Lesson 1

ETHICS
 A branch of philosophy that consists of the fundamental issues of practical decision making, and its
major concerns on the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be
judged as right or wrong. It is concerned with knowing what is right and wrong.
 It came from the Greek word, “ethos”, which means character.
 Deals with norms or standards of right and wrong applicable to human behavior.
 Aims: (1) Addresses questions about morality, (2) Identifies the standards of making moral
judgments, (3) Clarifying the meaning of moral judgments, and (4) Seeks to understand the basis of
morals, how they develop and how they are and should be followed.
 Branches: (1) Descriptive Ethics, (2) Normative Ethics, (3) Meta Ethics, and (4) Applied Ethics.
 Frameworks/Theories: (1) Virtue Ethics, (2) Deontological Ethics, and (3) Teleological Ethics.
 At a more fundamental level, it is the method by which we categorize our values and pursue them. It
studies what ought to be done and answers the question, “Do we pursue our own happiness, or do
we sacrifice ourselves to a greater cause?”

MORALITY
It refers to the extent to which an action is considered right or wrong. It concerns the recognition of the
inherent values of people (culture and religion), a value that is not reducible to how others benefit us.

1. Moral Standards - Refers to norms (rules and values) about the types of actions which are
morally acceptable. The rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally
right, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good.
2. Non-moral Standards - Refers to norms that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations
such as etiquette, fashion standards, rules in the game, house rules and legal statutes. A non-
moral act or action is not subject to moral judgment because morality is not taken into
consideration (e.g., clothes you wear).
3. Immoral Standards - Describes a person or behavior that conscientiously goes against
accepted morals or the proper ideas and beliefs about how to behave in a way that is considered
right and good by most people. It connotes the intent of evilness or wrongdoing.
4. Unmoral Standards - Means that there is no moral perception and not influenced or guided by
moral considerations. Unmoral is used describing nonhuman or inanimate things incapable of
understanding right and wrong (e.g., hurricanes and machines).
5. Amoral Standards - Defined as having or showing no concern about whether behavior is
morally right or wrong—compendiously, “without morals” (e.g., An infant who is unlearned in
what is right and wrong, and people with mental illness).
IMPORTANCE OF MORALS/RULES (Allow the students to imagine a society without
morals/rules)
1. Regulates unwanted or harmful behavior and to encourage wanted or beneficial behavior in
society. Dictated by the values of the culture regarding what is viewed as acceptable or
unacceptable for individuals in a society.
2. Specific sets of norms of behavior and a prescribed guide for conduct or action useful in
guiding and monitoring the interactions of humans in a society.
3. Prevent chaos and encourage uniformity. Rules also tend to make things fairer and to provide a
stable environment for humans to co-exist in a society which leads to peace and development.
4. Encourages order to make members of society feel comfortable, secure, and safe.

Lesson 2

MORAL EXPERIENCE
 An experience of moral value such that one’s moral consciousness comes to work as one is called to
make a moral response.
 Experience is a generic term in the sense that whatever affects a person can be called an
‘experience’. It can be an emotion like love or hatred. It can be active or passive like love for a
friend or love of a friend. One can speak of one’s progress in studies as ‘knowledge experience.’
Any experience leaves behind an impression or memory. Such impressions or memories
cumulatively add up to one’s experience. The totality of such experiences contributes to the
formation of a human personality.

KEY FEATURES
1. MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS - Whether it’s the arousal of moral consciousness that results in
the occurrence of moral experience or the reverse, is hardly the point at issue here.
2. MORAL VALUES - Refers to the quality of something being good or bad, right or wrong, and
just or unjust. It differs from other types of values because it demands for a response, it
involves moral responsibility, and it defines both the action and the human agent.
3. MORAL DEFINITION - Either we are drawn towards an action because of the good that we
sense in it, or we sense the good because of our own value or that ‘goodness’ that is in us.
4. CONTINUOUS PROCESS - Every experience demands thinking and decision-making and
there can be no universal formula to solve every moral dilemma. Hence, every moral situation
calls for our rational deliberation and affirmation of our humanity.
5. MORAL IDEALS - Pertain to what are believed to constitute a life that is worthy of humans
which are products of generations of shaping via our tradition and which come to the fore as
summoned by experience.
6. ACTION-ORIENTED - In the face of a moral situation, we feel compelled to respond and to
respond personally and right away. we become good not because we believe in being good or
because our parents are but because we choose what is good and to be good in thought and in
action.
 MORAL PRINCIPLES
 Associated with a fixed set of rules that ignores the complexities of the situation and fails to adapt
one’s behavior to changing circumstances. It is a general sense of what ought to be done.
 Moral principles can then be regarded as statements picking out those factors of situations that can
be appealed to as moral reasons.

DILEMMAS
Experiences where an agent is confused about the right decision to make because there are several
competing values that are seemingly equally important and urgent.

1. Personal Dilemma - An extremely difficult situation for someone to handle. It can be moral or
non-moral.
Examples:
A child choosing where to live when parents are separated, with his/her mother or father. (non-
moral)
A member of the family deciding to steal bread or starve to death. (moral)

2. Moral Dilemma - Any difficult moral problems that raise hard moral questions. It occurs when
one moral reason conflicts with another, nor normally conflict with religious or aesthetic reasons. A
moral reason is a requirement just in case it would be morally wrong not to act on it without an
adequate justification.
Features:
 The agent is required to do each of two or more actions.
 The agent can do each of the actions, but they cannot do both or all the actions at the same time.
 The agent seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what s/he does, s/he will do something
wrong or fail to do something that he ought to do.

MORAL ACTIONS
 For an action to be morally good, all three determinates must be complete. A lack, in any of them,
will, at least in a qualified way, make the morality of the act to be bad.

1. Object of the Act. Refers to the objective moral character of the act. There are actions that are
objectively in conformity or not in conformity, thus, actions in conformity or not in conformity
are objectively good or evil as such (e.g., Murder is objectively wrong because it messes with
reality and social order).
2. Intention of the Act. Refers to the purpose or motive of the act, the ends should always justify
the means. All intentions should be in conformity to the objective truth.
3. Circumstance of the Act. Refers to the conditions/elements of the act (time and place) that will
modify its morality. The who, what, when, and where of actions are bearing on the goodness or
badness of the action because they can increase or decrease the degree of goodness or evil in
the act.
 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 It is an important part of the socialization process. It prevents people from acting on unchecked
urges, instead considering what is right for society and good for others.

1. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development - Developed by Lawrence Kohlberg to focus on

understanding the development of morality throughout life. He used the idea of moral dilemma to
expand cognitive development. He also identified three levels of moral reasoning: (1) Pre-
conventional, (2) Conventional, and (3) Post-conventional which is associated with increasingly
complex stages of moral development.
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (Allow the students to cite examples
regarding these stages)
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
(BIRTH – 9 YEARS OLD)
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience
Orientation
Stage 2: Instrumentalist-Relativist
Orientation
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL
(9-13 YEARS OLD)
Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance others/society.
(Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation)
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL
(13 YEARS OLD-ONWARDS)
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
Stage 6: Universal-Ethics Orientation
Authority figures give reinforcement (punishment or reward)
and are obeyed for self-preservation.
Morality is externally controlled.
Deciding what is right or wrong is based on what action is
punished.
The child obeys to avoid punishment.
The worse the punishment, the worse the act is perceived to
be.
Right behavior is defined as acts that is acceptable and
approved by the self, and that satisfies one’s needs or best
interest.
Continue to follow rules for is it necessary to ensure positive
interpersonal relationships and society order.
Approval of society/others is sought through actions.
Right behavior is based on actions that are approved by
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being
‘nice’ to others.
Right behavior is defined as acts that conforms with the rules
set by society or authority figure.
Individuals feel ‘duty bound’ to maintain social order or
conscious of what others say.
Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and
values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and
should be changed.
There is flexibility in accepting rules for an individual
develops their own ethical principles that includes basic
human rights as life, liberty, and justice.
It is ‘wrong’ to violate the rights of other people.
Laws are regarded as social contracts that should promote
the greatest good for the greatest number of people. If it does
not, it should be changed through compromise.
Right behavior is based on universal principles such as
justice and equality.
An individual understands the principles of human rights and
personal conscience, acts based on that understanding, and
believes that trust is the basis of relationships.
Laws are valid if they are grounded on justice.
2. Giligan’s Theory of Moral Development - Developed by Carol Giligan as a critique to Kohlberg
where she studied both men and women and identified that relationships are appropriate to the system of
rules.

GILIGAN’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (Allow the students to cite examples regarding
these stages)
LEVEL 1: PRE- Known as ‘Orientation of Individual Survival Transition’
CONVENTIONAL Concentrates on what is best for self (Self-Preservation)
(BIRTH – 9 YEARS OLD) Selfish but dependent on others
Transition 1: Selfishness to Recognizes connections to others
Responsibility Makes more responsible choices in terms of self and others.
Known as ‘Goodness and Self-Sacrifice Orientation’
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL
Puts needs of others ahead of own (Self-Sacrifice)
(9-13 YEARS OLD)
Feels responsible for others, and becomes more independent
Decisions based on intentions, consequences, and needs of self
Transition 2: Goodness to Truth
and others
Known as ‘Morality of Non-violence’
LEVEL 3: POST- Self and others as morally equal (to harm other people is to harm
CONVENTIONAL the self)
(13 YEARS OLD-ONWARDS) Right behavior is not dependent on the perception of other people,
but on the consequence or intention of actions.

Lesson 3

VIRTUE ETHICS
 Believes in pursuing virtues or ideal character traits rather than following a set of rules is what
makes us moral. Focusing on being a good person will eventually lead to doing the right actions.
 Concerned with the whole of a person's life, rather than episodes or actions for it focuses on the
characteristics and behavior a good person seeks to achieve.

THOMAS AQUINAS’ THEORY OF VIRTUE ETHICS

 Believes that people need to identify meaningful goals before they can act which involves two
concepts: (1) Principles (rules about how to act) and (2) Virtues (traits which are taken to be good or
moral to have). The purpose of these concepts is to direct people towards the goal of human
fulfillment or living a worthwhile life which means that morality is bringing moral order to one’s
own action and will (i.e., considering the effects of your actions towards yourself before others).
 Believes that the motive of an action is also crucial, and two apparently identical acts may be right
and wrong because of their motives (e.g., Deliberately killing someone in self-defense because of
hatred towards them is wrong, whereas killing someone as a side-effect of fighting off their attack is
justified).
Principles:
1. Moral thought is that good should be pursued, and evil avoided. Interpreted as the golden rule,
“Do unto other as you would have them unto you.”
2. Moral thought should aim towards six basic human goods: (1) life, (2) knowledge, (3)
friendship, (4) marriage, (5) religion, and (6) practical reason. Murder is wrong for it removes
the good of life. Lying is also wrong because it violates the purpose of knowledge and reason.
Pre-marital sex and adultery is wrong because it goes against the concept of ‘good’ marriage.
Four Virtues:
1. Prudence. Doing the right thing at the right time, in the right place, and in the right manner.
2. Temperance. Denotes moderation of desires and physical pleasures such as eating, drinking,
and sex.
3. Courage. The desire to do actions that are difficult to attain or avoid, and the act of restraining
fear to do actions rightly.
4. Justice. A disposition to give other what they are entitled to (rights) which serves as a guide in
interacting with other people and developing relationships.
5.
ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF VIRTUE ETHICS
 Believes that human action is directed towards the pursuit of the concept of Eudaemonia (supreme
happiness) which could be achieved through Phronesis (practical wisdom) or Arête (virtue).
 Believes that virtues are dispositions that act to effectively perform one’s proper function in similar
situations creating habits of behaving in certain ways. Thus, for a person to be good, they must be
the best in the performance of various tasks which is the result of repeated action and correction of
conduct (e.g., a singer does their best performance if they practice/rehearse their songs before the
concert).
Virtues of Thought: (1) Wisdom, (2) Intelligence, and (3) Comprehension
Doctrine of the Mean/Golden Mean - Moral behavior is the balance between the vices of virtues
(deficiency and excess), between pleasure (excess) and pain (deficiency).

Lesson 4
DEONTOLOGY (DUTY ETHICS)
 Concerned with the adherence to certain rules or duties which means that the morality of an action
should be based on whether that action is right or wrong under a series of rules. It is more concerned
with what people do (intent), not with the consequences of their actions.

IMMANUEL KANT’S DUTY-BASED ETHICS

 Believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws (e.g., Don’t cheat. Don’t lie. Don’t steal)
which all human beings must honor and be obligated to do for it is their duty as moral agents.
 Believed that there was a supreme principle of morality referred to as ‘Categorical Imperative’
which determines what moral duties are.

 Categorical Imperatives. Commands that are intended to be the basis of all other rules which you
should be doing regardless of your interest and/or desire (e.g., Even if you want to cheat on your
taxes so you have more money, you are not able to do so).
1. The Universalisability Principle - Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action
should become a universal law (e.g., ‘Do not break promises’ implies a universal judgement for
anybody in the identical situation should have not broken their promises).
2. The Formula of Humanity - Act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in
that of another, always as an end and never merely as a means. People should not be tricked,
manipulated, or bullied into doing things. (e.g., ‘Lying to your friend about their birthday party
so it would be a surprise’ is considered morally wrong).
 Fundamental Duties. Specific principles (maxims and moral laws) that emphasizes morality requires
the fulfillment of moral duties and not on self-seeking desires.
1. Perfect Duties - These are duties that do not allow exceptions and are universal which means
that they apply to all rational beings despite the consequences of the actions (e.g., ‘Lying’ is
considered universally wrong for communication with be difficult if everyone would lie, it
would be difficult to determine sincere and deceitful statements).
2. Imperfect Duties - There are duties that do not always need to be followed in one way or all
the time for this is dependent on the rationality and autonomy of an individual. People have
their own sense of duty towards themselves and others (e.g., ‘giving to charity’ is a duty
dependent on the rational nature and personal expression of an individual’s sense of duty; of
what is the right thing to do).

Lesson 5

TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS (CONSEQUENTIALISM)

 Derives moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an end to be achieved. Morality of an
action is contingent on the action’s outcome which means that the rightness or wrongness of an
action depends on outcomes/consequence, if it brings a good end or intrinsic value.
 Ethical Egoism - Moral duty is exclusive for the self which means that one ought to do/pursue
whatever is in one’s own best interest (e.g., developing a career).
 Utilitarianism - Consequences of actions are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone which
means that one ought to perform actions which tend to produce the greatest overall happiness for the
greatest number of people (e.g., promoting social justice).

JEREMY BENTHAM’S PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY

 Believes that human actions and social institutions should be judged right or wrong depending upon
their tendency to promote the greatest amount of pleasure or least amount of pain. We should
commend an action if it produces pleasure or prevents pain and condemn an action if it does the
opposite.
 Main Principles: (1) Recognizes the fundamental role of pain and pleasure in human life, (2)
Approves or disapproves of an action based on the amount of pain or pleasure brought about by the
 consequences of the action, (3) Equates good with pleasure and evil with pain, and (4) Asserts that
pleasure and pain are capable of quantification, hence, measurable.
 Act Utilitarianism - The right act is defined as the one which brings about the best results or the
least amount of bad result (e.g., charity work).
 Utilitarian Calculus - A way to measure pleasure and pain using different factors/criteria in an
action.

JOHN STUART MILL’S GREATEST HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE

 It is not the quantity of pleasure but the quality of happiness that is central to utilitarianism. An
action should be judged right or wrong if it has the tendency to achieve happiness for the greatest
number of people.

Lesson 6
TAOISM
 Also known as Daoism, is an indigenous Chinese religion often associated with the Daode Jing
(Tao Te Ching), a philosophical and political text purportedly written by Laozi (Lao Tzu)
sometime in the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E. Rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought by
Confucianism and would prefer a simple lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how to
attain that life.
 TAO OR DAO
a. A Chinese word signifying 'way', 'path', 'route', 'road' or sometimes more loosely 'doctrine',
'principle' or 'holistic beliefs’.
b. It is the natural order of the universe whose character one’s human intuition must discern in
order to realize the potential for individual wisdom.
c. This intuitive knowing of “life” cannot be grasped as a concept; it is known through actual
living experience of one’s everyday being.
 YIN AND YANG
a. Two halves that together completes wholeness. They are the starting point for change. When
something is whole, by definition, it’s unchanging. So, when you split something into two
halves, it upsets the equilibrium of wholeness. Both halves are chasing after each other as they
seek a new balance.
b. Yin signifies softness, darkness, passivity, femininity, etc. while Yang signifies hardness,
brightness, activity, masculinity, etc.

BUDDHISM
 Based on the teachings of a Nepali prince named Siddharta Gautama who lived around 500 BCE.
Eventually he succeeded, becoming the Buddha, “The Enlightened One”. He spent the remaining 45
years of his life teaching the dharma (path to liberation from suffering) and establishing the sangha
(community of monks).
 For a Buddhist, taking refuge (meditation) is the first step on the path to enlightenment. Even if
enlightenment is not achieved in this life, one has a better chance to become enlightened in a future
life. One who take the precepts is called a lay person.
EIGHTFOLD PATH
1. Right View or Right Understanding - Insight into the true nature of reality.
2. Right Intention - The unselfish desire to realize enlightenment.
3. Right Speech - Use speech compassionately.
4. Right Action - Using ethical conduct to manifest compassion.
5. Right Livelihood - Making a living through ethical and non-harmful means.
6. Right Effort - Cultivating wholesome qualities and releasing unwholesome qualities.
7. Right Mindfulness - Body-mind awareness.
8. Right Concentration - Meditation as a dedicated, concentrated practice.

CONFUCIANISM
 The way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th–5th century BCE and followed by the Chinese
people for more than two millennia. Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of
learning, the source of values, and the social code of the Chinese.
 A code of ethical conduct, of how one should properly act according to his/her relationship with
other people. The identity and self-concept of the individual are interwoven with the identity and
status of his/her community or culture, sharing its pride as well as its failures.
 Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life. The cultivated self in Confucianism is what
some scholars call a “subdued self” wherein personal needs are repressed for the good of many,
making Confucian society also hierarchical for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in
society.

ISLAM
 Derived from the word “salam” which means peace or surrender whereas ‘Islam’ means the perfect
peace out of total surrender to Allah (God).
 Prophet Muhammad dedicated the remainder of his life to spreading a message of monotheism in
a polytheistic world. In 622, he fled north to the city of Medina to escape growing persecution. This
event marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Eight years later, Muhammad returned to Mecca
with an army and conquered the city for Islam. By Muhammad's death, 50 years later, the entire
Arabian Peninsula had come under Muslim control.
 Morality in Islam encompasses the concept of righteousness, good character, and the body of moral
qualities and virtues prescribed in Islamic religious texts. The principle and fundamental purpose of
Islamic morality is love, love for God and love for God's creatures.

 PILLARS
1. Shahada - Obligation to profess the faith.
2. Salah - Obligation to pray.
3. Zakat - Obligation to give alms.
4. Saum - Obligation to fast.
5. Hajj - Obligation to do pilgrimage to Mecca.
HINDUISM
 The world's oldest religion, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years and the third-
largest religion behind Christianity and Islam.
 The broad term "Hinduism" encompasses a wide variety of traditions, which are closely related and
share common themes but do not constitute a unified set of beliefs or practices. Hinduism is not a
homogeneous, organized system.
 Caste System - The system which divides Hindus into rigid hierarchical groups based on their
karma (work) and dharma (duty) is generally accepted to be more than 3,000 years old.

 ATMAN
 The soul’s state of suffering because of its attachments to the senses or to the pleasures of the flesh.
This makes the Atman a slave of Maya (magic or illusion). Upanishads are teachings that would
relinquish the Atman from its enslavement for it allows the unification with the Universal Essence
(Brahman).
 It must be noted that Hindus believe that a righteous life is necessary towards Atman’s union with
the Brahman which will achieved through the Samsara (Reincarnation) for the purpose of
purification. Thus, the moral injunction of Hinduism lies right in the heart of the teachings in the
Upanishads.
 UPANISHADS
 Literally means, "sitting down near" or "sitting close to" and implies listening closely to the
mystic doctrines of a guru or a spiritual teacher, who has cognized the fundamental truths of the
universe.
 It also means 'Brahma-knowledge' by which ignorance is annihilated.