FLAT SLAB SYSTEM

 Flat slabs are also known as beamless slabs are the type of slab in which the floor slab is supported directly on columns
without the action of beams or girders.
 Thin flat slabs ranging from 5 to 9 m are the preferred solution for building in-situ concrete frame buildings.
 These slabs are typically used on parking decks, commercial buildings, hotels, or places where beam projections are not
desired.
TYPES OF FLAT SLAB
TYPICAL FLAT SLAB This slab is also called beam slab construction so beams are
sometimes avoided in warehouses, offices, public halls, and slabs
are supported directly by columns.

These types of constructions are also aesthetically appealing and

supported by straight columns.
FLAT SLAB WITHOUT DROP AND WITH COLUMN HEAD The column head is sometimes widened to reduce perforation
shear in the slab, the widest parts are called column heads.

The column heads can be provided within any angle from an

FLAT SLAB WITH DROP PANEL AND WITHOUT COLUMN HEAD
architectural point of view, but for design the concrete in the
portion at 45° on either side of vertical only is considered as
effective for the design.
The moments in the slab are higher near the column, so the slab
is thickened near the column by providing drops.

Sometimes the drops are called the capital of the pillar.

WHAT IS COLUMN CAPITAL & DROP PANEL?

USES OF COLUMN HEADS (CAPITAL): USES OF DROP PANELS:

⋅ Shear strength of flat slab is increased by using column
heads.
⋅ Column heads reduce the clear or effective span, and
therefore, reduce the moment in the flat slab floor.
ADVANTAGES
- A flat slab reduces the overall height of the structure.
- These slabs are capable of lifting concentrated loads.
- They require less formwork.
- Since the reinforcement of flat slabs can be easily expanded, it
is easy to place.
- They also have better quality control.
- Sprinklers, utilities, and other piping are easy to install due to
the absence of beams.
- This gives a better appearance and diffusion of light.
- Better fire-resistant than other floor systems.
- They can be constructed rapidly.
USES OF FLAB SLAB:
⋅ Drop panels increase the shear strength of flat slab floor.
⋅ Drop panels increase flat slab's negative moment capacity.
⋅ Drop panels reduce deflection by stiffening the flat slabs.
DISADVANTGES
- In the flat plate system, the construction of large spans is not
possible.
- The use of a drop panel can interfere with large mechanical
ducting.
- They are not suitable for masonry walls (brittle supports).
- The thickness of the flat plate slab is greater than that of the
typical RCC two-way slab.
Flat slabs are mostly used in large industrial structures, parking
garages, ramps, warehouses, tall buildings, and hotels.
FLAT PLATE SYSTEM
WHAT IS FLAT PLATE SYSTEM? Flat Plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system of
uniform slab thickness that is supported directly over the
columns or the load-bearing walls.

An economical span for a reinforced flat plate is of the order of 6

to 8 m and for prestressed flat plates is in the range of 8 to 12
m. The span ‘L’ of a reinforced concrete flat-plate is
approximately
 D x 28 for simply supported,
 D x 30 for an end span of a continuous system, to
 D x 32 for internal continuous spans.

The economical span of a flat plate can be extended by

prestressing to approximately D x 30, D x 37 and D x 40
respectively, where D is the depth of slab
Slab directly supported on columns without beams are called Flat slabs or flat plates.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLAT SLAB AND FLAT PLATE
FLAT PLATE Flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system of
uniform slab thickness.
FLAT SLAB Flat slab is a two-way reinforced structural system that includes
either drop panels or column capitals at columns to resist
heavier loads and thus permit longer Spans.
FEATURES OF FLAT PLATE SYSTEM 1. One of the important features of a flat plate floor system is
the thickness of the floor. It is constructed with uniform
thickness with a flat soffit.
2. The soffit constructed for a flat plate system requires simple
form work which hence makes the construction easier.
3. The flat plate floor system is the best choice for serving the
purpose of a horizontal floor over a suspended ceiling.
4. The flat plate floor is constructed with an economical span
that takes up medium loads and avoids the chances of long-term
deflection.
5. A flat plate floor system depending upon the load and
deflection criteria can be either per-cambered or prestressed.
EXAMPLE

FLAT PLATE-VOIDED CONCRETE SLAB SYSTEMS A voided concrete slab is a system that removes the non-
working or excess concrete from the structural slab and replaces
it with void formers. The voided slab system was invented by
Jorgan Breuning of Denmark about 20 years ago.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 A flat plate floor system does not demand any beam.  The lateral load capacity of a flat plate floor system is
 The use of zero beams helps to have underfloor spaces and limited compared to a moment frame.
more service areas.  The spans employed are medium length
 The flat plate floor system requires simple formwork. the  Special reinforcement for shear must be provided at the
structural depth of a flat plate floor is minimum. columns or larger columns must be constructed.
 Can reduce storey height to accommodate more number of  Long-term deflection is an expected factor that requires
storeys. full life control.
 Simple and less form work.  A flat plate floor system is not a good choice for supporting
 Easy and quick construction. partitions that are too brittle. for example masonry walls.
 A flat plate floor system is not a good choice to take up
heavy loads.
APPLICATION OF FLATE PLATE  Office buildings – Low Rise & High Rise
 Residential buildings – Low Rise & High Rise
 Parking
 Hotels
WAFFLE SLAB SYSTEM
A waffle slab is a two-way joist slab system reinforced with It is usually used where large spans are required to avoid
concrete ribs constructed in the perpendicular direction of each columns interfering with space. Its main function is to withstand
other. These are laid in equal depth having a uniform rib higher loads and longer distances. They are also used where
appearance. It is called a waffle as it’s plain upright and holes there is a restriction on the depth of the beams to obtain a clear
underneath giving the appearance of waffles. height. Waffle slab is stiffer and lighter slabs compared to other
slab types.
Types of Waffle Slabs
The waffle slab classification based on construction methods:
a. WAFFLE SLAB WITH SOLID HEADS – solid heads at the joints
with columns. This provision is made to bear the shear
requirements faced during the loading conditions.

b. WAFFLE SLAB WITH BAND BEAMS – a wide solid beam is

provided along the centre line of the column which will
facilitate the structure to have a uniform depth.

CLASSIFICATION OF WAFFLE SLAB

Waffle slabs are classified into the following types based on
the shape of the slabs (PVC sheets):
TRIANGULAR – POD STRUCTURE

SQUARE-POD STRUCTURE

FACTORS DETERMINING THE DESIGN OF THE WAFFLE SLAB
WAFFLE SLAB CONSTRUCTION METHOD
 The total area required for the waffle slab
 The thickness of waffle slab
 Waffle slab overall depth
 The distance between two ribs in a row
The construction of waffle slabs can be done in three ways
however the basic method is the same in each:
 In-site - this method involves placing formwork and pouring
concrete over it. As per the design and the size required

APPLICATION METHOD STEPS
APPLICATIONS OF WAFFLE SLAB
ADVANTAGES OF WAFFLE SLAB
USES & EXAMPLES
slab is cast on site
 Precast - in this method slab panel casting is done
elsewhere and then inserted and joined with proper
reinforcement and concrete pour.
 Prefabricated - steel bars are used for this method and
reinforcement is provided in the slab panels. Slabs are
manufactured elsewhere and then taken to the site and
assembled. They do not require internal reinforcement on
the site.
 Formwork preparation
 Lay in the formwork elements
 Place your waffle pods on shuttering
 Arrange horizontal and vertical support elements by the
connectors
 Working from one corner, lay out the waffle pods and
spacer in a grid pattern within the formwork, as specified in
the footing design
 Use cube junctions to fix the corners of pods with the
framework
 Place reinforcement bars into position on the spacers in
between the waffle Pods
 After fixing the formwork, reinforcement is placed in the
two directions
 Lay top mesh, following design specifications and fasten
where necessary.
 Pour the concrete and vibrate well, ensuring intersecting
ribs are filled
 After hardening, pods and frameworks are removed from
the bottom.
 Stacking is provided in the end
It is used where massive span slabs are to be constructed in
areas where the number of columns is small. Its application
includes commercial and industrial buildings such as Airports,
Hospitals, Auditoriums etc.
 Reinforced with mesh or steel bars
 The volume of concrete required is less
 Separate excavation for the beam is not required.
 Faster construction
 Excellent vibration control
 Thermal mass adherence
 Vertical penetrations between ribs are easy.
 The load carrying capacity is greater than the other types of
slabs
 Greater load bearing
 Bigger spans can be achieved with less material
 Forms can be implemented with wood, concrete or steel
 Suitable for flat areas
 Use of less concrete and steel
 Provides good finishes and robustness
 Can Be Used As Both Ceiling And Floor Slab.
USES
 Public Buildings
 Commercial Buildings
 Residential Buildings
 EXAMPLES
B. CHATRAPATI SHIVAJI A. METROPOL PARASOL
A. METROPOL PARASOL INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT Jürgen Hermann Mayer's playful Metropol Parasol regenerates a
SOL
run-down central square in Seville, Spain, by bringing together
diverse functions — past and present — into a new powerful
urban statement.
B. CHATRAPATI SHIVAJI INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport, also known as
Mumbai Airport, is the main airport of Mumbai, Maharashtra,
India. It is one of India's busiest airports and one of the main
international gateways to the country.

RIBBED SLAB SYSTEM

Ribbed floors consisting of equally spaced ribs are usually supported directly by columns.
TYPES OF RIBBED SLABS RIBBED SLAB
- One-way spanning system
WAFFLE SLAB
- Two-way ribbed system

NOTE: The extended part is known as ribs. The spacing between

the ribs should be in general 20-30 inch. The ribs are tapered in
cross-section in its lower part.

2-HOUR FIRE RATING2-HOUR FIRE RATING A 120-mm-thick slab with a minimum rib thickness of 125 mm
for continuous ribs is required to achieve a 2-hour fire rating. A
rib thickness of greater than 125 mm is usually required to
accommodate tensile and shear reinforcement.
The one-way ribs are typically designed as T-beams, often
spanning in the long direction. A solid drop panel is required at
the columns and loadbearing

APPLICATION OF RIBBED SLAB SYSTEM COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

- Ribbed slabs are often used in comercial structures such as
office buildings, shopping malls, and retail spaces. Their open
and spacious design allows for flexible interior layouts and
provides an attractive ceiling aesthetic.
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
- In residential construction, ribbed slabs can be employed in
multi-story apartment buildings, condominiums, and luxury
homes. The system can provide larger open living spaces and
improve sound insulation between units.
INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES
- Ribbed slabs are suitable for industrial facilities, warehouses,
and manufacturing plants where long spans are required to
accommodate heavy machinery or storage racks. Their load-
bearing capacity and versatility make them a good choice for
these applications.
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
- Schools, colleges, and universities often use ribbed slabs in
classrooms, auditoriums, and gymnasiums. The system's ability
to support lighting fixtures and acoustic treatments makes it
useful in educational settings.
COMMERCIAL KITCHENS
- In restaurant and commercial kitchen design, ribbed slabs can

ADVANTAGES OF RIBBED SLAB SYSTEM ADVANTAGES OF
RIBBED SLAB SYSTEM
DISADVANTAGES OF RIBBED SLAB SYSTEM DISADVANTAGES
OF RIBBED SLAB SYSTEM
OTHER DISADVANTAGES OF RIBBED SLAB SYSTEM TO
CONSIDER:
accommodate HVAC systems, plumbing, and electrical services
while providing a visually interesting ceiling for diners.
PARKING STRUCTURES
- Ribbed slabs are utilized in multi-story parking garages and
structures, where their spanning capabilities and ability to house
services like lighting and sprinkler systems can be advantageous.
AESTHETIC APPEAL:
- Ribbed slabs create an attractive, textured ceiling or soffit that
adds visual interest to interior spaces. The waffle-like pattern
formed by the ribs canbe an architectural feature in itself,
enhancing the overall design of a building.
NATURAL LIGHTING:
The voids in ribbed slabs can be designed to
accommodatelighting fixtures or even skylights, allowing natural
light to penetrate deeper intothebuilding, reducing the need for
artificial lighting during the day.
EFFICIENT HVAC SYSTEMS:
The voids in ribbed slabs can accommodate ductworkand HVAC
systems, allowing for efficient air distribution and reducing the
needfor bulky, exposed ducts in the interior.
DESIGN FLEXIBILITY:
Architects have the flexibility to customize the design of
ribbedslabs, varying the depth and spacing of the ribs to achieve
specific aesthetic andstructural goals. This design versatility
allows for creativity in architectural expression.
COST SAVINGS:
Ribbed slabs can be cost-effective due to their reduced concrete
usageand faster construction times, making them an attractive
choice for both architects and developers.
LONG-SPAN CAPABILITIES:
Ribbed slabs can span longer distances between supports
compared to solid slabs, which can lead to more versatile and
open interior spaces without the need for additional columns or
supports.
LIMITED AESTHETIC VARIABILITY:
While ribbed slabs can offer a unique and appealingaesthetic,
their waffle-like pattern may not be suitable for all architectural
styles or design preferences. This can limit the design options for
certain projects.
FIRE RESISTANCE:
Ribbed slabs may have reduced fire resistance compared to
solidslabs, as the voids can provide pathways for fire to spread.
Fire protection measures may be necessary to address this
issue.
Reduced Headroom:
The presence of ribs and voids in ribbed slabs can reduce
theavailable headroom in some areas of a building, which may
not be suitable for spaces that require high ceilings.
Maintenance Challenges:
Cleaning and maintaining the ceiling surface of ribbedslabs with
voids can be more challenging compared to smooth, solid
ceilings.
 Increased Construction Costs
 Coordination Challenges
 Acoustic Considerations
 Limited Load-Bearing Capacity
 Seismic Considerations
LIFT-SLAB CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
HISTORY - This building approach was developed concurrently in 1948 by
Philip N. Youtz of New York and Thomas B Slick of Texas.
Although Slick received the initial patent for lift slab construction
in 1955, the process is now known as the "Youtz-Slick Method."
DISCUSSION - Lift-Slab Construction is a precast method of construction of
slab on the ground and then lifting it to the structure. The Youtz-
Slick Method, also known as lift slab construction, is a method of
constructing concrete buildings that involves casting the floor
or roof slab on top of the preceding slab and then elevating
(jacking) the slab with hydraulic jacks.

- This technique of construction eliminates the need to form

floor work in place by allowing a major percentage of the work
to be finished at ground level. Because of its capacity to produce
monolithic concrete slabs, the lift slab construction technique is
excellent for efficiently constructing structures with repeated
form work, such as parking ramps.
MATERIALS CONCRETE
- All sorts of slabs in building must be strong and long-lasting. For
slabs, the average concrete mixing ratio is 1:2:4. One part
cement, two parts sand, and four parts coarse aggregate are
used.

SPECIAL LIFTING COLLARS OR SHEARHEADS

- In the slabs at columns, special lifting collars or shearheads are
supplied. To separate slabs, bond breaking agents are employed.
After the slabs have cured for the required amount of time,
strong hydraulic jacks positioned on the columns raise the slabs
into their proper placements.

HYDRAULIC JACK
- Hydraulic Jack is used to lift the concrete slab to a certain
height.
METHODS CONCRETE
First, a concrete slab is laid on the ground level. Lifting collars are
cast around each of the columns as the slab is poured around
them. The lifting collars will be used subsequently to support the
slab when it is lifted and fixed. On top of the original ground slab,
further levels and the roof are poured and built. To allow the
slabs to split when they are elevated, bond breakers are installed
between each floor plate. Slabs may be readily protected from
bad weather since all the slabs remain together during the curing
process, decreasing the amount of formwork necessary to build
them.

ADVATAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
LIFTING
After the slabs have been lifted to the proper height, lifting
collars and shear blocks are welded to the columns to support
the slab from beneath. To ensure a structure's security while
elevating the slabs, hydraulic jacks mounted to the tops of the
columns employ synchronized consoles to elevate the slabs at a
uniform rate. Conventional methods of attaching the jacks to the
columns need the removal of the jacks before continuing to raise
the slabs. To support the jack, more contemporary systems use
welded plates that are isolated from the columns.
ADVANTAGES:
- Lift Slab has the lowest production cost.
- Completes tasks more quickly.
 - Delays in the establishment of manufacturing facilities (for
example, a processing plant) are avoided.
- Capital equipment investment is not required.
- Transportation needs are decreased.
- The need for professional and experienced workers is reduced.
- The use of local resources and labor is encouraged.
- The viability of using Lift Slab is not as susceptible to project size
or location as industrialized solutions.
- Materials and supplies that can simply be placed on top of the
slabs and hoisted with them require less handling and lifting.
- Structures are often built in around two-thirds the time of
comparable poured-in-place structures.

DISADVANTAGES:
- This approach should only be used for 15-15 level buildings and
should not be utilized for multi-story buildings. In this form of
construction, no broad span slabs are built.
APPLICATION OF LIFT SLAB CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
Huron Towers
Ann Arbor, Michigan
- The Huron Towers in Ann Arbor, Michigan, utilized the lift slab
technique

L'Ambiance Plaza
Bridgeport, Connecticut
- The lift slab method was fatefully implemented in the
L'Ambiance Plaza development in Bridgeport, Connecticut. What
was set to be a 16-storey residential project suddenly collapsed
on April 23, 1987.

Northminster Car Park

Peterborough, England
- In 2019, the Northminster Car Park in Peterborough, England,
created with the lift slab technology, was discovered to be
hazardous and beyond affordable repair.

2150 Shattuck Avenue

Berkeley, CA
- The building at 2150 Shattuck Avenue in Berkeley, CA (or First
Savings Building) is an example of mid-twentieth-century lift slab
construction in the Bay Area. The First Savings Building, built in
1969, uses lift slab construction to sustain its fourteen-story
height.

Johnstone Hall
Clemson, South Carolina
- Johnstone Hall, a Clemson University dormitory in Clemson,
South Carolina, was built using this style in 1954, as was
Woodrow Wilson High School. Several blocks from Johnstone
Hall have since been removed.
Northup Hall, Trinity University
San Antonio, Texas
- In 1952, the approach was utilized for the first time at Trinity
University in San Antonio, Texas, during the building of Northup
Hall. Northrup Hall was the first full-scale structure built with lift
slab construction.

TILT UP WALL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

DEFINITION Tilt-Up construction combines the strength and durability of reinforced concrete with
the precision and efficiency of the Design-Build methodology.

How Tilt-Up construction works?

HISTORY OF TILT UP WALL CONSTRUCTION
- Tilt-Up construction features series of concrete panels tilted up into place to form a
building’s exterior wall.
- These panels are created at the work site using wood forms, rebar and concrete. The
forms are shaped and rebar cut to match final designs. Next, concrete is poured into the
forms and finished.
People have probably been tilting walls into place for as long as they have been building
them. Old-fashioned barns were raised using Tilt-Up, for instance.

According to Concrete Construction magazine, commercial buildings using Tilt-Up

construction first appeared in the early 1900s. The method became popular in the
boom years after World War II, when a labor shortage placed a premium on economical
construction methods.

Since then, Tilt-Up has caught on across the U.S. and around the world. Advances in
computer aided design and project estimation have dramatically increased the
efficiency and flexibility of the Tilt-Up construction process.

In a later section, we’ll discuss the ways owners can drive additional cost savings on a
Tilt-Up project with the help of advanced estimating software.
Each project is unique, so it’s unrealistic to compare any of the above-mentioned construction methods in terms of cost per square
foot. But we can make these broad assumptions:
In general, Tilt-Up construction becomes
more cost-effective compared to other
methods as square footage increases. This
is because greater efficiencies are realized
as economies of scale kick in

Because erecting Tilt-Up concrete panels

can be done quickly, new structures
become enclosed sooner. Once structures
are enclosed, workers, their tools and
supplies are out of the elements. A key rule
on any job is to “be in the dry” as fast as
you can, and Tilt-Up significantly quickens
this process.
Contractors retain more control over Tilt-
Up projects since the panels are quickly
assembled on-site with locally available
materials and labor. Other methods calling
for more specialized materials or highly-
skilled labor are accompanied by longer
lead times and higher costs.
KEY BENEFITS OF TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION
DESCRIPTION OF METHOD
PANEL CASTING
CURTAIN WALL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
What is curtain wall?
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CURTAIN WALL
EXPLORATION PHASE (1851-1950)
DEVELOPMENT STAGE (1950 ~ 1980)
PROMOTION PHASE (1980 ~ 1996)
 Speed
 Labor costs and materials
 Energy Efficiency
 Design flexibility and cost saving
- In the tilt-up construction method, the wall panels or other structural
units are cast and cured in a horizontal position, usually at the building
site with the bottom of each panel immediately adjacent to its ultimate
position on the foundation.
- The panels are then tilted up to the vertical and secured in position by
temporary bracing until permanent stabilizing features, as provided in
the design of the structure, are installed. Intermediate and corner
columns, when required, are generally formed and cast in place after
placement of the panels.
When the panels are cast, it is important that the design specifications be
followed exactly. The ground floor slab, specially prepared casting bed, or
other smooth stable area may be used for the casting platform. If
possible, brace anchors should have been cast in floor or slab when it
was poured.
Refers to the cladding, or enclosure, of a building as something
both separate from and attached to the building’s skeletal
framework. It typically uses combination of materials, including
glass, metal, and sometimes stone or other cladding materials.
They are often used in high-rise buildings, providing an
uninterrupted, continuous surface that covers the entire facade.
This allows for expansive views and maximizes natural light
within the building's interior.
The Crystal Palace, an 1851 industrial exposition in London,
marked the beginning of the modern curtain wall era.
New materials and technologies are being used to address
curtain wall impacts, such as glass curtain walls with concealed
framing and pressure balance principles.
Curtain wall construction in industrialized nations is becoming
more complex due to new technology and modernization, with
metal, natural stone, and concrete being used for efficiency.
IMPROVEMENT STAGE (1990 TO THE PRESENT) New technology and materials like aluminum non-combustible
panels, photovoltaic panels, and eco-curtain walls emerge for
practicality, comfort, and environmental sustainability.
COMPONENTS
MULLIONS
 Vertical strut or post that acts as a structural member.
 Transfers wind loads, weight of the glazing and upper
levels into the structure below.
 Only support the weight of the transoms, glass and any
opening vents.
TRANSOMS
 Horizontal structural member that spans across the
mullions.
 Used to join and support the vertical mullions .
 Help distribute the loads
VISION GLASS
 Transparent glazing elements that form the windows or
openings within the facade.
 Glass that allows natural light to enter the building.
ANCHOR
 Attach and secure the curtain wall to the building's
structural frame.
 Essential in transferring loads from the curtain wall to the
building's structure.
PRESSURE PLATES
 Secure the glazing or panels in place.
 They apply pressure to the gaskets to create a secure seal.
CAPS
 It is used to cover the joints of curtain wall.

TYPES OF CURTAIN WALL

STICK WALL SYSTEM

Stick Wall System is the first curtain wall technology design. It

typically consists of extruded aluminum transoms and mullions
known as "sticks" that are cut to length in the factory prior to
assembly on site.
SEMI-UNITIZED SYSTEM (HYBRID SYSTEM)

A curtain wall construction style that combines aspects of stick-

built and unitized systems is referred to as a semi-unitized
system, sometimes known as a hybrid system. It is described as
"semi-unitized" because it includes some prefabrication (like
unitized systems) and permits on-site assembly of some
components (like stick-built systems)

UNITIZED CURTAIN WALL SYSTEM

In a unitized curtain wall system, massive, prefabricated units

(panels) are produced in a controlled manufacturing
environment before being delivered to the construction site for
installation. Each unit is made to be fitted on the building's
facade in complete sections and commonly consists of mullions,
transoms, vision glass, and spandrel panels. High-rise structures,
projects with intricate designs, and projects with stringent

ADVANTAGES OF USING CURTAIN WALL DISADVANTAGES OF USING CURTAIN WALL

 Architectural Versatility and Aesthetic  Potential for Water Leakage

 Appeal  Maintenance and Repairs
 Natural Light and Views  Complex Installation
 Energy Efficiency  Limited Load-Bearing Capacity
 Reduced Structural Load  Cost Considerations
 Cost Efficiency for Large-Scale Projects
APPLICATIONS OF CURTAIN WALL  Commercial Buildings (Office bldg., hotels etc.)
 Residential Buildings (Luxury apartments, Condo etc)
 Educational Institutions
 Health Care Facilities
 Cultural and Civic Buildings
 Hospitality and Entertainment
 Industrial and Manufacturing Facilities
 Airport Terminals
 Mixed used Developments
 Renovations and Retrofils

WALLCLADDING & WALLPANELSYSTEM

The exterior and interior surfaces of buildings play an important role in defining their aesthetic appeal, structural integrity, and
environmental performance. In the world of modern architecture and construction, the use of innovative materials and systems has
evolved significantly to meet the evolving demands of sustainable design, energy efficiency, and design aesthetics. Two prominent
architectural elements that have gained widespread attention because of its roles in construction, are wall cladding and wall panel

Wall Cladding encompasses a diverse range of materials and techniques used to cover and protect building surfaces. Its primary
functions include providing weather resistance, enhancing visual appeal, and contributing to a building's overall durability. Wall
cladding materials, ranging from traditional brick and stone to contemporary metal and composite materials, have a profound
impact on a structure's exterior appearance and performance. Wall Panel Systems, on the other hand, represent a sophisticated and
versatile approach to wall construction and design. These systems encompass a wide array of modular components designed to
serve specific functions, such as thermal insulation, acoustic control, and aesthetic enhancement. Wall panel systems are valued for
their efficiency in construction, adaptability to various architectural styles, and capacity to address multiple performance
requirements simultaneously.
WALL CLADDING & WALL PANEL DIFFERENCES
WALL CLADDING WALL PANEL
MATERIALS Wall cladding refers to a covering or Wall panels can be made from a wide
coating that is installed over the exterior range of materials including wood, plastic,
 walls or sometimes interior walls of a PVC, fabric, fiberglass, and more. They
building to protect the underlying come in various designs, colors, and
structure from weather elements, textures.
provide insulation, or improve aesthetics
PURPOSE Its primary purpose is to protect the Wall panels serve decorative and
building from moisture, wind, and other functional purposes. They can improve the
environmental factors. It can also insulation of a room, add texture, or
enhance the appearance of the building. create a specific ambiance within a space.
They are primarily used indoors.
FUNCTIONALITY Wall cladding primarily serves functional Wall panels are mainly decorative but can
purposes like protection from weather also provide some insulation or
elements, insulation, etc. soundproofing.
HISTORY
 Timber Wall Panel
13th & 14th Century  Vertical Wooden Boards
15th & 16th Century  Carved Wood Paneling
 Oak Linenfold
Georgian Era / 18th Century  Wainscoting
Victorian Era & 19th Century  Anaglypta Wallpaper
 Timber Wall Panel
20th Century  Alvar Aalto
 Jorn Utzon
METHODS
INSTALLATION OF WALL CLADDING AND WALL PANELS MATERIAL SELECTION
Choose appropriate cladding or panel materials that are suitable
for the local climate and environ mental conditions. For
instance, materials resistant to humidity and typhoon resistance
are essential in the Philippines. Verify the availability of the
selected materials in the local market.

SURFACE PREPARATION
Prepare the wall surface by ensuring it is clean, level, and
structurally sound. Repair any cracks or defects in the wall.

LAYOUT AND MEASUREMENT

Measure and mark the layout for the cladding or panel system,
accounting for openings (windows, doors),and architectural
details. Ensure proper alignment and spacingbetween panels.

CUTTING AND SHAPING

Cut and shape the cladding or panels as needed to fit the
dimensions and design requirements, using suitable tools and
techniques.

ATTACHMENT
Affix the cladding or panels to the wall using the appropriate
fasteners, adhesives, or mounting systems that are compatible
with the local climate conditions. Consider using materials that
can withstand high humidity, heavy rainfall, and strong winds.
Follow manufacturer recommendations for attachment methods
and clearances.

APPLICATIONS OF WALL CLADDING AND WALL PANELING
FINISHING TOUCHES
Install trim pieces, corner details, and any additional decorative
elements as required to complete the cladding or panel system.
Apply any recommended surface treatments or coatings for
protection and aesthetics.
EXTERIOR
SYSTEM
construction
INTERIOR
- interior wall paneling serves decorative and functional
purposes
TYPES OF WALL CLADDING
STONE CLADDING
The cost of natural stone
cladding varies depending on
what type of stone is being
purchased such as Slates,
Sandstones, Marble, Granites,
Limestones, and Quartzites.
Cost also varies on the shape
and sizes required to fit the
design.
BRICK CLADDING
Brick cladding is an exterior
face of the brick being used for
a brick-built structure.
Cladding is the term generally
used for the outer envelope of
a building and the protective
layer that protects the interior.
Although cladding does not
typically support weight and
thus is not able to contribute
to stability, it can play a
number of other important
roles in a building. Brick
cladding is a common type of
cladding.
WOOD CLADDING
Wood remains one of the
most aesthetically pleasing
among all types of cladding.
Conventionally in the
Philippines, wood cladding is
offered in these kinds of
woods such as Ipil, Yakal,
Tanguile, Teak, and Pine which
is durable in the range of 15 to
30 years when used in the
exterior. It is installed
horizontally, vertically, and
even diagonally on long
narrow boards.
- it can be use in residential, commercial, and industrial
VINYL CLADDING
This type of cladding remains
the cheapest type of wall
cladding and is available in an
array of different colors. The
benefit of purchasing vinyl
cladding is the fact that it is
maintenance-free, unlike most
other types of cladding which
require repainting, and repairs
over time, or may corrode and
crack over time.
FIBER CEMENT CLADDING
Fiber cement is a building
material that is a mixture of
cement and reinforced with
cellulose fibers. It is
manufactured in boards or
sheets which lock together to
create a weather-tight
protective layer and is
installed in the exterior of an
infrastructure. Fiber cement
cladding is suited for both
residential and commercial
buildings.
Aluminum Cladding
Aluminum cladding renders
great benefits compared to
other metals, Aluminum is a
very lightweight material as it
weighs a third of the weight of
steel. The standard weight of
aluminum is 2.70 grams per
cubic centimeter which makes
it an incredible material to
work with. This type of
cladding is weather resistant
and can endure long exposure
to UV. Moreover, it is also
termite resistant. If the design
requires a contemporary and
industrial feel to the exterior,
this cladding is suited.
Aluminum is a very durable
material however, it is prone
to dents and scratches.
 STEEL CLADDING GLASS CLADDING
Steel cladding has a lot going Glass Cladding is considerably
for it. Firstly, it tends to be the the most aesthetically pleasing
cheapest type of metal type of cladding. Glass makes a
cladding. Secondly, it affords strong design statement and
excellent design possibilities — demonstrates a sleek and
it can span long distances in sophisticated appearance. It
one run and has a good life provides the ideal balance of
expectancy of at least 35 years visual appeal and functionality.
(although some products will
last up to 80 years), thanks to
steel's resistance to both
corrosion and water damage.
TYPES OF WALL PANEL SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES OF WALL CLADDING AND WALL PANEL SYSTEMS DISADVANTAGES OF WALL CLADDING AND WALL PANEL
SYSTEMS
 Aesthetic Enhancement  Cost
 Protection and Durability  Installation Complexity
 Thermal Insulation  Limited Design Flexibility
 Acoustic Control  Material Compatibility
 Fire Resistance  Weight and Structural Considerations
 Easy Maintenance  Environmental Impact
 Quick Installation  Fire Hazards

TUBE STRUCTURE
(PERFORATED SHELL, FRAMED, BRACED, TRUSSED, LATICED
TRUSSED, BUNDLED, TUBE-IN-TUBE, BRACED CORE)
WHAT IS TUBE STRUCTURE? A tube structure is a type of structural engineering system used
in high-rise buildings to resist lateral loads such as wind and
seismic forces. The tube system is based on the idea that a
building can be designed to act like a hollow cylinder,
cantilevered perpendicular to the ground, to resist lateral loads.
The perimeter of the exterior consists of closely spaced columns
that are tied together with deep spandrel beams through
moment connections, forming a rigid frame that amounts to a
dense and strong structural wall along the exterior of the
building.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND In 1963, Fazlur Rahman Khan, a structural engineer from
Bangladesh, introduced framed tubes, transforming skyscraper
design. It's a three-dimensional structure formed by
interconnected frames or shear walls, resisting lateral forces by
cantilevering from the foundation.

The DeWitt-Chestnut apartment building, designed by Khan and

completed in Chicago by 1963, was the pioneering structure to
implement tube-frame construction. This innovative approach
set the groundwork for numerous subsequent skyscrapers,
including Khan's own John Hancock Center and Willis Tower and
the construction of the World Trade Center, the Petronas
Towers, the Jin Mao Building, and most other tall skyscrapers
since the 1960s, including the world's tallest building as of 2020,
the Burj Khalifa.
TYPES OF TUBE STRUCTURES  PERFORATED SHELL
In construction, a perforated shell refers to a thin-walled
structure with a pattern of regularly spaced holes or
perforations. These perforations can be of various shapes and
sizes, and they can be arranged in different patterns depending
on the intended application.
 FRAMED
There is no specific shape limit for the tubes, such as squares,
circles, rectangles, or free forms. Framed tube structures feature
closely spaced exterior columns rigidly linked to deep spandrel
beams extending continuously along the facades and around the
building's corners.
 TRUSSED OR BRACED
The trussed tube, also termed braced tube, is similar to the
simple tube but with comparatively fewer and farther-spaced
exterior columns. Steel bracings or concrete shear walls are
introduced along the exterior walls to compensate for the fewer
columns by tying them together.
 LATICED TRUSSED
A lattice truss is an infrastructural design component used in
construction applications. It consists of interlaced chords that
are cross-linked horizontally and diagonally to provide stability
and support to a structure.
 BUNDLED
Bundled tube construction is an architectural and structural
engineering technique used in the design of skyscrapers. In
bundled tube construction, the building’s load-bearing structure
is organized into a bundle of smaller, interconnected tubes or
columns. These tubes are typically arranged closely together
around a central core. This design distributes the building’s
weight and load-bearing capacity, while increasing the building’s
structural stability.
 TUBE-IN-TUBE
Tube-in-tube structural system is also known as “hull and core”
arrangement. Here, a core tube is surrounded by an exterior
tube. The exterior tube is the usual tube system that takes the
majority of gravity and lateral loads.
 BRACED CORE
is an integral part of the building's structural system and is
designed to prevent excessive lateral movement or sway,
ensuring the safety and stability of the structure. The braced
core is typically composed of diagonal bracing members or shear
walls and is strategically located within the building. Braced
cores play a crucial role in the structural stability and safety of
tall buildings, and their design is a critical aspect of the overall
structural engineering of high-rise structures.
METHODS 1. DESIGN
2. FOUNDATION
3. COLUMS & BEAMS
4. TUBE ASSEMBLY
5. CORE ASSEMBLY
6. INTERCONNECTION
FRAMED There is no specific shape limit for the tubes, such as squares,
circles, rectangles, or free forms. Framed tube structures feature
closely spaced exterior columns rigidly linked to deep spandrel
beams extending continuously along the facades and around the
building's corners.
ADVANTAGES  STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
 MATERIAL EFFICIENCY
 REDUCED SHEAR & DRIFT
  AESTHETIC FLEXIBILITY
DISADVANTAGES  COST OF MATERIALS
 LIMITED DESIGN FLEXIBILITY
 MAINTENANCE ACCES
 HEAVY

SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

Wastewater treatment is a critical process that plays a pivotal role in safeguarding the environment and public health. it involves the
collection, purification, and disposal or reuse of wastewater, which includes various pollutants and contaminants from domestic,
industrial, and agricultural sources. the importance of wastewater treatment cannot be overstated, as untreated or inadequately
treated wastewater can lead to pollution of water bodies, harm aquatic ecosystems, and pose significant health risks to humans.
PRINCIPAL POLLUTANTS
ORGANIC MATERIAL Its amount is indicated by the biochemical oxygen
demand, or bod; the more organic material there is in the
sewage, the higher the bod, which is the amount of
oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose the
organic substances in sewage. it is among the most
important parameters for the design and operation of
sewage treatment plants. industrial sewage may have bod
levels many times that of domestic sewage. the bod of
storm sewage is of particular concern when it is mixed
with domestic sewage in combined sewerage systems
(see below).

Dissolved oxygen is an important water quality factor for

lakes and rivers. the higher the concentration of dissolved
oxygen, the better the water quality. when sewage enters
a lake or stream, decomposition of the organic materials
begins. oxygen is consumed as microorganisms use it in
their metabolism. this can quickly deplete the available
oxygen in the water. when the dissolved.

Oxygen levels drop too low, trout and other aquatic

species soon perish. in fact, if the oxygen level drops to
zero, the water will become septic. decomposition of
organic compounds without oxygen causes the
undesirable oduors usually associated with septic or
putrid conditions.

SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Another important characteristic of sewage is suspended solids. the
volume of sludge produced in a treatment plant is directly related to
the total suspended solids present in the sewage. industrial and storm
sewage may contain higher concentrations of suspended solids than
domestic sewage. the extent to which a treatment plant removes
suspended solids, as well as bod, determines the efficiency of the
treatment process.
PLANT NUTRIENTS
Domestic sewage contains compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus,
two elements that are basic nutrients essential for the growth of
plants. in lakes, excessive amounts of nitrates and phosphates can
cause the rapid growth of algae. algal blooms, often caused by sewage
discharges accelerate the natural aging of lakes in a process called
eutrophication.
MICROBES
Domestic sewage contains many millions of microorganisms per gallon.
most are coliform bacteria from the human intestinal tract, and
domestic sewage is also likely to carry other microbes. coliforms are
used as indicators of sewage pollution. a high coliform count usually
indicates recent sewage pollution.
SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
COMBINED SYSTEM
SEPARATE SYSTEMS
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS
PUMPS
A sewerage system, or wastewater collection system, is a
network of pipes, pumping stations, and appurtenances
that convey sewage from its points of origin to a point of
treatment and disposal.
Combined sewers are systems that carry a mixture of
domestic and storm sewage, often consisting of large-
diameter pipes or tunnels. these systems are common in
older cities but are no longer used in new sewerage
facilities. during wet weather, sewage must bypass
treatment plants and be discharged directly into receiving
water, leading to combined sewer overflows containing
untreated domestic sewage. to reduce this problem, some
cities have diverted the first flush of combined sewage
into a basin or underground tunnel, which can be treated
before discharge into a receiving body of water or treated
in a nearby treatment plant.
New wastewater collection facilities are designed as
separate systems, carrying either domestic or storm
sewage. storm sewers carry surface runoff to a stream or
river, while sanitary sewers carry domestic wastewater to
a sewage treatment plant. storm water inlets or catch
basins are located at suitable intervals in street right-of-
way or easements across private property. storm water
pumping stations are avoided if possible due to the large
pump capacities needed to handle intermittent flows.
Conventional gravity sewers can be expensive due to low
population densities or site conditions like high-water
tables or bedrock.
Alternative wastewater collection systems include;
• Small-diameter gravity systems use septic tanks to
remove solids from wastewater before they flow into
collector mains. these systems are suitable for small rural
communities and are ideal for flat areas or where
expensive rock excavation is required.
• Pressure sewers discharge wastewater from homes into
the main pressure sewer, which follows ground slopes.
• Vacuum sewerage systems use gravity to pump sewage
from buildings into a sump or tank, then into a collection
tank and treatment plant.
Pumping stations are designed to raise sewage from low
points to higher elevations or prevent downhill gravity
flow. They use nonclogging pumps in lift stations, which
are divided into dry well and wet well types. wet-well
 installations have one chamber for receiving and holding
sewage, while dry-well installations have two separate
chambers for receiving and protecting pumps and
controls. all sewage lift stations should have at least two
pumps, one for operation and the other for repair.
FLOW RATES Sewage flow rates vary significantly throughout the day,
with highest rates in the morning and evening and lowest
in the middle of the night. These rates depend on
population density, water consumption, and commercial
activity. The average sewage flow rate is usually the same
as the community's average water use. sewage flow rates
can increase due to inflows and infiltration (i&i) into the
sanitary sewer system. Inflows occur from stormwater
entering sewers from inappropriate connections, while
infiltration occurs from groundwater entering sewers
through defective or broken pipes. These issues can lead
to hydraulic overloads, causing utilities to limit usage and
reduce strain on residents. i&i issues are particularly
severe in aging water infrastructures.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL Wastewater treatment systems handle sewage from
residential, business, and industrial facilities. The size and
capacity of these systems are determined by factors like
customer volume, location, and energy consumption.
treatment plant configurations vary based on customer
numbers and geographical scenario. There are three
levels of treatment: primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Primary treatment removes 60% of suspended solids and
35% of bod, secondary treatment removes over 85%, and
tertiary treatment removes over 99% of impurities.
Disinfection is the final step, typically done with chlorine
gas or hypochlorite chemicals. Ultraviolet radiation is
becoming more competitive.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS
PROTECTING PUBLIC HEALTH ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION WATER RESOURCE COMPLIANCE WITH
MANAGEMENT REGULATION
By removing harmful pathogens Sewage treatment plants help Effective treatment of Many countries have
and pollutants from sewage, safeguard natural ecosystems and sewage contributes to the stringent regulations in
these facilities prevent the water bodies by reducing the responsible use of water place to govern the quality
spread of waterborne diseases, discharge of contaminants, such as resources. Treated of discharged wastewater.
ensuring that the water released nutrients and toxic substances, into wastewater can be recycled sewage treatment plants
into the environment poses no rivers, lakes, and oceans. for various non-potable play a vital role in ensuring
health risks to the public. purposes, including compliance with these
irrigation, industrial environmental standards.
processes, and even
replenishing groundwater.
OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS
POLLUTION REMOVAL PATHOGEN ELIMINATION RESOURCE RECOVERY
To reduce the concentration of contaminants, The treatment process aims to eliminate In addition to pollution control,
including organic matter, suspended solids, or significantly reduce disease-causing sewage treatment plants may also
nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus), microorganisms, ensuring that the aim to recover valuable resources
pathogens, and toxic substances, present in treated effluent is safe for the from sewage, such as biogas (from
raw sewage. environment and human contact. organic matter), nutrients for
agriculture, and clean water for non-
potable uses.
METHODOLOGY
PRIMARY TREATMENT Primary treatment is a process that removes floating or
easily settling material from sewage through screening,
comminution grit removal, and sedimentation. screens
are used to block debris and are cleaned mechanically
 before being disposed of. Comminutors grind and shred
debris, then removed through sedimentation or flotation
processes. grit chambers slow down flow to settle solids,
causing wear and tear on pumps and plant equipment.
SEDIMENTATION TANKS Also known as primary clarifiers, provide two hours of
detention time for gravity settling. As sewage flows
through these tanks, solids sink to the bottom, and sludge
is collected and pumped out for removal. Mechanical
surface-skimming devices remove grease and other
floating materials.
SECONDARY TREATMENT Secondary treatment removes soluble organic matter and
suspended solids from sewage, typically through
biological processes where microbes convert organic
impurities into carbon dioxide, water, and energy. The
treatment plant, made of steel and concrete, supports
this natural biological process, protecting the dissolved
oxygen balance in receiving streams, rivers, or lakes.
THREE PRIMARY BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT METHODS 1. Trickling Filter
2. Activated Sludge Process and Oxidation Pond
3. Rotating Biological Contacter Method
TRICKLING FILTER
A trickling filter is a tank filled with stones that
continuously sprays settled sewage over the stones,
allowing bacteria to absorb organics and lower the
biochemical oxygen demand. Secondary clarifiers,
connected in series, remove microbes washed off the
rocks by the flow of wastewater, increasing treatment
efficiencies and allowing for recirculation.

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS

The activated sludge treatment system involves an
aeration tank
and a secondary clarifier. Settled sewage is mixed with
fresh sludge from the secondary clarifier, and compressed
air is injected to provide oxygen and rapid mixing.
Microorganisms thrive under oxygenated conditions,
forming activated sludge. The mixture is detained for six
hours, allowing microbes to absorb organics and reduce
BOD. The sludge settles in the secondary clarifier, where it
is disinfected and discharged as secondary effluent. About
30% of the sludge is recirculated back into the aeration
tank, while the remaining 70% must be treated and
disposed of.
OXIDATION POND
Oxidation ponds are large, shallow ponds used to treat
wastewater by combining sunlight, bacteria, and algae.
Algae release oxygen, and mechanical aerators reduce
pond size. Sludge deposits are removed through dredging,
while algae can be removed through filtration or chemical
treatment.
 ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTER
The treatment system involves plastic disks partially
submerged in primary effluent, exposed to air and
wastewater, allowing bacteria to grow and metabolize
organics.

TYPES OF TREATMENT PLANT 1. Tertiary treatment

2. Land treatment
3. Clustered wastewater treatment systems
4. On-site septic tanks and leaching fields
5. Sludge treatment and disposal
TERTIARY TREATMENT
Tertiary treatment is used to treat secondary effluent,
particularly when the water is highly susceptible to
pollution. Effluent polishing is an effective treatment,
removing suspended solids and BOD using granular media
filters or microstrainers, similar to drinking water
purification.

LAND TREATMENT
Land treatment involves applying secondary effluent
directly to the ground and obtaining polished effluent
through natural processes. There are three types: slow-
rate, rapid infiltration, and overland flow. Slow rate
involves irrigation, rapid infiltration stores wastewater in
recharge basins, and overland flow uses an inclined
vegetated terrace for purification. Land treatment
provides moisture and nutrients for vegetation growth,
recharge groundwater aquifers, and allows sewage
recycling. However, large land areas are required, and
feasibility may be limited by soil texture and climate.
CLUSTERED WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Clustered wastewater treatment systems, Communities
may use clustered wastewater treatment systems when
public sewer connections aren't feasible. These smaller
versions of centralized plants serve limited connections
and use similar technologies. Effluent from these systems
can be discharged through surface or subsurface disposal
methods.
ON-SITE SEPTIC TANKS AND LEACHING FIELDS
In suburban or rural areas, sewage collection and
treatment plants are often inefficient, leading to the use
of on-site systems for wastewater disposal. These systems
consist of a buried septic tank and a subsurface
absorption field, which removes settleable material and
percolate wastewater into the ground for treatment and
purification. If the site is too small for a conventional
leaching field, deeper seepage pits may be used. If soil
conditions prevent the use of absorption fields and
seepage pits, mound systems may be used.

SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

 Wastewater can be a valuable resource in cities with
growing populations and limited water supplies.
Reusing wastewater can improve stream and lake
quality, reduce effluent discharges, and be used for
crop irrigation, groundwater recharge, or
recreational purposes. There are two types of
wastewater reuse: direct and indirect. Direct reuse
involves piped treated wastewater into water
systems without dilution, while indirect reuse
involves mixing reclaimed wastewater with another
body of water. Quality and treatment requirements
for reclaimed wastewater become more stringent as
human contact increases. Gray-water recycling
systems in new commercial buildings filter and
chlorinate drainage, reuse water for non-potable
purposes, and can be marked with a blue dye to
prevent potable use.
 Sewage sludge, or biosolids, is a by-product of
wastewater treatment processes, classified as
primary and secondary sludge. Primary sludge is
generated from chemical precipitation,
sedimentation, and biological treatments, while
secondary sludge is activated by waste biomass.