’ (1220mm x
2440mm) panel size, in thicknesses of 3/16” (4.5mm) or ¼” (6mm), ½” (12mm) and ¾ “
(19 mm). Acoustic fiber board is manufactured from wood, straw, bagasse pulp pressed
into boards with or without holes or slots. Thicknesses of acoustic fiber board vary from
½ “ to 2” (12 to 50mm) in ½” (12mm) increments.

Figure 1.29. Fiberboard

 Brand Names of Fiberboard:
a. CELOTEX
b. CANEX
c. HOMASOTE
d. PHILTEX
e. BONOTEX

3. MEDIUM DENSITY FIBERBOARDS

MDF is a type of fiberboard which is made from wood fibers glued under heat and
pressure. MDF has many qualities that make it an ideal alternative to plywood or
chipboard. It is dense, flat, stiff, has no knots and is easily machined. Its fine particles
provide a material without a recognizable "grain". Unlike plywood, MDF contains no
internal voids, and will produce better edges providing that it is correctly machined.

27
 Figure 1.21 Medium Density Fiberboard.
 Uses of Medium Density Fiberboard:
 Vapor Barrier and Insulation. Fiberboard, due to its durability and treatment, makes
for a great vapor barrier in conjunction with other vapor barrier products. The wood is
able to endure long periods of moisture as well as drying out without deforming or
rotting. Besides acting as a vapor barrier it also insulates against heat loss.
 Soundproofing and Sound Deadening. If you've ever taken apart a speaker you will
notice that they are actually constructed out of medium-density fiberboard or
particleboard. This is because the wood fibers absorb sound which prevents vibration
from within the speaker cabinet. This quality makes fiberboard a useful addition to a
media room as walls and floor underlayment.

 Advantages of Medium Density Fiberboard:

 MDF lacks grain, and it is easy to drill and cut without risking damage. Its high
density makes it suitable to use machines on it.
 It has a smooth surface without kinks and knots.
 The panel can be stained or painted to mimic natural wood. Laminates and wood
veneers can also be applied to MDF panels to mimic real wood appearance. As such,
MDF is the best alternative to real wood when it comes to appearance.
 MDF doesn’t contract or expand due to temperature fluctuations like natural wood.
The swelling that occurs in MDF due to exposure to moisture is also minimal. It is a
dimensionally stable wood product.
 MDF holds better to hinges and screws thanks to its high density.

 Disadvantages of Medium Density Fiberboard:

 MDF doesn’t provide the strength as that of natural wood and therefore cannot
withstand extreme stress. When put under pressure, it cracks or splits. The lifespan of
furniture made of MDF is limited compared to those made of real wood.
 During the MDF board installation, you require a lot of nails since its density is lower
compared to that of natural wood. The nails should be hammered at close intervals so
that the board doesn’t droop in the middle.
 During manufacturing of MDF, formaldehyde is used and when cut, this harmful
chemical is released. The chemical irritates eyes and is detrimental to the lungs if
inhaled.
 MDF is dense and challenging to handle and need a lot of labour when cutting,
sanding or installing.

 Costs of Medium Density Fiberboard:

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D. MINERAL BONDED PARTICLE BOARD & FIBER BOARD

1. FIBER CEMENT BOARD

Fiber-reinforced cement board is comprised of 72% Portland Cement, 20%
mineralized cellulose fibers derived from recycled materials, and 8% calcium carbonate.
Fiber cement board is a durable and low-maintenance building material that is
commonly used on residential homes and, in some cases, commercial buildings.
Thickness: 3.5mm, 4.5mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 18mm
Size: 4ft x 8ft

29
 Figure 1.22. Fiber Cement Board.

 Uses of Fiber Cement Board:

 External Cladding. Used as external cladding materials for buildings. They are
available in various textures. The cladding is extremely durable with excellent
weather resistance properties.
 Internal and External Lining. Used as an internal and external lining material. The
internal lining is suitable for plastering or for tiles to be laid on it. The external lining
can be finished with paint or any other textures or cladding materials.
 Fire-Rated Partitions. The Fiber Cement Boards are non-combustible materials and
have very good fire resistance properties. They are widely used to make fireproof
partitions.
 Substrate for Tiling. The boards are used as a substrate for tiling on the floors and
walls. It is a very strong material having very good water resistance properties which
makes it a good base for tiling.
 Acoustic Properties. They have very good sound insulation properties.
 Water Resistance. They are used to waterproof certain areas.

 Advantages of Fiber Cement Board:

 Easy to install. Fibre cement boards or sheets are simple to install. Because the
material is lightweight, it is easy to position in the right place.
 Durability and weather resistance. The general life expectancy of fibre cement board
cladding is 40-50 years. Fibre cement boards will never rot and protect your home
from extreme UK weather conditions. The cement fibre board is also fire resistant, it
will not crack or swell with the changing elements and it’s moisture resistant too.
 Low maintenance. In comparison to vinyl or PVC cladding, this board are
straightforward to maintain and will not need to be repainted. Cement fibre board
cladding is also simple to clean - just use a combination of soap and water to keep the
cladding looking fresh.
 Environmentally friendly. To coincide with the growing topic of using eco-friendly
products and materials, this type of cladding uses a low amount of additives - as well
as sand, cement and water - to its mixture.

 Disadvantages of Fiber Cement Board:

 Difficult to cut. It can be difficult to cut compared to its timber counterpart. Electric
power shears can also be used, but this can take a lot longer to cut.

30
 Cost. Generally, the cost of buying fibre cement cladding is more expensive than
timber cladding.
 Fitting issues. If your cladding is not fitted very well, a whole host of issues can arise.
Your home or the building that you are working on can be exposed to the element if a
gap is formed due to poor installation. This can lead to leaks and a rotting framework
- termites may also find their way through the material.

 Costs of Fiber Cement Board:

2. GYPSUM BOARD
This is a non-combustible building board with a gypsum core enclosed in tough,
smooth paper. It is designed to be used without addition of plaster for walls, ceilings or
partitions. It is extensively used in “dry-wall” construction, where plaster is eliminated.

Figure 1.23. Gypsum Board.

 Brand Names:
 BORAL
 ELEPHANT
 Types of Gypsum Board:
a. Wall Board
This type is used for surface layer on interior walls and ceilings. The regular
wallboard comes with grey liner paper backing and special paper finish on the facing
and edges suitable for decoration. The foil-backed gypsum board has aluminum foil
bonded to the liner paper to serve as vapor barrier and thermal insulation. Pre-
decorated gypsum board comes with a decorative vinyl or paper sheet on its face.
b. Backing Board
This is used as base layer in multi-ply construction, where several layers of
gypsum boards are desired for high fire resistance, sound control and strength in
walls.

31
c. Core Board
To save space, this type is used as a base in a multi-ply construction of self-
supporting (studless) gypsum walls. It comes in 1” (25mm) thickness or 2- factory-
laminated, ½ “ thick layers of backing board.
d. Type X Gypsum Board
For use in fire-rated assemblies, this may be wallboard, backing board, or
coreboard made more fire-resistant by addition of glass-fiber or other reinforcing
materials.
e. Water-Resistant Backing Gypsum Board
This type comes with water-resistant gypsum core and water-repellant face
paper. It maybe used as base for walls of bathrooms, showers, and other areas exposed
to wetting.

 Uses of Gypsum Board:

 It helps in improving resistance, rigidity, and higher fire resistance. These
characteristics make them excellent for single-layer and double-layer walls. The ¾-
inch and the 1-inch variant are used for creating shaft walls, partitions, corridor
ceilings, and similar purposes.

 Advantages of Gypsum Board:

 Versatile. Unlike other surfacing products, Gypsum boards offer high performance,
ease of application & repair, and adaptability in all kinds of decoration.
 Easy to Install. Gypsum installation is extremely easy and fast. Available in lengths of
8, 10, or 12 feet and in width of 48 inches, it allows covering larger areas of ceilings
as compared to other materials. Besides, due to its lightweight, the number of workers
required to handle it reduces, thus decreasing the labour cost.
 Fire Resistant. Gypsums are fire-resistant material and come with a low flame-spread
index and a low smoke-density index. Gypsum plaster is highly fire-resistant and can
hold fire for up to three hours. adequately protecting other structural elements for a
certain period of time.
 Low Thermal Conductivity. Gypsum plaster offers low thermal conductivity, making
it great for saving heating and cooling costs in a building.
 No Curing Time. Gypsum plaster is ready-made and doesn’t require additional curing
time. It also helps save resources such as the water needed for the process. Painting
job can start as soon as three to four days of gypsum application.
 No Shrinkage. Cement is known to react when it comes in contact with water. So its
plaster ends up getting cracks once it dries. Gypsum plaster is more effective and
suffers from few to no shrinkage cracks, making it a better alternative to mortar
plaster.
 Great Finish. Gypsum plaster walls are perfectly lined and leveled, unlike mortar
plaster which requires a lot of labor to achieve smoothness. It helps create visually
appealing living rooms with ease.
 Storage and Shelf Life. The shelf life of gypsum plaster is usually 3-4 months from
the date of manufacture. It is light-weight and hence its usage for plastering does not
increase the structural load on the building. Gypsum plaster prevents rusting of metal
fittings like pipes and increases their durability.

32
  Disadvantages of Gypsum Board:
 It doesn’t perform well against water. We cannot use gypsum plaster for outer walls.
These retain dampness and are not the most suitable for areas with walls that come in
regular contact with water, such as bathrooms and toilets. Even though there are
modified water-resistant, they do not perform as well as cement plaster. It’s difficult to
use in conditions where exposure to moisture is high.
 Low Shelf Life. Gypsum, as a material, comes with a limited shelf life. You can keep
gypsum plaster for up to 4 months, but if you take extra care, its life goes up to around
ten months.
 For the same thickness, gypsum plaster is costlier than cement plaster. Despite these
shortcomings, Gypsum Boards are the best alternative for surfacing boards and can
really be beneficial in a long run.

 Costs of Gypsum Board:

E. STRAWBOARD
A strawboard panel is a rigid building panel made of a solid core of compressed wheat (or
rice) straw covered with recycled paper liners which are stuck to both sides with non-toxic,
water-based glue. Strawboard panels make an excellent alternative to timber for frame
structures, interior partition walls, floors, load and non-bearing ceilings, roofs, and
prefabricated buildings.

Figure 1.24. Strawboard

F. GLUE LAMINATED TIMBER

Glulam is a natural alternative to steel or concrete. Glulam is a natural structural material
that is economical, strong and attractive looking. By the turn of the last century, German

33
structural design engineer Otto Hetzer presented a patent described as “a bent structural
component of timber for building applications", which later became known as Glulam.
Glulam is made by gluing together – under pressure and heat – laminates of timber
that have been accurately planed. The resulting product is strong, stable and corrosion proof
with significant advantages over structural steel and concrete.

Figure 1.25. Glue-Laminated Timber.

 Production Process:

Figure 1.26. Production Process of Glue-Laminated Timber.

 Mactan International Airport in the Philippines
Mactan International Airport in the Philippines is Asia’s first airport to have a roof
structure made entirely of glulam. In the course of the expansion of the second largest airport
in the Philippines – for which a new 65,000-m² terminal has been built for international
flights to 23 destinations – its annual capacity was more than doubled to 12 million
passengers. Design, ecological and traditional reasons all led the choice to fall on the most
sustainable of all building materials, wood.
Rubner supplied a total of 4,500 m³ of glulam for the load-bearing structure of the
architecturally striking, undulating barrel roof, which has a height of 15 meters and a span of
30 meters. Rubner also prefabricated the 23-meter arched truss halves. The components were
shipped to the Philippines in three tranches via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and Antwerp
then assembled in Lapu-Lapu City on the island of Mactan in just three months under
Rubner’s supervision. Construction was accomplished according to European standards,
among the strictest in the world. The project was completed in 2018.

34
 Figure 1.27. Mactan International Airport.

Figure 1.28. Glue-Laminated Timber Connection Details.

35
II. ENGINEERED STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Presented by Angel Ann Sayangco

A pre-engineered building is one whose parts are developed and constructed in a factory
before being shipped to the construction site for final assembly. Pre-engineered structures
draw from a stock of materials that have been tested and found to meet a variety of structural
and aesthetic needs. Prefabricated structures are often made of steel. The high-strength steel
used in their construction makes them sturdy and efficient in terms of material use compared
to alternatives like concrete or wood.
A pre-engineered steel building is a modern technology where the complete designing is
done at the factory and the building components are brought to the site in CKD (completely
knock down condition) and then fixed/jointed at the site and raised with the help of cranes.
The term "engineered" implies a level of customization to meet specific design and
functional requirements. The design process considers factors such as building purpose,
occupancy, aesthetic preferences, and local building codes.

 Types of Steel Used in Pre-Engineered Steel Construction:

1. Mild / Carbon Steel
Mild or carbon steel, classified under ASTM A36, is one of the most widely used
types of steel in PEB construction. It is readily available, affordable, and possesses
excellent structural properties. Mild steel offers good tensile strength, high flexibility,
and ease of welding, making it suitable for a wide range of applications in pebs. Its
versatility and cost-effectiveness make it a popular choice for columns, beams, and other
structural elements.

2. High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel

HSLA steel is another commonly used type of steel in PEB construction. It
combines the advantages of carbon steel with other alloying elements to provide higher
strength and improved corrosion resistance. HSLA steel offers enhanced structural
integrity and durability, making it suitable for pebs in areas prone to harsh weather
conditions or corrosive environments.

3. Structural Steel
Structural steel, specifically ASTM A572 grade 50, is often utilized in pebs that
require superior strength. This type of steel provides higher yield and tensile strength
than mild steel. ASTM A572 steel is well-suited for PEB columns and beams, allowing
longer spans and increased load-bearing capacity. It offers excellent mechanical
properties, making it a popular choice for pebs that require enhanced structural strength.

4. Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is employed in pebs that require exceptional resistance to corrosion,
high strength, and aesthetic appeal. Grades 304 and 316 are commonly used stainless
steel grades in PEB construction. It also says that stainless steel offers excellent
corrosion resistance, even in aggressive environments, making it suitable for pebs in

36
 food processing and laboratory industries. It provides structural stability and adds an
attractive finish to the building.

5. Weathering Steel
Weathering steel, also known as COR-TEN steel (ASTM A588), is utilized in pebs
that are exposed to outdoor environments. Weathering steel forms a protective rust-like
coating when exposed to atmospheric conditions, eliminating the need for painting and
providing long-term durability. This type of steel is commonly used in PEB components
such as cladding systems, where it adds a distinctive appearance while requiring minimal
maintenance.

6. GALVANISED STEEL
Galvanised steel finds application in pebs where corrosion resistance and longevity
are crucial. Top civil engineering companies in Chennai say that Galvanization involves
applying a protective zinc coating to the steel surface, forming a barrier against
corrosion. Galvanised steel is commonly used in PEB components such as roofing and
cladding systems. It provides excellent protection against corrosion, extending the
structure’s lifespan and reducing maintenance requirements.

 History of Pre-Engineered Construction:

In the 1800s, there were three forms of “ferrous metals” in use: wrought iron, cast iron,
and steel. Wrought iron was very familiar to blacksmiths who had been working with the
material for years. In the Victorian era, it was also commonly used as a building material.
Cast iron, strong but brittle, was more widely used for cooking and farming but was not very
appropriate for building. Steel was expensive to produce and was used for higher-end items
like watches, swords, and scythes.

In 1855, the Bessemer Method, created by Sir Henry Bessemer in England, made the
production of steel more efficient. It allowed for the creation of steel with good tensile
strength, however, wrought iron continued to be the more prevalent choice for iron-based
building of the period. By 1879, inventor Sidney Thomas mastered a method to remove
phosphorous from steel – increasing its quality and its possibilities. His “Basic Process”
meant that steel could finally be produced more cheaply so, it’s production rapidly grew. His
method became popular in Europe and, by the 1880s, steel quality became more consistent.

In the United States, the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 destroyed thousands of timber
buildings. After the fire, Chicago responded by creating stricter building regulations by
requiring non-combustible construction materials including brick, stone, marble, and
limestone. Other building solutions were cast iron and wrought iron paired with brickwork,
but as the city grew, Chicago needed to look to steel construction to go skyward. The Home
Insurance Building in Chicago, completed in 1885, was a 10-storey building widely
recognized as the first to use steel skeleton frame construction with reinforced concrete.

When it weighed only one-third of what a traditional masonry building of its size would
have weighed, city officials halted construction to investigate its safety. Demolished in 1931,

37
the building is seen as the father of the skyscraper. The Rand mcnally Building in Chicago
was built in 1890 as the first all-steel framed skyscraper. Designed by Burnham and Root, it
stood ten stories and cost $1 million to build at the time. It was demolished in 1911. By the
early 1900s, advances in technology and production yielded a steel product that was
consistently stronger. Railroads thrived and structural steel became the building material by
which others would be judged.

From 1875 to 1920, steel production in America grew from 380,000 tons to 60 million
tons annually, making the U.S. the world leader. This allowed magnates like Charles Schwab
and Andrew Carnegie to become some of the wealthiest men of the time. The incredibly rapid
growth was built on a solid technological base and the ongoing development of office
buildings, factories, railroads, bridges and more. By 1913, America was ready to reach higher
into the sky and the Woolworth Building, a 60-story tower, was built in New York. For a
time, it was the tallest building in the world.

By 1928, the Chrysler Building was competing with 40 Wall Street and the Empire State
Building to become the world’s tallest building. By the 1940s, hundreds of thousands of
people worked in American steel mills, and steel was being regularly used in building
construction. The mid-20th century saw the rise of modern architecture, characterized by
sleek lines, functional design, and the use of new materials. Steel continued to be a favored
material for skyscrapers, and the development of new construction techniques allowed for the
creation of iconic structures.

 Engineered Steel Construction Method:

Figure 2.1. Engineered Steel Construction Method.

1. Design and Engineering
The journey begins with meticulous design and engineering. Architects work hand
in hand with structural engineers to conceptualize and develop the steel structure,
ensuring it meets the desired functional, aesthetic, and safety requirements. This phase
is critical to harness the full potential of steel construction.

38
2. Fabrication
Once the design is finalized, the fabrication process commences. Structural steel
members are manufactured and shaped according to precise specifications. This is
achieved through cutting, drilling, welding, and assembling various steel components.

3. Transportation to the Site

After the components are fabricated, they are carefully packaged and transported
to the final construction site. This transportation process can involve trucks, ships, or
even trains, depending on the location of the site. The use of standardized components
ensures easy transportation and minimizes the risk of damage during transit.

4. Site Preparation
Before the assembly of the prefabricated structure can begin, the construction site
needs to be prepared. This includes clearing the area, leveling the ground, and making
necessary utilities connections such as water, electricity, and sewage. Proper site
preparation is crucial to ensure a stable foundation for the prefabricated structure.

5. Installation
The next phase involves the erection and installation of the fabricated steel
members on the construction site. Skilled workers, using specialized equipment,
carefully position and secure the structural steel components, bringing the envisioned
structure to life.

6. Finishing Touches
Finally, the finishing touches are added to the steel structure, which may include
protective coatings, fireproofing, and architectural enhancements. These additions not
only enhance the aesthetics but also ensure the longevity and safety of the steel
construction.

 Advantages of Engineered Steel Construction

1. Reliability
The reasons for this reliability include consistency and uniformity in
properties, better quality control because of factory manufacturer, large elasticity, and
ductility.

2. Industrial Behavior
The members may be cut and prepared for assembly in factories wile only
joining of these components is carried out at the site by installing rivets or bolts and
by welding different components.

3. Lesser Construction Time / Greater Erection Speed

Progress of the work is fast making the structures economical. The reason is
that these structures can be put to use earlier. The reduction in labor cost and overhead
changes and the benefits obtained from the early use of the building contribute to the
economy.

39
4. High Strength and Light Weight Nature
The high strength of steel per unit weight means that the dead loads will be
smaller. It is to be noted that dead loads are a bigger part of the total loads on
structure. When dead load reduces, the underneath members become still smaller due
to less weight acting on them.

5. Ductility and Warning Before Failure

The Property of a material by which it can withstand extensive deformation
without failure under high tensile stresses is said to be it ductility. Mild steel is a very
ductile material. The percentage elongation of a standard tension test specimen after
fracture can be as high as 25 to 30%. This gives visible deflections of evidence of
impending failure in case of overloads.

6. Low Maintenance
Pre-engineered structures are designed with the highest regard for the quality
of their components; for example, corrosion-resistant steel is often utilized to shield
the building from the elements. PEBs' primary advantage is that they require less
maintenance over a longer period, which means they can stay in service for longer.

7. Long Span Construction

High-rise buildings, long span bridges and tall transmission towers are made
up of structural steel. Industrial buildings up to a span of 90.m can be designed by
plate girders or trusses. Bridge spans up to 260.m are made with plate girders. For
through truss bridges, Bridge spans of 300.m have been used.

 Disadvantages of Engineered Steel Construction

1. High Maintenance
Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and water
and must therefore be periodically painted. This requires extra cost and special care.

2. Fireproofing Costs
Although steel members are incombustible, their strength is tremendously
reduced at temperatures prevailing in fires. At about 400ºC, creep becomes much
more pronounced. Creep is defined as plastic deformation under a constant load for a
long period of time. This produces excessively large deflections/deformations of main
members forcing the other members to higher stresses or even to collapse.

3. Susceptibility to Buckling
The steel sections usually consist of a combination of thin plates. The overall
steel member dimensions are also smaller than reinforced concrete members. If these
slender members are subjected to compression, there are greater chances of buckling.
Buckling is a type of collapse of the members due to sudden large bending caused by
a critical compressive load.

40
4. Higher Initial Cost / Less Availability
In few countries, steel is not available in abundance and its initial cost is very
high compared with the other structural materials. This is the most significant factor
that has resulted in the decline of steel structures in these countries.

5. Poor Aesthetics
For certain types of buildings, the steel form is architecturally preferred.
However, for majority of residential and office buildings, steel structures without the
use of false ceiling and cladding are considered to have poor aesthetic appearance. A
considerable cost is to be spent on such structures to improve their appearance.

 Components of Engineered Steel Construction:

A. Primary Components

a. Mainframe
The mainframe is like the skeleton in a human body. It is a rigid steel
structure made of strong steel rods providing the overall strength to the building.
The frame comprises tapered columns and tapered rafters. Different shaped
beams or flanges are webbed together using continuous fillet weld on one side to
disburse stress throughout the channel.

Table 2.1. Types of Mainframes

Types of Mainframe:

Lean To (LT)

The most preferred type for sheds requiring an

expansion along the width. It requires the
original shed to be designed such that it is able
to take the load of the expanded shed along
with the new shed. Lean to sheds are designed
to match the roof slope of the existing shed
such that the water is discharged out of the
shed.

41
 Clear Span (Cs)

The most preferred and widely used

worldwide. It offers clear access to loading
and stacking function within the shed. As the
pillars or columns are coming at both ends, it
gives a very spacious and airy look to the
entire shed. It can design these sheds for a
width of up to 150 meters. However, the water
discharge from these types of frames is on
both sides of the shed as this is a two slope
frame.

Single Slope (SS)

The preferred choice when clients want or

has restriction to drain water of both sides of
the shed. It is also chosen by clients in case
their existing sheds require an expansion in
width but is not designed to support the load
of a lean to shed. In case these sheds are very
wide then is becomes economical to make
the same in Multispan.

Multi Span (Ms)

Most suitable for clients who want a wide

shed but do not necessarily want it to be clear
span because it gives us the economy of Two
Sloped Structure and the columns in between
distributes the load and thus reduces the
weight of the structure. It is the most
economical form of frame for large span
buildings. The water discharge is however
done from the two side of the slope.

42
 Multi Gable (MG)

Used in case of wide shed but are more

economical than the Multi Span frame type.
It is lighter because the trusses are smaller
hence economical, but it comes with a rider
that it may has a water discharge in the center
of the shed which would require an internal
drainage line, which is not preferred in most
of the industries where water ingress during
unplanned excess rains lead to losses.

Other Types of Mainframes:

Figure 2.2. Other Types of Mainframesi

b. Columns
Columns are basically vertical pillar-like structures that increase in width as
they go from the bottom to the top of the buildings. These structures provide
strength and transfer the pressure through the vertical loads to the foundation.
These are generally made up of I-sections which give benefits in terms of strength
while being economical to produce.

c. Rafters
Typical rafters as shown in the image are
sloped structural beams that give strength and
support to the roof deck and the loads associated
with it. The beam is placed between the ridge or
hip to the wall plate, downslope perimeter, or eave.

43
B. Secondary Components

a. Purlins & Girts

Purlins are the secondary components used to
support the roof. However, Girts are the secondary
components used on the walls whereas Eave struts
are used in the middle of the sidewall and the roof
at the intersections.
b. Eave Struts
Eave struts shall be cold formed “C” sections
with unequal flanges. Dimensions of Eave struts
are 200 mm deep with a 104 mm wide top flange, a
118 mm wide bottom flange, both are formed
parallel to the roof slope. Each flange has a 24 mm
stiffener lip. Options include single slope up, single
slope down, double slope up, or double slope
down. Slopes are available from 0.25:12 to 4:12.

Figure 2.4. Parts of C and Z Sections. Figure 2.5. Types of Eaves

Strut.

c. Cross Bracing
This is the most common form of bracing in a
pre-engineered steel building. Using solid steel
rods, angles, or cables, each brace is fastened to
the top and bottom of the main frame making an
“X” between 2 rigid frames. Depending on the
size and height of the building, and on the wind
and seismic loads, the number of braced bays
required will vary but at a minimum 1 bay per
side is required.

44
d. Cladding
Walls and roof panels are where sheeting comes in — these are what is
attached to the purlins of the structure and are what fully cover the space.
Sheeting (also called cladding) is best when it is galvanized to provide extra
support and border to walls. This will also allow the material to be coated in a
variety of your preferred colors and textures.

e. Accessories
In addition to steel material, the other parts that help in providing a finish to
the building are turbo ventilators, skylights, doors and windows, roof curbs,
and fasteners, and other non-structural elements known as accessories of the
pre-engineered buildings.

Figure 2.7. Parts of Pre-Engineered Building

45
 Comparative Analysis of Engineered Steel Construction and Conventional
Table 2.2. Comparative Analysis of Engineered Steel Construction / Conventional
Criteria Conventional Construction
The process occurs step by
step. Excavating the site, laying
down the foundation are the
first steps before the building
frames are put into place. Each
step must be completed before
Process & moving on to the next, which
Construction makes scheduling an integral
Period part of the process. If one step
is delayed, it affects the end
date of the project. The
conventional building takes
around 20 to 26 weeks to
complete.
Conventional buildings can
take on more complex and
unusual designs. This is
because each component in this
method can be designed and
fabricated from scratch.
However, while it can meet
Design more complicated design
specifications, it also costs
more and produces a lot more
construction waste in the
process.
46
Engineered Steel Construction
The process can be finished at
a quicker pace. The parts for
assembly are designed and
fabricated off-site, and later
delivered to be assembled.
Workers then unpack these
fabricated steel sections and
set them up based on the
design given to them. the
process of construction is fast
and takes on an average of 6
to 8 weeks.
Pre-engineered structures can
meet simpler designs with
ease. Each component is made
to be mass-produced and
quickly made, so fabricating
specialty sections isn’t usually
done by manufacturers.
Rather, each component is
fabricated to meet a specific
and uniform design. These
designs use standard sections
to be quickly erected once
they are delivered to the
construction site.
 Structures take much longer to
be constructed, therefore,
having higher labor costs. They
use more workers to haul
material and create the
structure, walls, floors of the
build. These buildings also
Labor Costs need thorough inspection and
maintenance at every step of
the process, as well as multiple
subcontractors for the needed
materials, which adds to the
labor needed to finish this type
of construction.
Adding expansions or making
repairs to conventionally made
buildings can be difficult, as
the design needs to take into
account the original frame of
Expansion &
the structure. The details and
Repair
quality of the frame can create
complications when doing
additional construction on an
existing structure.
The foundations of a The foundation of a pre-
conventional building need to
be able to withstand tons of
concrete and steel. The weight
of this type of structure is quite
heavy, so a robust concrete
Foundation foundation is needed to support
its weight. The foundation
design needs to be
overestimated, otherwise, the
foundation will be too weak
and will cause structural issues
later on.
47
These structures also need
fewer construction workers
and subcontractors to create
the finished product. As a
result, this method has a
quicker turnaround and can
often be completed within two
months, which lowers labor
costs.
They are made to be eminently
expandable and customized for
new uses. For extensions, new
sections can easily be ordered
and attached to any side or on
top of the existing building.
Repairs are also easily made as
the same section can be
ordered from the same
manufacturer to replace the
damaged part.
engineered building is much
simpler. This is because this
type has the advantage of
weighable components. This
means that everything can be
calculated to give a final
weight. Also, because these
sections use less steel, it results
in a much lighter finished
product that needs a less robust
foundation.
 Classification of Steel Connections

Table 2.3. Classification of Steel Connections

Classification of Steel Connections

Welded Connections

Welding is a commonly used method in the

production of steel structures. This method
utilizes heat (through flames or electric arcs)
to locally heat the metal at the contact point
until it melts and gradually blends. After
cooling, this metal part will slowly solidify,
forming the weld.

Bolt Connections

Bolt connections in steel structures have been

popular for a long time. This type of
connection is established by fastening two
components together using bolts and heavy-
duty nuts. Bolted connections can be easily
assembled or disassembled, which greatly
facilitates regular inspection and maintenance.
They can be applied to components subjected
to tension, shear, or even both.

Riveted connections

Are similar to bolted connections in that both

use a type of component to join various
elements together. This technique involves
placing rivets into the openings of the
components that need to be connected and
fastening the end of the rivet to ensure the
components remain intact. However, riveted
connections are a rather old method and are
less commonly used in practical applications
these days.

48
 THE SHARD, LONDON
Manufacturer: Severfield

Figure 2.8. The Shard

Also referred to as the Shard London Bridge and formerly London Bridge Tower, a
72-storey mixed use development supertall skyscraper, designed by the Italian architect
Renzo Piano, in Southwark, London. The tallest building in Western Europe, The Shard
stands at 310m and provides approximately 55,800 sqm of mixed-use space which has
become a part of both the business community and the ‘London experience’ for visitors
and tourists with its mix of hotel, luxury residential accommodation and office space.
The Shard comprises 26 floors of high specification office space, three floors of
restaurants, the 19-floor five-star Shangri-La Hotel, 13 floors of residential apartments
and London’s highest public viewing gallery. Severfield have six manufacturing facilities
in the UK, one in Europe, and a joint venture in India. Severfield were responsible for the
connection design and fabrication of approximately 12,700 tons of structural steelwork,
of which 7,500 tons are coated with fire protection paint and 6,000 tons are Fabsec plated
beams with bespoke service openings. They also supplied and fixed the metal decking,
edge protection and stairs throughout. Also, their in-house team was utilized for the
erection of the steelwork. They held a trial steel erection at their Dalton site to ensure we
achieved the highest level of accuracy and safety when doing so on-site in London.

49
 Figure 2.9. The Shard

Figure 2.10. The Shard Construction Progress

Lima Technology Center, Batangas
Manufacturer: ILO Builder Inc.

Figure 2.11. The Lima Technology Center, Batangas

This approximately 9,000 sq m warehouse complex in Lima Technology Center in
Batangas. The property's total floor area covers the mezzanine level (in all warehouses) with
173.88 sq m. It also includes an open area measuring at least 1,000 sq m for the tenant's
exclusive use. Each warehouse features 7-meter-high walls from floor to bottom truss. All are
also pre-painted GI roofing with stainless gutter and insulation. All warehouse units are also
well-ventilated and lit.
Locally owned, locally operated in the Philippines. They have different equipment
such as sunrise hydraulic ironworker, way train bandsaw machine, welding gantry king arc,
overhead crane, press brake, sterile rotator, cnc oxygen fuel plasma machine, grooving
machine, hydraulic assembly straightening machine, hydraulic shearing machine, magnetic
lifter, mig welding machine, arc welding machine, hydraulic shearing machine, and uncoiler

50
which has a capabilities to execute full fabrication and can erect steel structures with their
own cranes.

III. HILLSIDE CONSTRUCTION

Presented by Myra Cabrera

Hillside - often subjected to land sliding or downhill creep of surface soil layers.
Construction - process of building something, especially roads, buildings, bridges, etc.
Hillside Construction - involves building on a slope or hillside

 Advantages of Hillside Construction

 Scenic views / panoramic views
 Often have more privacy compared to flat terrain.
 Natural ventilation and lighting
 Expanded space
 Expanded space
 Architectural creativity

 Disadvantages of Hillside Construction

 Possibilities of soil erosion and landslides
 Limitations on the height of the building due to earthquake risk
 Non-availability and transportation problems of construction materials
 Drainage issues
 Existence of tall shady trees and dense forest areas
 High costs involved in the site development due to the cutting and filling process
 Limited space for outdoor activities
 Zoning and permitting challenges

 Important Considerations when Planning to Build in a Hilly Area:

1. Construction Site Selection

Check for Landslide-Vulnerable Areas. Landslides are the
most common natural calamity in mountainous areas,
consistently expanding their geographical reach. Reviewing
the historical patterns of a region and evaluating its behavior
under diverse climatic conditions can be highly beneficial,
aiding in the prevention of landslides.

51
Check for slope and sequence of rock structures. Understanding the dynamics of a hill's
various components is crucial. For instance, it is important to
note that the rock dip should not align with the slope,
especially when the dip angle is less than that of the hill
slopes at the specific site.
Check for existing subsurface water and existing streams. The
existence of underground water in an area could create voids,
potentially triggering landslides.

2. Comprehensive Planning
Site Reconnaissance. It aids in confirming information
obtained from topographical data and acquiring extra
information from the site. It is also critical for hill-site
development to discover and investigate protuberances to
identify earlier landslides or collapses that can indicate the
slope’s stability.
Site investigation. Site research should be carried out in at
least two stages for a hill-site building. Boreholes are used
in the first stage, which may also include a geophysical
survey. The field tests should be conducted to determine the
site’s overall subsurface state, such as the general depth of soft soil, hard stratum, and, most
importantly, bedrock. Once the general layout of the hill-site development has been
established, a full site assessment should be conducted to gather the information needed for
detailed geotechnical designs.
Garnering topographical data. It entails thoroughly
examining geological maps so that engineers are aware of and
comprehending the geological formation of the proposed
development site. The geomorphological features, prior and
current land use, ongoing development, construction
activities, and issue areas such as previous slope failure
should all be investigated using a topographic map and aerial
images of the site and surrounding locations.
3. Design of Slopes
Slope collapse occurs similarly worldwide, with the
underlying causes being relatively consistent across
geological and geographic regions. As a result, the same
assessment, analysis, design, and corrective measures can be
used.

52
4. Sustainable Development
The construction technique should be designed using
locally available, easily workable materials that are largely
environmentally friendly, have strong climatic resistance,
and have little or no impact on the hill settlement’s
environment.
In contrast to this, contemporary materials are
manufactured from raw materials, which are available in
particular locations and are transported to different parts of
the country after manufacturing.

 Building Techniques for Hillside Construction

1. Site Analysis and Planning
Conduct a site analysis to determine the slope’s gradient, soil type, and drainage
conditions. Site planning is then developed to ensure that the building is oriented correctly,
and that water is directed away from the structure. Building orientation also considers natural
light, view, and access to the site.

Figure 3.8. Slope Type

Figure 3.7. Soil Type

Figure 3.9. Soil Type

Figure 3.10. Percentage of Slope

53
2. Retaining Walls
Used to retain soil and provide additional support to the structure’s foundation on the
slope. It can be made of various materials, including masonry, concrete, and wood, depending
on the intended use and aesthetic of the building. A retaining wall is designed to redistribute
the pressure of the slope and provide a flat surface for the building’s foundation.

Figure 3.11. Retaining Walls Parts Figure 3.12. Cross Section and
Longitudinal Section
Types of
Retaining Wall:
a. GRAVITY RETAINING WALL
• Gravity retaining wall depends on its self-weight only to resist lateral earth pressure.
• It is commonly massive because it requires a significant gravity load to counteract soil
pressure.
• Sliding, overturning, and bearing forces shall be considered while this retaining wall
structure is designed.
• It can be constructed from different materials, such as concrete, stone, and masonry.
• Crib retaining walls, gabions, and bin retaining walls are also gravity retaining walls.

Figure 3.13. Types of Gravity Retaining Walls

54
b. CRIB RETAINING WALL
• Crib retaining walls are a form of gravity wall.
• They are constructed of interlocking individual boxes made from timber or precast
concrete.
• The boxes are filled with crushed stone or coarse granular materials to create a free-
draining structure.
• Primary crib retaining walls include reinforced precast and timber retaining walls.

Figure 3.14. Timber Crib Retaining Wall Figure 3.15. Precast Retaining Wall

Figure 3.15. Timer Crib Retaining Wall Figure 3.16. Precast Retaining Wall
Components Components

c. GABION RETAINING WALLS

• Gabion retaining walls are multi-celled, rectangular wire mesh boxes filled with
rocks or other suitable materials.
• It is employed for the construction of erosion control structures.
• Also used to stabilize steep slopes.

55
 • The structure is like a pyramid for a gabion wall’s standard design. As a matter of fact,
for every 1m expansion in wall height, the bottom row basket depth should be
expanded by half a meter.

Figure 3.17. Gabion Retaining Wall

Figure 3.18. Sizes of Gabion Retaining Wall

d. CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

• The cantilever retaining wall is composed of a stem and base slab.
• It is constructed from reinforced concrete, precast concrete, or prestressed concrete.
• The most common type is used as retaining walls.
• The base slab's portion beneath the backfill material is termed the heel, and the other
part is called the toe.
• Economical up to a height of 10 meters
• Similar to the gravity wall, sliding, overturning, and bearing pressure shall be
considered during its design.

Figure 3.19. Section Drawing of Precast Figure 3.20. Precast Cantilever Retaining
Cantilever Retaining Wall Wall
56
 Figure 3.21. Section Drawing of Figure 3.21. Reinforced Concrete Figure 3.22. Components of
Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Retaining Cantilever Retaining Wall Cantilever Retaining Wall
Wall

e. COUNTER-FORT / BUTTRESSED RETAINING WALL

• It is a cantilever retaining wall but strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the
back of the wall slab and base slab.
• Counterfort spacings equal to or slightly larger than half of the counter-fort height.
• Wall height ranges from 8-12 meters.

Figure 3.23. Components of Buttressed Figure 3.24. Buttressed Retaining Wall

Retaining Wall

f. ANCHORED RETAINING WALL

• Employed when the space is limited, or a thin retaining wall is required.
• Suitable for loose soil over rocks
• Considerably high retaining walls can be constructed using this retaining wall
structure system.

57
 • Deep cable rods or wires are driven deep sideways into the earth; then, the ends are
filled with concrete to provide an anchor.

Figure 3.25 – 3.26. Anchored Retaining Wall

g. PILED RETAINING WALL

• Piled retaining walls are constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles adjacent to
each other.
• Piles are forced into a sufficient depth to counter the force that tries to push over the
wall.
• Sheet Pile walls are built using steel sheets into a slope or excavations up to a required
depth, but they cannot withstand very high pressure.
• Sheet Pile retaining wall economic till the height of 6 meters.

Figure 3.27. Piling Wall Retaining Wall

58
 Figure 3.28. Concrete Pile Retaining Wall Figure 3.29. Sheet Pile Retaining Wall
h.
MECHANICALLY STABILIZED RETAINING WALL
• It is among the most economical and most constructed retaining walls.
• Mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall is supported by selected fills (granular)
and held together by reinforcements, which can be either metallic strips or plastic
meshes.
• Types of MSE retaining walls include panel, concrete blocks, and temporarily earth
retaining wall.

Figure 3.30. Components of Mechanically Figure 3.31. Actual Mechanically

Stabilized Retaining Wall Stabilized Retaining Wall

i. HYBRID SYSTEMS
• Retaining walls that use mass and reinforcement for stability are termed hybrid or
composite retaining wall systems.

Figure 3.32. Components of Hybrid Figure 3.32. Hybrid Retaining Wall

Retaining Wall

59
3. Pile Foundation
Used to support structures on sloping ground. Pile foundations are drilled deep into
the ground to reach stable soil layers to transfer the load from the structure to the deeper soil
layers.

Figure 3.33. Pile Foundation Figure 3.34. Technical Drawings of Pile

Foundation

Types of Pile Foundation:

a. BORED PILE / CAST IN SITU PILES
The most commonly and widely used type of pile. Board piles can be observed in
most structures constructed from pile foundations. The pile is socketed into the rock. The
rock's embedment depth will vary depending on the nature and amount of the load.
Bored pile diameters commonly range from 600 mm to 3.6 meters, but are constantly
increasing, and can in some cases be up to 5 meters. Depths of 100 meters are also becoming
relatively commonplace on land suitable for this type of technique.

Figure 3.35. Process of Bored Pile Figure 3.36. Actual Process of Bored Pile

b. DRIVEN PILES/PRECAST PILE

60
 Precast piles are not driven to the rock but terminated or inserted into a hard soil layer.
There should be a dense soil layer to rest the pile and to provide the end bearing. Piles are
available in different sizes starting from 400mm.

Figure 3.37. Driven Pile Process

Figure 3.38. Sizes of Driven Piles Figure 3.39. Actual Precast Driven Piles

\c. MICRO PILES

A micropile is a steel casing filled with concrete. A deep foundation must be
constructed when the ground condition is weak and there is no adequate bearing capacity to
carry the loads from the superstructure.

61
 Figure 3.40. Micro Pile Construction Figure 3.41 – 3.42. Actual Micro Pile
Process

d. SHEET PILES
Sheet piles are widely used in construction to retain the earth for excavations. As
indicated above, properly anchored sheet piles can be used in deep basement constructions.

Figure 3.43. Sheet Pile Construction Figure 3.43. Actual Sheet Pile
Process

e. TIMBER PILE
Ancient construction and not only the present construction used better technology.
They knew that piling needed to be done when there was weak soil. So, they have used
sustainable materials to do it. Even now when construction or expansion is done, timber
piling can be observed.

Figure 3.44. Pile Driving Figure 3.45. Pile Vibratory Figure 3.46. Timber Pile
Method Method

f. SCREW PILE
62
 Screw piles are steel screw-in piling and ground anchoring systems used for building
deep foundations. The nature of the screw depends on the type of construction.

Figure 3.47. Screw Pile Figure 3.48 – 3.49. Screw

Components Pile

4. Cut and Fill

The cut-and-fill method involves cutting into the hillside to create level areas (cuts)
and using the excavated material to fill in lower sections (fills). This technique helps create
flat building pads while maintaining the overall slope integrity.

Figure 3.50. Cut and Fill Process

 Permits and Regulation

The permits and regulations for hillside construction will vary depending on location
and the project's specific requirements. Some things that may need to consider include:
Table 3.1. Permits and Regulation for Hillside Constructiont

63
 Permit/Regulation Description

• Building Permits Approval of plans and design of the

building/structure.

• Environmental Regulation Protecting the environment from potential

damage caused by the project proposed.

• City/Municipality Codes & Building codes and requirements for the

Requirements city or municipality.

• Engineering Reports Analysis of the geotechnical and soil

conditions of the site.

• Fire & Safety Regulations Ensuring the building is safe from

potential fire hazards.

 Comparative Analysis of Construction in Sloping Site and Generally Flat Lot

Table 3.2. Comparative Analysis

Criteria Sloping Lot Generally Flat Lot

• Regulatory Obtaining regulatory Approvals may be

Approval approvals might be more relatively straightforward
challenging due to on flat terrain.
environmental and safety
concerns.

• Weather Construction on slopes Weather-related delays may

Conditions may be more susceptible to still occur but could be less
weather-related delays, impactful.
especially in areas prone to
erosion or landslides.

• Construction Construction on a sloping Construction on flat terrain

Period lot often takes longer due generally proceeds more
to the additional challenges quickly.
and considerations.

• Erosion Sloping lots are more prone Not prone to erosion.

to erosion, necessitating
erosion control measures
such as vegetation,

64
 retaining walls, or other
stabilization methods.

• Drainage Proper drainage becomes Drainage planning is still

crucial to prevent erosion important but may be less
and water damage on complex than on a slope.
slopes.
Additional measures like
drainage systems may be
required.

• Foundation Foundations on sloping lots Foundations on flat lots are

often require specialized typically more
engineering, such asstraightforward, with
retaining walls or piers, tooptions like slab
provide stability and foundations, crawl spaces,
prevent erosion. or basements depending on
local building practices and
The choice of foundation
preferences.
type depends on the slope's
steepness and soil
composition.

• Cost Construction costs on Construction costs on

Considerations sloping lots are generally generally flat lots may be
higher due to the need for lower due to simpler
specialized engineering, foundation requirements
foundation work, and and fewer engineering
potential retaining challenges.
structures.

• `Material Transporting materials Transportation of materials

Transportation uphill can be more time- is generally easier,
consuming and may reducing construction time.
require specialized
equipment.

• Site Analysis and Sloping lots require a
Grading detailed site analysis to
understand the topography,
soil conditions, and
drainage patterns.
Grading and excavation
may be necessary to create
a level foundation, leading
Site preparation on flat lots
is relatively simpler
compared to sloping lots,
as there's less need for
extensive grading and
excavation.

65
 to additional costs.

Himmel Trial House

In a remote mountain site in Guaira, Paraguay, local architecture firm Bauen has
designed ‘Himmel Trial House,’ a minimalist residential home in steel and glass for a retired
client, in which the surrounding landscape is the protagonist. The most vital criteria of the
design were to not interfere with the site conditions, leave the vegetation untouched, and
avoid invasive earth movements.
Bauen opted for a prefabricated system of metallic structures, manufactured in 60
days, and assembled on-site using bolted connections in only seven days.
The steel structure cantilevers off three concrete walls set into the sloping site,
elevating the volume, and creating a platform with unobstructed views of the surrounding
Sierra.

Figure 3.51 – 3.52. Himmel Trial House

Cross-shaped in plan, the interior spaces are delineated by only a few walls, including
an open-plan kitchen, a dining and living room, and private areas such as a bedroom and a
home gym.

Figure 3.53 – 3.55. Himmel Trial House Detailed

66
 Figure 3.56. Used Bolt Screw Method

Figure 3.57. Floor Plan and Section of Himmel Trial House.

67
IV. UNDERGROUND / TUNNEL STRUCTURES
Presented by Angel Mine Alcantara
Underground structures refer to constructions that are built beneath the Earth's
surface, either partially or entirely. Designing and constructing underground structures
requires careful consideration of factors such as geology, engineering, safety, and
environmental impact. Unlike surface or aerial structure, the interaction of the host medium
with the underground structure plays an important role in the proper functioning of the
structure.
Another consideration for the construction of an underground structure is the
provision of access for construction. The construction activities, thus, have to be cyclic and
multi-activities of construction cannot be accommodated simultaneously. The design,
construction, and instrumentation of an underground structure, therefore, require prudent
planning and construction sequencing.

 History:
Tunneling and underground constructions were first performed by prehistoric humans
who sought to make their cave homes larger. In time, all major ancient civilizations
developed their own methods of building beneath the surface. The Babylonians used tunnels
extensively for irrigation. Ancient Egyptians developed copper saws and hollow reed drills
used to excavate temple rooms in rock cliffs.
The ancient Greeks and Romans also used tunnels to drain marshes and for aqueducts.
Possibly the largest such construction from ancient times is the Pausilippo tunnel, built
between Naples and Pozzuoli in 36 BC, measuring 1,400 meters long, 9 meters high and 7
meters across. Underground facilities also have played an important role in warfare and
national security for more than 5,000 years. Underground chambers were used for hiding
places and escape routes in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Some notable 20th century uses of underground facilities for warfare and national
security include dozens of underground factories constructed beneath Germany during World
War II. In the early years, many countries, such as the former Soviet Union, Japan, and
France, started research on prefabricated technology for underground engineering.
Prefabricated linings were first applied in shield tunnels in the late 19th and early 20th
century. After more than 100 years, shield tunnels have been applied in many fields such as
metro, highway, municipal engineering, etc.
Other applications of prefabricated linings appeared in the 1980s in the former Soviet
Union. This prefabricated technology was applied in open-cut metro running tunnels, the
principal parts of stations, and auxiliary aisles to overcome the shortcomings of cast-in-place
concrete construction in cold weather. The structures of early prefabricated stations
commonly used a complex rectangular system with a prefabricated roof, bottom, side wall,
pillar, and beam structure.

 Significance of Underground/Tunnel Structures:

 Optimized Land Utilization. Underground spaces can help alleviate the strain on limited
surface areas in developed regions, allowing for sustainable urban growth.

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 Improved Urban Livability. Underground spaces and transportation systems provide
efficient alternatives, reducing traffic congestion and improving the quality of life in
cities.
 Energy and Cost Efficiency. Underground structures benefit from the inherent insulation
provided by surrounding soil, reducing the need for heating and cooling. This can lead to
substantial energy savings. Their maintenance costs are also lower than with solutions
above ground, due to more stable temperatures and protection against outside influences.
 Environmental Protection. Underground infrastructure minimizes the environmental
impact by preserving natural landscapes and reducing noise and air pollution.
 Privacy and Protection. Underground structures are almost completely hidden from view
and activities within them. Their depth can make them resistant to terrorist attacks, floods,
extreme wind events, heavy rains or erosion, earthquakes, and industrial accidents.

 Considerations in Building Underground/Tunnel Structures:

a. Study of geological conditions of the area and of the properties of the rocks.
Engineering geologists and civil engineers commonly describe the physical quality of
rock using a simple parameter known as the Rock Quality Designation (RQD), which is
obtained by measuring core samples obtained during exploratory drilling prior to
construction. For the design and construction of any underground structure following
information is required: type of rock/soil, water bearing zones and aquifer, fault zones,
karstic ground conditions, abrasive material and corrosive groundwater, high stressed
material, potential for harmful gases, and zones of weak rock.
If the fault zone cannot be avoided, it is desirable to align the tunnel perpendicular to
the fault plane. Study shows that underground structures, especially deep ones, are far less
vulnerable to earthquakes than superficial ones.
b. Hydrogeological conditions investigation of the area.
From which it may be estimated in which sections and in what quantities inflows of
water into the tunnel can be expected. The occurrence of corrosive water is so undesirable
that, if possible, such sites should be avoided. In some cases, the presence of gas and the
temperature of the environment need to be taken into account when assessing the
suitability of the site.
c. Structural integrity and safety
Factors such as load-bearing capacity, waterproofing, and resistance to corrosive
elements pose significant challenges. Engineers must choose appropriate construction
materials, reinforcement techniques, and drainage systems to ensure the longevity and
effectiveness of the structure.
d. Accessibility and wayfinding
Underground transportation systems, such as subway networks, require effective
wayfinding systems to help passengers navigate complex routes and make seamless
transfers. Implementing clear signage, user-friendly maps, and accessible designs are key
considerations in overcoming this challenge.

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e. Effects of underground working on the surrounding area
It is important to evaluate the influence of excavation construction on surrounding soil
and adjacent buildings. Subsidence of the ground surface may damage buildings,
transportation routes and others.
f. Environmental impact
When a tunnel cuts through an ecosystem, it can disrupt wildlife migration patterns
and restrict the movement of species, leading to population decline and reduced genetic
diversity.
g. Ventilation and air quality
In enclosed areas, the build-up of pollutants and harmful gases can pose serious health
risks. Designers must incorporate effective ventilation systems, pollutant control
measures, and emergency protocols to maintain safe and breathable air within
underground spaces.
h. Lighting solutions
There are often no windows and lack of natural light in most of underground space.
High-quality undergro und light should deliver a complete flood of lighting from the floor
to ceiling to create daylight working conditions.
i. Safety in underground construction
Underground construction presents various hazards such as cave-ins, toxic gases,
inadequate ventilation, and limited space. Personal protective equipment (PPE) plays a
crucial role in ensuring the safety of individuals working in underground construction
projects.
j. Remote monitoring and control systems
Monitoring and controlling underground construction processes can be challenging
due to limited visibility and accessibility. However, the advent of remote monitoring and
control systems has revolutionized this aspect of underground construction.

 Types of Underground Structures:

1. TUNNELS
A horizontal or near horizontal excavation that is open to the ground surface at each
end. It is essentially an element of transportation constructed in soil or rock used to
conduct the line under a natural obstacle, such as a hill or ridge.
The shape of a tunnel is influenced by the geologic setting, magnitude and orientation
of in-situ existing ground stresses, selected construction method, strength of lining
material to be used, and estimated ground load including its distribution.

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 Figure 4.1. Types of Tunnels.
 Common Shapes of Tunnels:
a. Circular. Circular tunnels are used to carry water under pressure. These are not
appropriate for traffic tunnels because more filling is needed to make the base flat. It
provides the greatest cross-sectional area for the least perimeter.
b. Polycentric. This sort of tunnel shape has a number of centers and provides a
sufficient flat base for traffic movement. It can resist external and internal pressure for
their arch shape.
c. Rectangular. For pedestrian traffic, rectangular shapes of tunnels are appropriate.
These tunnels are sometimes accepted if pre-constructed R.C.C caissons are used.
These are not suitable to resist external pressure due to their rectangular shape.
d. Horseshoe. A horseshoe-shaped tunnel is a combined shape of arches and circular
tunnel. It is suitable for traffic tunnels. These are generally used for subway or
navigation tunnels.

 Uses of Tunnels:
a. Railway & Highway Tunnels - In cities, tunnels carry underground railroads,
subways, and highways which because of traffic complexity, cannot be built over the
ground.
b. Pedestrian Circuits - A pedestrian crossing which crosses underneath a road or railway
in order to entirely separate pedestrians and cyclists from motor traffic or trains
respectively.
c. Water & Sewerage System - Tunnels are also used for water supply and sewage
disposal. Tunnel system is used for transporting sewage from buildings to a sewage
treatment plant or disposal.
d. Multi-Purpose Utility Tunnel - MUTs integrate all utilities, such as water supply, gas
pipes, telecommunications, and elctrical cables, in one tunnel that can be easily
accessed for inspection and maintenance activities, which can be conducted all-year-
round irrespective of the weather conditions.

2. CAVERNS
Tunnels are used essentially for enhancing connectivity, whereas caverns are
underground chambers usually associated with a specific usage, which might include
storage, industrial processes, commercial activities, and possibly habitation. Caverns usually
have larger cross sections than tunnels.

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 Figure 4.2. Uses of Caverns.
 Uses of Caverns:
a. Power Plants & Fuel Storage - In order to store large volumes of gaseous or liquid
media from the energy and chemical industries, underground storage facilities were
developed as an alternative to above-ground containers and tanks.
b. Research Facilities - Built to shield extremely sensitive detectors from the noise of
their surroundings and the signals associated with cosmic rays, underground facilities
have been established.
c. Underground Military Base - An underground base is a subterranean facility used for
military purposes. In addition to weapons production and storage, underground
facilities may also be used to protect operational weapons site.
d. Commerce & Housing - Underground living structures are not entirely underground;
typically, they can be exposed on one side when built into a hill or connected to a
surface building as a basement.
e. Underground Parking - Underground parking facilities are located beneath buildings
or public spaces. They are designed to maximize land use and maintain aesthetic
appeal by keeping parking areas out of sight.

3. SHAFTS & MINES

Shaft sinking is excavating a vertical or near-vertical tunnel from the top down, where
there is initially no access to the bottom. Shallow shafts, typically sunk for civil engineering
projects differ greatly in execution method from deep shafts, typically sunk for mining
projects. A shaft may be either vertical or inclined, between 45 and 90 degrees to the
horizontal, although most modern mine shafts are vertical.
Surface and underground mining are the predominant types of excavation. Surface
mining becomes unsuitable below 60 meters, therefore drilling operations must adjust
accordingly. Underground mining is inherently more dangerous than surface mining due to
the deep location of mines. It is more expensive compared to surface mining because of
foundational necessities like tunnel excavation, vent filtration, and mining shafts that must be
put in place.
Mining operations, however expansive and complex, are temporary. Reclamation or
rehabilitation is the process of restoring the lands of a mine site to their former use or
condition or making them suitable for a different use. The mine’s infrastructure and facilities,
including buildings, roads, and equipment are removed from the site. Then, the reclamation

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of vegetation, soil cover materials, surface water and waste rock takes place. This involves
reshaping lands, restoring topsoil, and planting native vegetation.

Figure 4.3. Shafts and Mines.

 Parts of Underground/Tunnel Structures:

a. Portal - It is the entrance or exit of tunnel where tunnel intersects with the open area.
It may be an inlet portal or outlet portal.
b. Crown - It is the topmost point of the tunnel cross-section.
c. Invert - It is the lowest point of the tunnel cross-section.
d. Faces of Operation / Attack - It is the surface from which a boring operation is carried
out.
e. Pilot Tunnel - It is a small tunnel driven, parallel and close to the proposed main
tunnel, to explore geological conditions & assist in final excavation. During
construction of vertical shaft, a pilot tunnel is excavated at first.
f. Adit Tunnel - It is a passage that provides access for extra faces of operation/attack in
addition to the inlet face and outlet face. It may also be used for the purpose of the
auxiliary entrance, ventilation, drainage, etc.
g. Shaft - It is an inclined or vertical passageway that connects the surface to the
underground tunnel or network of tunnels.
h. Niche - It is the relatively small recesses or compartments excavated inside a tunnel
for specific purpose such as equipment housing, utility installation, for vehicles to
make turns or change direction, etc.
i. Overbreak - It is the over excavation beyond the intended boundaries, resulting in a
larger opening or void than originally intended.
j. Overburden - Overburden refers to the soil, rock, or other material that lies above the
tunnel roof or crown.

 Components of Underground Structure:

1. Ground Support
It is defined as the support that is designed and installed to guarantee the long-term
stability of the underground structure. Without proper support, tunnels can collapse from
a number of other external pressures such as water ingress and rockfalls. Support
requirements change depending on geological and operational factors.
 Ground Support Mechanisms:
a. WOODEN BOARDS & TRUSSES

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 Boards, struts and trusses are used as temporary shoring in traditional excavation
methods. It is a flexible and cheap system in terms of materials, but it has a high demand
for labor. The use of these systems allows the section to be excavated in phases without
detaching the tunnel vault until it is completely finished, at which point the definitive
support is executed with formwork concrete.

Figure 4.4. Wooden Ground Support.

b. STEEL RIBS
This system involves the installation of rolled steel sections around the circumference
at specified spaces. It is essential to ensure that the loads are distributed evenly by the
steel support around the tunnel profile. Steel arches are particularly useful in large-span
tunnels and areas with challenging geological conditions. Generally, the legs of the steel
arches are placed on concrete to ensure the efficient distribution of the loads to the ground
and prevent settlement.

Figure 4.5. Steel Rib Ground Support.

c. BOLTING
Steel bolts or rods are inserted in holes drilled into the roof or walls of a rock
formation and anchored to the rock mass by grouting, mechanical expansion, or friction
to provide support to the roof or sides of the cavity. The length of the bolts and their
spacing can be varied, depending on the reinforcement requirements. Various types of
rock bolts include self-drilling rock bolts, GFRP rock solid bolts, and forepiling pipe.

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 Figure 4.6. Bolting Ground Support.

2. Linings
A lining is provided to strengthen the sides and roofs to resist the earth pressure and
groundwater head as well as provide the framework for the tunnels ultimate use.
 Types of Lining:
a. Temporary Tunnel Linings - Used before the permanent lining can be put in place.
b. Primary Tunnel Linings - Used to stabilize the tunnel surface before the permanent
lining can be put in place
c. Secondary Tunnel Lining - Designed to carry the long-term loads of the tunnel

 Materials for Lining:

a. In-Situ Concrete
Tunnels cut through hard rock may be lined with concrete cast in-situ. Generally a
long length of the tunnel is excavated before lining, with some temporary roof support
provided by rock bolting. Because of the tendency for the concrete to settle, there is likely
to be an unfilled void over the crown of the tunnel, between the cast lining and the rock. It
is necessary to fill this with grout at a later stage.

Figure 4.7. In-Situ Concrete Lining.

b. Shotcrete
In hard ground, shotcrete is used to line the tunnel for 1 to 3 inches. It is a wet mixed
concrete that is sprayed onto the tunnel surface with a hose using a compressed air

75
technique. Sprayed concrete is used to provide temporary support for tunnels through
weak rock, stabilizing the rock by filling crack and openings. Several unique properties of
shotcrete are flexibility, high bending strength, and ability to increase thickness by
successive layers.

Figure 4.8. Shotcrete Lining.

c. Steel Plate
Designed specifically for lining soft ground tunnels and relining existing conduits
under highways and railroads, steel plate is one of the most versatile segmental
corrugated steel plate systems. They are durable and have high compressive strength.
Cast-iron and steel segments are then finished using a sprayed concrete to infill the
segments and protect them from corrosion.

Figure 4.9. Steel Plate Lining.

d. Precast Segmented Liners
Several liner segments are combined to make a ring. The orientation of each ring can
be rotated to allow for curves, descents and ascents of the overall tunnel profile. These are
installed immediately after the tunnel boring machine progresses. They are designed to
resist the earth pressure and groundwater head as well as provide the framework for the
tunnels ultimate use.

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 Figure 4.10. Precast Segmented Liner.

3. Grouting
Both cement and chemical grouts are used in tunneling applications to fill narrow
cavities or cracks, rock fissures and geologic voids, reduce hydrostatic pressures,
permeate soils for control of groundwater, solidify flowing soils, create contact between
liners and surrounding geology, or control groundwater locally through joints or cracks in
the tunnel liner. Grouting of a geologic formation, rock, or soils may occur prior to the
advancement of tunnel construction, during the construction, or post-construction.
After a tunnel boring machine excavates the alignment in firm soil or hard rock, a
space exists between the excavation limits and the tunnel liner; backfill and contact
grouting are performed using a grout mixture to achieve intimate contact between the
geology and the tunnel liner. Cement grouts can consist of a Portland cement grout or an
Ultrafine cement grout. Chemically reactive grouts are predominantly used for water
control while sodium silicates are used for temporary structural support. Hydrophilic
grouts are typically single component systems that react with water and cure to an
expansive flexible foam or non-expansive gel. Hydrophobic grouts require the use of a
catalyst but are also considered single component when pumped.

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 Figure 4.11. Grouting.

 Construction Method of Underground/Tunnel Structures:

1. Cut-And-Cover Method
Also known as the open-cut method, the cut and cover method is a traditional form of
tunneling that involves opening up the ground surface and excavating to the required
depth. The structure is built inside an excavation and covered over with backfill material
when construction of the structure is complete. For depths of 10 to 18 meters, cut-and-
cover is usually more economical, depths rarely exceed 30 meters. The tunnel is usually
designed as a rigid frame box structure.
 Types of Cut-and-Cover Method:
a. Bottom-Up Construction b. Top-Down Construction

Figure 4.12. Cut-and-Cover Methods.

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2. Drill & Blast Method
This method involves the use of explosives, and blasting generally results in higher
duration of vibration levels. This form of excavation became possible with the advent of
gunpowder in the 1600s. But it was not until the invention of dynamite in 1867 that the
drill-and-blast method found greater success. Today an advanced form of explosive called
ANFO (ammonium nitrate/fuel oil) provides more safety for workers.
A jumbo is used to drill holes in the rock face. These drill holes are 2.4 to 3.6 meters
long. Shallow hole blasting has a depth generally less than 5 meters up to about 8 meters.
Deep hole blasting is usually 15 to 20 meters. The drilling pattern ensures the distribution
of the explosive in the rock and desired blasting result. Many mines and excavation sites
still plan their drilling patterns manually, but advanced computer programs are available
and widely used.

Figure 4.13. Drill and Blast Method.

3. Shaft Method
In this method, tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface. The
shaft is built up to the depth where tunnel is required. Shafts generally are circular or
elliptical in section to resist lateral pressures during construction. Shafts are provided at
both inlet and outlet of tunnels. This vertical access helps lower tunnel boring machine
(TBM) up to the tunnel level. For longer tunnels, there are multiple intermediate shafts
along the length.

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 Figure 4.15. Shaft Method.
4. Boring Method
In this method, tunnel boring machines (TBMs) are used which automatically work
and makes the entire tunneling process easier. Also known as a “mole“, it is a machine
used to excavate tunnels around 15 to 18 meters per day with a circular cross section
through a variety of soil and rock strata. They can bore through hard rock, sand, and
almost anything in between. Tunnel diameters can range from a meter to almost 16
meters.

Figure 4.16. Boring Method.

In hard rock, either shielded or open-type TBMs can be used. The disc cutters create
compressive stress fractures in the rock, causing it to chip away from the rock in front of
the machine. Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPB) and Slurry Shield (SS) are used in
soft ground. The cutter head does not use disc cutters only, but instead a combination of
tungsten carbide cutting bits, carbide disc cutters, and/or hard rock disc cutters.

Figure 4.17. Parts of TBM.

5. Pipe Jacking Method

It is a trenchless method of installing reinforced cement concrete (RCC) pipes by
applying a force which pushes the pipe through the ground while controlled excavation

80
 takes place at the face. Being the simplest technique, pipe jacking is only applicable in
stable ground without saturated soils. Using powerful hydraulic jacks, the specially
designed pipes are positioned within the access shaft and then pushed in to the ground
while the ground at the face is removed

Figure 4.18. Pipe Jacking Method.

6. Box Jacking Method

A tunneling method that involves the jacking of rectangular reinforced cement
concrete (RCC) sections into the ground. The box sections are jacked horizontally
through the ground using high capacity hydraulic jacks. Only that portion of the earth that
the jacked box will occupy is excavated. This method does not require any intermediate
ground support. The system is designed for the track loads to be picked up by the box
roof as it advances.

Figure 4.19. Box Jacking Method.

 Shibuya Subway Station

Shibuya Station is a major railway station in Tokyo, Japan, jointly operated by East
Japan Railway Company, Keio Corporation, Tokyu Corporation, and Tokyo Metro. Originally
a stop on the Shinagawa Line in 1885, Shibuya Station was expanded to accommodate the
Tamagawa Railway (1907), the Toyoko Line (1927), and the TInokashira Line (1933).
Shibuya Station and the surrounding areas underwent a massive multiyear redevelopment
under the auspices of JR East and the Tokyu conglomerate. The station is now part of the new
20.2 kilometers Tokyo Metro Fukutoshin subway line since June 2008. Designed by Japanese

81
architect Tadao Ando, the station appears like an egg-shaped chichusen (underground
spaceship). In his design, he has used thick, empty, lightweight ‘bricks’ of prefabricated glass
fiber-reinforced concrete (GFRC) for every surface: floors, walls, ceilings and columns. The
smooth, grey walls of the 80 meters by 24 meters chichusen curve outward with a gentle
radius.
The ‘spaceship’ structure stretches over three main floors, and in its middle a covered
15-meter atrium slices down, creating an open, airy feel. The central cut-out space has the
shape of an elliptical funnel. The atrium opening is wider on the top floor than on the middle
one, enabling people on upper floors to peer down the well toward lower floors, where the
sightline grows narrower. One hones in on the bottom, where the trains run located 30 meters
below ground level. The structure has a natural ventilation system making it possible for the
large amount of heat generated by the trains to go out of the platform. Water pipes lining the
outer shell and underneath the platform circulate water, which creates a cooling effect and
further reduces the station’s reliance on air conditioning.

Figure 4.20. Shibuya Station.

 Metro Manila Subway

Underground work for the Metro Manila Subway project (MMSP) begun in February
2019 and targeted to be operational by 2029. A total of 25 TBMs, which can dig up to 600
cubic meters of soil, will be used for the project. The 33-kilometer underground railway
system, which is designed to have 17 stations, will connect Valenzuela City to Pasay City.
About 370,000 passengers per day are expected to be served during the first year of its full
operations. The subway is seen to reduce travel time between Quezon City and Ninoy Aquino
International Airport in Pasay to just 35 minutes from one hour and 10 minutes at present.

Figure 4.21. MMSP Construction.

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 The Japan International Cooperation Agency is set to fund 76 percent of the project
via a P370.8-billion loan package. The remaining 24 percent of the project cost, amounting to
P117.7 billion, will be paid for by the Philippine government. The Department of
Transportation (DOTr) signed a contract with Megawide Construction Corp., Tokyu
Construction, and Tobishima Corp. to build two underground stations for the Metro Manila
Subway, along with tunnel works. In December 2020, DOTr partnered with the Department
of National Defense – Armed Forces of the Philippines (DND-AFP) to receive a right-of-way
for the project. MMSP will use 50,000m² of DND-AFP land, 60,000m² of land for tunnelling
works and 55,000m² for temporary works under the deal.
According to the DOTr, the subway system will have water-stop panels and doors, a
high-level entrance for flood prevention, earthquake detection, and a train stop system. Each
subway station will feature a 210m-long platform and an intermodal facility to facilitate
transfers to and from a road-based transport system. MMSP will feature a train depot in
Valenzuela that will connect to Bicutan in Taguig City and Ninoy Aquino International
Airport (NAIA) Terminal 3 in Pasay City. The project covers the physical integration of the
North-South Commuter Railway (NSCR) System. The plans for the subway will connect the
entire major cities of Metro Manila, encompassing the National Capital Region (NCR) for
Phase 1 of the subway project, while the 2nd and 3rd Phases will be extending the
construction plans southbound towards underground stations in Bulacan and Cavite.

Figure 4.22. Metro Manila Subway Project.

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V. WATER BASE CONSTRUCTION
Presented by John Robert Crucillo
During earlier times, the civilizations had flourished on the water edges because the
water was the predominant factor in the survival of humankind. So, it can be said that human
response to water and different water bodies resulted in domestic needs. Constant reliance on
water and continuous fulfillment of their needs inspired mankind to shape water and water
bodies in a variety of ways often influenced by topography, physiography, ecology, and
geography of the area.
Although most populations found solid land to erect their buildings, others decided to
settle near water bodies, on top of them and even under water. Many have faced the
variability that bodies of water entail and this justifies the emergence of different construction
methods. Some of the types of construction in water are floating and underwater structures.
FLOATING STRUCTURES
Floating buildings are constructions that remain afloat on a water body. The way these
buildings work is through the physical concept of buoyancy. The platforms can be made of
different types of materials, from concrete, metals, to wood, and inside they can have air,
concrete, and even Styrofoam. Nowadays, floating structures are pre-engineered or made off
site and brought to the bodies of water where they will be placed.

TYPES OF FLOATING STRUCTURES

Building that permanently float
The construction of these floating structures requires a system that guarantees the
building will continue to float even without any support. It is a relatively new method, and as
such, it results in increased expenses for the construction of the building.

Figure 5.1. Floating Houses in Europe.

Buildings that float during floods
These buildings can only float when there is flood water nearby; otherwise, they stay
on the ground, especially during the summers when there is no water.

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 Figure 5.2. Inland Floating House

PRINCIPLES OF A FLOATING HOUSE

 The buoyancy concept behind floating houses allows for their construction without
needing a foundation. Because of this, they are also known as buoyant houses.
 The base of the building should be designed to facilitate floating and be capable of
bearing dead load, live load, and any other load that the house may impose.
 The houses might be built on a boat, a hollow pipe, lightweight pads, or other similar
elements that aid in floating and taking up the load.

ADVANTAGES OF FLOATING BUILDINGS

 Easy and Affordable to Transport. It is very easy and inexpensive to move floating
buildings from one location on a water body to another location on the same water
body.
 Quick Construction. Most of the floating structures' components are assembled
using prefabricated technology in addition to steel and wood. This expedites the
building process significantly. Compared to conventional construction methods,
floating building construction takes about half as long.
 Cost-effective. It is possible to bring down the overall cost of building by just doing
away with certain components and elements, such as foundations. Floating structures
are about 20 to 30 percent less expensive than traditional ones.
 Reduction in Deforestation. The use of water space rather than land space results in
a reduction in the overall rate of deforestation.
 Less disruption to the ecosystem. Floating structures indirectly safeguard trees,
wildlife, and birds. Thus, maintaining the natural ecosystem.
 Pleasant Appearance. When compared to the look of typical structures, floating
buildings have a highly appealing visual appearance.
 Not Vulnerable to earthquake. The water underneath the floating buildings
functions as a seismic damper, making these structures immune to the effects of
earthquakes.

DISADVANTAGES OF FLOATING BUILDINGS

85
  Risky in places were weather changes quickly. Constructing floating structures in
regions with unpredictable weather is not wise. The depth of water bodies may
substantially grow or decrease due to climate change, leading to grave issues.
 High maintenance costs. The maintenance required for floating buildings is much
more than for traditional ones. Before the start of the rainy season, most of the
maintenance work should be completed.
 Shorter service life. The lifespan of floating houses is much shorter when compared
to that of land-based structures.
 High water pollution risk. The fact that wastes are immediately disposed of in water
bodies is the primary disadvantage of floating structures, which contributes to water
contamination.
 High risk from Tsunamis. One of the most significant challenges that floating
structures face is exposure to high waves and tsunamis.
 Need for Skilled Labor. It is difficult to keep the center of gravity and maintain
buoyancy simultaneously. Therefore, the personnel needed to create floating
structures must be highly trained.

FLOATING STRUCTURES PROJECTS

Project: HOUSE NO. 2 FLOATING HOUSE
Architect: MOS Architects
Location: Ontario Canada
Date Completed: 2005
The floating house is part of a master plan including five proposed guest houses based
on the repetition of a generic vernacular house. The house faces the water and features loose
symmetry. The entrance opens onto a landscaped path, wrapped behind a cedar siding screen,
connecting the two sides of the U-shaped Island. Located on a remote island in Lake Huron
with a harsh seasonal climate, an on-site construction process would have been difficult, so
the 2,200-square-foot house was built on a floating steel pontoon structure at the contractor's
lakeside workshop and then towed and anchored to the final site for the installation of
finishes.

Figure 5.3. House No. 2 Exterior.

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 Figure 5.4. Interior of House No. 2

Figure 5.5. Floor Plan and Elevations of House No. 2.

Project: ARKUP 75
Architect: Waterstudio.NL
Dutch architecture studio Waterstudio.NL has created a solar-powered electric yacht-
cum-villa with retractable stilts that allow it to be raised fully out of the water to become an
off-grid home. Named Arkup 75, the craft was designed for yacht company Arkup with a
hybrid foundation that allows it to float when moving, be semi-supported when alongside a
dock or fully raised up from the water. Arkup 75, was designed to resemble a smooth, white
frame that presents the ocean view as a picture, with glass-fiber walls, a retractable terrace,
and large sliding-glass windows. It has a total living space of 404 square metres, is self-
propelled and can, in theory, stay in open water indefinitely if there is enough solar power to

87
provide energy. The four 40ft long hydraulic legs allow to anchor in up to 20ft water depths
and lift the livable yacht above the sea-level, avoiding any seasickness.

Figure 5.6. Arkup 75

Arkup livable yachts offer Low-e consumption design and materials as well as
equipment for solar-energy generation and battery storage. Also included, are the systems for
rainwater harvesting, water purification and storage, wastewater management, energy
recovery, and ventilation.

Figure 5.7. Sustainable Technology on Arkup 75

Figure 5.8. Floor Plans of Arkup 75

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 Figure 5.9. Sections of Arkup 75

COMPANY/MANUFACTURER
MARLEGNO (Italy)
The company specializes in prefabricated, eco-friendly,
and comfortable buildings designed to meet business
requirements while respecting the environment. Their unique
blend of Italian style and expertise ensures a unique business.
They specialize in designing eco-resorts for responsible tourism
and offer premium-class projects tailored to customer
preferences. They use off-site prefabrication in Bergamo,
minimizing activities according to circular economy principles.
The dry construction technique ensures perfect, safe, and quick
assembly without the need for glues and adhesives. Wood is the
core of their green buildings, a versatile living material suitable
for various technological applications.

Table 4.1. Specifications of Prefab Buildings by Marlegno

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K-Kontrol (Czech Republic)

Kronborg is the first houseboat prototype

with a wooden structure living area from K-
KONTROL® system. In the last years, our universal
sandwich system is more and more utilized for dry
constructions of family houses and holiday cottages.
Now the system can be built on water. The basic unit
of the K-KONTROL® system is composed of two
OSB boards and an insulation fill from stabilized
self-extinguishing EPS polystyrene. These serve to
put together, like a puzzle-game, the living area of
the houseboat - floor, walls, and ceiling. The wooden
construction for Kronborg prototype is founded to a
steel block. The construction can also be seated on
floaters or another baseplate, e. g. piles, a concrete
block, or the hull of an ex-service ship.

Table 4.2. Specifications of Prefab Buildings by K-Kontrol

BAUHU (Bahamas)

This building is made from two 20m2

factory-built modules joined together in length on
site to create a 12 x 3.4-meter building
(approximately 40' x 11') which can be arranged as
a one- or two-bedroom unit. This home provides a
spacious but compact internal living area and can be
supplied with a fully fitted bathroom and a
kitchenette. Perfect for use as a self-contained guest
suite or stand-alone studio home this building is
designed and factory built to surpass exacting
international construction standards and specifically
UK building regulations, Bauhu Homes benefit
from exceptional build quality and the highest
levels of insulation.

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 Table 4.3. Specifications of Prefab Buildings by Bauhu

UNDERWATER STRUCTURES

For a long time, the innovations in architecture were limited to attempting new
heights, skyscrapers, towers, etc., but now several projects have tried to explore the depths of
water and its potential for the possibilities of a habitat. Initially, the wow factor arises with
the exploration of such a subaquatic place with an opportunity to see that underwater world
without a wetsuit or a submersible. Humans have explored underwater construction for many
years, and construction techniques already exist for creating underwater structures and
underwater buildings.

MATERIALS USED IN UNDERWATER STRUCTURES

Concrete: A special variety of concrete used underwater is able to set quickly despite water
currents and fares well in salt water.

Steel: Steel, typically enclosed by concrete, forms a strong structure for underwater
buildings.

Acrylic Glass: Resistant to sunlight, durable, and rigid, acrylic plastics are well-suited to
underwater construction. Since it is transparent, acrylic glass is used for underwater windows.

METHODS OF UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION

Caissons are watertight structures that can be lowered into the water while preserving
a dry environment inside. Inside of the dry interior of an open caisson, workers can dig down
to reach a solid surface that the caisson will rest upon. Eventually, caissons become part of
the foundation of a structure, often a bridge or a dam.

TYPES OF CAISSONS

Open caisson: An open caisson has no bottom and contains only vertical walls, which
enables workers to dig at the bottom of it.

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 Figure 5.10. Open Caisson.

Pneumatic caisson: A pneumatic caisson is like an open caisson, but compressed air is
pumped in to keep water from seeping in.

Figure 5.11. Pneumatic Caisson.

Box caisson: Unlike other caissons, a box caisson contains a floor, so it is lowered onto a
pre-established foundation.

Figure 5.12. Box Caisson.

COFFERDAMS

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 Cofferdams are temporary enclosures that allow water to be pumped out, creating a
dry environment for construction. As the name suggests, cofferdams work similarly to dams,
preventing the flow of water from a particular area. A fully constructed cofferdam looks like
a large, walled pit with water surrounding it.

Figure 5.13 Cofferdams.

DRIVEN PILES

A driven piles is a large, vertical steel column that is hammered by a massive

machine. Like a nail being hammered into wood, driven piles create strong foundations after
being filled with concrete. In underwater construction, piles are most often made of steel,
though they have a partially hollow interior. After the piles are placed, a tube is used to fill
the inside of the pile with concrete, which displaces the water that was previously inside the
pile.

Figure 5.14. Driven Piles.

OFF-SITE BUILDING, FLOAT AND LOWER

A common method of underwater construction involves building off-site. Often,

structures or pieces of a structure are floated out on or towed by barges, then lowered into
place. Some pieces are lowered using their own weight while other pieces are loaded with
weights that help them reach the seafloor. If necessary, water is then pumped out of a
structure after it is lowered into place. The structure can be attached to a foundation on the
seafloor using steel driven piles.

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UNDERWATER STRUCTURES EXAMPLES
Project: ITHAA UNDERSEA RESTAURANT
Architect: M.J. Murphy Ltd.
Location: Maldives

Date Opened: April 2005

The Ithaa Undersea Restaurant, located in the

island nation of Maldives, is a breathtaking acrylic
structure located 16 feet below sea level. Constructed
almost entirely of transparent acrylic, the restaurant offers
its patrons panoramic views of the marine life surrounding
the restaurant. The restaurant, which is roughly 500 square
feet, was built using the float and lower method. After
being assembled in Singapore, Ithaa was transported on a
barge, then lowered with the help of sandbags onto steel-
driven piles that form its foundation.

Project: SUBSIX
Architect: Poole Associates Private Limited
Location: Maldives

Date Opened: 2015

Subsix, off the coast of the private NIYAMA

island in The Maldives, is the world’s only underwater
nightclub. Subsix is 6m (20ft) below the waterline and
500m (1,640ft) offshore. It is built off-site and then
lowered into place. A clam-inspired bar takes centre stage
in the middle of the room, with its fibreglass shell
illuminated by mood lighting that shifts throughout the
day. Additionally, thousands of strands of capiz shells
drape from the ceiling and mimic an undersea kelp forest,
while coral-like chandeliers provide lighting. Silver-
panelled columns throughout the venue are inspired by the
ribbed gills of manta rays.

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 Figure 5.16. Floor Plan of Subsix.

Figure 5.17. Stair Section of Subsix

Figure 5.18. Subsix.

Project: Manta Resort
Architect: Genberg Underwater Hotels
Location: Tanzania
Date Opened: 2013

Located off the coast of Tanzania, the Manta Resort features one underground suite
attached to a platform floating in the middle of the water. With windows on all four sides,
guests in the suite can gaze upon the surrounding sea life while sitting on a king-size bed. The

95
Manta Resort’s underwater suite is a floating platform with both an above-water and below-
water portion, both of which were assembled jointly off-site. After construction, the platform
was towed into place, then anchored by attaching steel cables to four corners of the building
as well as the seafloor.

Figure 5.19. Manta Resort Underwater Cottage.

COMPANY/ARCHITECTURAL FIRM

Studio RHE

Studio RHE, a London-based architecture and design practice gained its reputation
globally for its experimental and bold concepts and details to residential, leisure, and
workspaces. Their project Six Sense Zil Pasyon is recognized as the world’s leading
innovative hotel & resort design. They designed the world’s first underwater spa 6 meters
below the surface at a luxury resort Huvafen Fushi in the Maldives. The area consists of 150
Sq.M with windows made of five-inch thick solid-cast resin that provides better clarity over
laminated glass where guests can observe diverse marine life.

Underwater Spa in Huvafen Fushi Resort

Figure 5.20. Interior of Underwater Spa in Huvafen Fushi Resort

Snøhetta

A Norwegian firm that began as a collaborative landscape and architectural workshop

remains true to its trans-disciplinary design thinking to enhance the senses of surroundings,

96
identity, and relationships with physical spaces one inhabits. They designed Europe’s first
underwater restaurant of 450 sqm. in the southernmost point of the Norwegian coastline at
the confluence where North and South Sea storms meet. The restaurant also functions as a
research center for marine life as a tribute to the wild fauna of the sea and rocky coastline
therefore this 34-meter-long structure is half-sunken into the sea.

Figure 5.21.. Floor Plans of Under

Figure 4.1. Elevations and Sections of Under/

Figure 4.28. Under.

Yuji Yamazaki Architecture – (YYA)

97
 Yuji Yamazaki Architecture PLLC, a firm in the Landmark Cable building in New
York City, New York, USA. The firm works with designs that emerge from careful analysis
of the subjects in diverse design disciplines. Some of the projects involve designing
underwater structures; most famous being the Muraka villa, Conrad Maldives in Rangali
Islands, Maldives – a 700 sq.m overwater suite, and 100 sq.m suite underwater interior design
in collaboration with Ahmed Saleem, a local executive architect. About 75% of the walls
underwater are made of clear acrylic to take advantage of vivid marine life while the
bedroom consists of dark brown leather and a floor with silk carpet to cut down the
reverberations.

Figure 4.29. Floor Plan and Section of Muraka Village’s Underwater Room

Figure 4.30. Muraka Village’s Underwater Room

98
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