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To Translanguage or Not To Translanguage The Multi
To Translanguage or Not To Translanguage The Multi
To Translanguage or Not To Translanguage The Multi
687-694
Rasman
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
rasman@uny.ac.id; rassman@yahoo.com
Abstract
Translanguaging, the use of learners’ full linguistic repertoire in language learning, has recently been
theorized as an effective pedagogical practice because it creates more learning opportunities for
multilinguals. Despite the growing number of research on this topic, less attention has been paid on
the actual use of translanguaging in the classroom. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating
translanguaging practice in an EFL classroom in Indonesia where learners used their full repertoire
(English, Indonesian, Javanese) to negotiate meaning in learner-learner interactions. Specifically, this
research attempts to find out both the effectiveness and the challenges of applying translanguaging to
promote learning. The data were collected from the video-recording of naturally-occuring
interactions among junior high school students (14-15 years old) in an EFL classroom in Yogyakarta,
Indonesia. The data were analyzed using discourse analysis technique and perceived using ecological
approach to explain the dialectical relationship between local interaction and the wider socio-political
context. The findings show that translanguaging could help learners to develop their multilingual
competencies (including the English language). However, the different socio-politically constructed
status of English, Indonesian, and Javanese is still prevalent among students and thus, it inhibits them
from maximizing their full repertoire when learning English. Further pedagogical implications
related to the translanguaging practice for teachers are also suggested in this article.
Multilingualism has recently become a global which might be challenging (Canagarajah, 2011;
phenomenon. The rapid growth of the neoliberal Martin, 2005). One of the challenges is that
economy and the advancement of technology translanguaging space at schools, the space where
increase the people’s mobility from one place to students translanguage, is not easy to build and its
another (Cenoz & Gorter, 2015; García, Flores & boundaries is fluid, depending on how the learners
Woodley, 2015). This more globalized world forms construct the boundaries in a given socio-political
a superdiverse society (Blommaert & Rampton, context (Wei, 2011). Teachers should not only focus
2011) whose identities and language practices could on building translanguaging space but they also
not be accurately identified and neatly categorized. need to know whether students make use of the
As a result, research focusing on re-examining space. Also, since the socio-political context would
basic concepts in Applied Linguistics such as be different from one place to another, the
language, learning, native speakers, bilinguals, and generalization on how to implement the
learners (Firth & Wagner, 1997; García, 2009; May, translanguaging should be avoided as well (Lin,
2014) has mushroomed since the last decades. More 1999). This implementation is particularly more
researchers are now studying speakers’ actual challenging in the EFL/ESL context where
language practice in a given context rather than monolingual bias occurs more frequently (Wei &
socio-political constructions of the language. As a García, 2014).
consequence, alternative concepts trying to explain In this study, I attempted to investigate the
this actual language practice such as codemeshing language practice in a classroom setting in
(Canagarajah, 2006), flexible bilingualism (Creese Yogyakarta, Indonesia. This classroom is situated in
& Blackledge, 2011), and translanguaging (Creese the Island of Java where Javanese, Indonesian, and
& Blackledge, 2010; García, 2009) emerge. All English (framed as a foreign language) are
these concepts focus on the language practice from practiced. Using ecological approach to find link
the perspective of the language users. between classroom context and wider socio-political
Despite the growing number of research on the context, I would like to find out if translanguaging
importance of understanding these concepts to face practice helps the language learning in the learner-
multilingual era, only few studies explain ways to learner interactions, and whether the socio-political
apply these concepts in the educational setting, context affects the practice. By understanding the
impact of the translanguaging practice on language The mismatch between the emerging
learning, it could inform teachers about the strategic multilingualism norm in this superdiverse world and
method of implementing translanguaging particularly the monolingual bias maintained in the educational
in Indonesian context. This study aims to address the setting is the on-going challenge in the field of
following questions: (1) In which ways does the language education. Failure to address this issue
translanguaging practice in a group interaction in an would affect the students’ language development in
EFL classroom in Yogyakarta facilitate language particular and the schools’ inclusiveness in general.
learning?; (2) How do the students construct the To address this challenge, some pedagogies for
translanguaging space and what is the role of socio- multilingualism practice have recently been developed
political context in shaping the boundaries of the by some researchers including García’s (2009)
space? proposal that suggests the use of translanguaging.
Monolingual bias, multilingual ages, and Translanguaging: Language use (f)or language
language classroom learning?
A multilingual here refers to a person who speaks The critique towards monolingual bias is mainly
two or more languages. The term ‘multilingual’ triggered by Firth and Wagner’s (1997) seminal
subsumes the term ‘bilingual’, a term that article that has significantly affected the field of
commonly only refers to individuals who speak two applied linguistics. This article re-examines the most
languages. The purpose of using multilingualism fundamental concepts of language learning such as
rather than bilingualism, trilingualism, or the concepts of ‘learners’, and ‘competence’. The
plurilingualism is to distance itself from the concept of ‘learners’ is problematized because
traditional concept of language separation, a second language learners already have their first
discussion explained in the next subheading. language. Thus, the outcome of learning should be
Multilingualism is a widespread phenomenon multilingual competence, instead of monolingual
pushed forward by the globalization, the competence. Also, the fact that it is impossible to
advancement of technology, and the people’s have a native-like competence (Levine, 2011) means
mobility (Cenoz & Gorter, 2015; García et al., that the label of ‘learners’ would always be adhered
2015). Blommaert and Rampton (2011) coined the to them no matter how effective they have
term ‘superdiversity’ defined as a phenomenon of communicated in English (they are always
intensive people’s migrations which eventually blur perceived as linguistically deficient speakers). Thus,
the categorization of their socio-cultural feature. As the term ‘emerging bilinguals’ rather than ‘learners’
a result, it is now unsurprising and not hard to find and ‘multilingual competence’ instead of ‘monolingual
people who can speak more than one language in competence’ are preferred (García, 2009). It focuses on
almost any context. the language use of the students and the creative use of
Classrooms are the context where language their full repertoire to make meaning.
contact could easily be found, particularly between In response to Firth and Wagner’s critique,
local language or national language and foreign or Gass, Lee, and Roots (2007), despite their
second language (Cenoz & Gorter, 2015; Levine, acknowledgement that the NS-NNS categorization
2011). Schools usually have not adapted itself to the is not helpful, argue that it is hard to show how
multilingualism phenomenon, thus, various language learning and language use could occur
languages are usually contested inside the simultaneously. Thus, they explain further that the
classroom. Wei and García (2014) argue that EFL or concern is not which one is more preferable between
ESL contexts often impose language separation by language learning and language use. Rather, future
“othering the languages of those who spoke them studies have to focus on finding out if language use
within the nation” (p. 54). The practice of the so- could maximize language learning. Indeed, I believe
called code-switching is perceived as a linguistic that the shift in conceptualizing the language,
deficiency. The use of home languages is considered learners, or learning, should be followed by the
as the ‘contamination’ for the learning of explanation on the extent to which it could actually
second/foreign languages (Levine, 2011). help students in the classroom. Thus, I would
May (2014) uses the term monolingual bias in mainly review how translanguaging (García, 2009),
second language acquisition (SLA) in particular and a concept rooted in the language use paradigm,
in TESOL field in general to demonstrate the could actually provide more opportunities to the
problem of separating the languages. This bias is students in the language learning context instead of
associated with the phenomena of putting ‘deficient’ romanticizing it as the best pedagogy for every
label on students simply because they do not language classroom (Canagarajah, 2011).
achieve the native-like standard. In their seminal Translanguaging is originally a pedagogical
article, Firth and Wagner (1997) highlight our bias practice in Wales where both English and Welsh
in favoring the so-called native speakers (NS) and become the primary medium of instruction (Wei &
non-native speakers (NNS) interactions as the only García, 2014). Translanguaging is recently adopted
ideal interactions where learning could take place. and extended by many scholars of bilingualism
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 7 No. 3, January 2018, pp. 687-694
(e.g., Creese & Blacklegde, 2010; García, 2009). limitation of the translanguaging practice could result
The translanguaging concept reflects significant in the stigmatization on learners as deficient
changes in conceptualizing language and speakers and could eventually inhibit the
multilingualism, a view that emphasizes the development of the students’ linguistic repertoire
importance of using the full linguistic repertoire. because they are not allowed to benefit from their
The term ‘language’ as a fixed entity is existing language (Otheguy et al., 2015).
replaced by the term ‘languaging’ that is more Thus, translanguaging is transformative in
dynamic in nature (Blommaert, 2014). Language is nature since it provides a space for the multilingual
traditionally perceived as an entitiy bound to an users to bring their personal belief, history,
established nation (Otheguy, García & Reid, 2015). experience or ideology (Wei, 2011). This
English, Chinese, and Arabic, for instance, are translanguaging space could be built either through
languages owned and practiced only by countries official translanguaging (teacher deliberately creates
like England, China, and Saudi Arabia respectively. it) or natural translanguaging (the learners naturally
This misleading view is “socio-politically communicate with their peers) (Wei & García,
constructed, maintained, and regulated” (p. 286). It 2014). The teacher-learner translanguaging practice
does not take into account the actual language is likely to provide less space than the learner-
practice in the society which is constantly changing learner translanguaging since the boundaries of the
through the process of meaning-making in the space would be strictly constructed. Thus, it is
interactions (Wei & García, 2014), and it has important to focus more on the students’
nothing to do with its lexicon and structure construction of the translanguaging space while at
(Otheguy et al., 2015). Languaging is a more the same time, taking into account the socio-
dynamic and fluid term focusing on people’s political conditions that might influence the
creative and active use of languages that is different boundaries of the translanguaging space the students
across time and space. created (Wei, 2011).
These conceptual changes of the language alter Therefore, this case study focuses on students’
the way multilingualism is perceived. Within the interactions in an EFL classroom in Indonesia with a
socio-politically constructed definition of language, particular focus on not only how the translanguaging
a multilingual’s mind is divided into two or more practice helps the language learning, but also how
separate slots of monolingual repertoire (e.g., the socio-political context in Indonesia could
Cummins 1979; Lambert, 1974). The concept of influence the boundaries of translanguaging space
code-switching, which is defined as using two codes where the students interact.
back and forth in the utterances, emerges out of this
view. In contrast, conceptualizing multilingualism
using dynamic view means perceiving one’s METHOD
linguistic system as complex and interrelated (Wei & Research Approach
García, 2014). Translanguaging, the term emerging A qualitative case study was chosen because it gave
out of the dynamic view, is not merely a shift from an in-depth analysis of a particular language practice
one language to another as in code-switching. The in a specific context (Hua & David, 2008). The aim
speakers translanguage by using their full repertoire was, therefore, not to generalize the findings to
at their disposal which cannot be assigned to any another context. However, the findings of this
traditionally defined language (Wei & García, 2014). research might shed light on the general language
While viewing the language through this practices in the country.
perspective is important, the questions still remain The data were perceived from the ecological
particularly on the application of translanguaging in approach point of view (van Lier, 2008) because it
the language classroom context. Canagarajah (2011) could explain how this classroom language practice
is even questioning if translanguaging is teachable was situated, shaped, and interrelated with the socio-
since translanguaging is conceptualized as a political context of the country. Ecological approach
naturally-occurring phenomenon. The questions tries to explain the dialectical relationship between
such as how much the space of translanguaging local interaction and the wider socio-political
should be provided, to what extent this space helps context, a relationship that refers to the term
learning, and more importantly, how the learners affordances (Creese & Blackledge, 2010; van Lier,
make use of this space need to be taken into account 2008). The speakers’ choice of the linguistic codes
(Palmer, Mateuz, Martinez & Henderson, 2014). might be indexical to social negotiations since the
Also, it is important to see how a particular socio- speakers understand the ideological rights and
political context influences the effectiveness of responsibilities in their context (Myers-Scotton,
translanguaging space in schools. 2000). This approach was suitable for the purpose of
this study which was to find out how
Translanguaging space and language learning translanguaging was practiced and whether it
As discussed earlier, language education is commonly reflected or challenged particular socio-politically
in favor of separating the use of two languages. This constructed hierarchy of language.
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Rasman, To translanguage or not to translanguage? The multilingual practice in an Indonesian EFL classroom
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 7 No. 3, January 2018, pp. 687-694
(we couldn’t find it), and Indonesian such as in line Table 1 briefly describes the simple steps of
(6) and (7) that they finally understood that they had teaching in an EFL classroom using translanguaging
been wrong in translating the word. Those codes strategy. In this study, the strategy that the teacher
helped them realize that they had made mistakes. used was apparently effective in creating more space
for the learners to translanguage because she did not
Extract 2. only let the learners speak in those three languages
An (1) : This is a very amazing place. Line 3. but also strategically asked them to do the tasks in
berarti ini baris ketiga. Eh paragraph ketiga. groups to provide more learner-learner interactions,
<so, it’s line three. Eh paragraph 3> Line 3. which, as Wei and García (2014) argue, create more
Tahu nggak, tahu enggak? <Do you know
it? Do you know it? Apa berarti? <what’s
translanguaging space teacher-learner interactions.
the answer?> kata lainny this apa? <what Based on the extracts above, learners easily
the word ‘this’ refers to?> activated and acquired new vocabularies in English
Fa (2) : Kata-katanya itu mana? <where is that by shuttling very rapidly from one language to
word?> another. This translanguaging practice among
Zu (3) : Ini? <this one?> learners could be very likely successful as well in
An (4) : Bukan: <No:> This is very amazing ini loh. the teacher-learner interactions if the teacher also
Zu (5) : Di paragraph ketiga, tho? <in the third translanguages (using local languages, national
paragraph, right?> languages, and foreign languages) when discussing
An (6) : Nggak ada yo:: <I can’t find it::>
Fa (7) : Nggak ada di sini e. <it’s not there, right>
the lesson with the learners. That said, as Wei and
An (8) : Ini lho: <this is it:> García (2014) suggest, teachers should not give the
Fa (9) : Ini lho: <this is it:> direct translation of what they say. For example,
Zu (10) : Lho ora ketemu <we couldn’t find it> after saying one sentence in English, she translates
An (11) : Berarti baris [ketiga <so, it’s line 3> the sentence into Indonesian or Javanese language.
Zu (12) : Berarti baris ketiga <so, it’s line 3> Translanguaging means using different languages to
An (13) : Tadi katamu paragraf. <you said it’s make meaning and not spoon-feeding learners with
paragraph> the direct translations. Teachers need to let the
Fa (14) : Lah maaf salah. <Sorry, I was wrong> learners acquire the language through interactions
An (15) : Berarti the mount Ke[lud tho. <so, it’s
mount Kelud>
with their peers.
Zu (16) : [B
Fa (17) : ((Crossing option B)) eh? Table 1. Translanguaging Strategies
An (18) : Lah bener:: <Yes, it’s correct::> 1. Divide the learners into several groups
Zu (19) : B 2. Give them a group task
An (18) : Dah, selesai:: <Now, we finished::> 3. Ask them to discuss the task with their peers using
any language they want
These two examples clearly show that in the 4. Remind the learners that they are allowed to (and
even encouraged to) also use their local languages
interaction, the repertoire of each student were used
during the discussion
fully and creatively to scaffold each other so that
they could finish their task and at the same time
enlarged their existing repertoire by Being multilingual: How translanguaging
adding/activating more vocabularies. This evidence practice is still constrained by language ideology
is in line with the idea that language separation The previous discussion has shown that
theory might be incorrect in proposing that the use translanguaging practice has achieved the goal of
of the students’ full linguistic repertoire could not adding more repertoires so that learners could have
help learners learn the second language (García, multilingual competence as well as the strategy that
2009; García & Kano, 2014). Without the use of full the teachers could use to apply translanguaging in
linguistic repertoire, that is, by only using L2 as the their classroom. In this part, I would discuss the
instructions and the only permitted language in the socio-political aspects that might directly or
classroom, the learning of new vocabularies in indirectly influence the success or failure of
particular would be hardly achieved or at least, the applying the translanguaging practice in the
scaffolding mediated by interactions would be classroom. Using the ecological approach, the
inhibited. following extracts show that the socio-politically
Translanguaging here was effective to constructed statuses of Indonesian, English, and
facilitate language learning primarily because they Javanese languages in the country are influential in
were not only drawing all of their repertoires but the micro-context of classrooms.
also using it to make meaning in the social In the Extract 3, the students discussed a
accomplishment (Canagarajah, 2011). In this study, question about the ‘main idea’ of a text. In line (2),
participants did not only speak the three languages Zulaikha pronounced ‘main idea’ as ‘minida’
without any purpose but, as members of the group, mimicking the typical Javanese accent when
they also shuttle from one code to another to finish pronouncing the phrase. It was followed by the
the group task given by the teacher. laughter of everyone in the group. Annisa in line (6)
even tried to repeat it.
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Rasman, To translanguage or not to translanguage? The multilingual practice in an Indonesian EFL classroom
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 7 No. 3, January 2018, pp. 687-694
This socio-political construction of language translanguaging space (García & Kano, 2014). It is
status affects the way the learners constructed the mainly because once the students are aware of their
translanguaging space. Even though in this bias, they could freely enlarge their boundaries of
classroom the teacher let them speak any languages translanguaging space.
to accomplish the task, the learners were still That being said, I am also aware that
hesitant to use Javanese and embarrassed when their challenging the ideology is not an easy task.
accent influenced their pronunciation of English Moreover, translanguaging concept itself might, to
words. Therefore, it could be inferred that no matter some extent, also ideological in nature
how good the translanguaging space the teacher (Canagarajah, 2011; Lewis, Jones & Baker, 2012).
built, the language ideology of the country, Thus, while adjusting the power relationship and
particularly the language status, could still be traced identity between teacher and students is important
in the way the learners interacted with their peers (Creese & Blackledge, 2015), this ideological
because it is likely that the ideology has been quite struggle should also be backed up by the reform of
firmly embedded in them. language policy at the governmental setting (Wiley
In short, translanguaging space constructed by & García, 2016). The future research should not
the learners still to some extent reflects the wider only answer the question of ‘to translanguage or not
socio-political context of Indonesia particularly the to translanguage?’, but more importantly ‘how to
hierarchy of language status of Javanese, translanguage?’
Indonesian, and English. Therefore, teachers need to
constantly remind the students that they are allowed
to use any languages particularly local languages REFERENCES
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