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Lecture Notes
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Syllabus:
UNIT-I: D.C GENERATORS
UNIT-II: D.C. MOTORS
UNIT-III: TESTING OF D.C. MACHINES
UNIT-IV: SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
UNIT-V: TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS AND POLY-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
II YEAR B.Tech EEE –I SEM L/T/P/C
3/0/0/3
(R20A0202) ELECTRICAL MACHINES - I
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the basic working principle, constructional details and operational features of DC
Generators.
5. To learn the concepts of single phase and three phase transformers circuits
UNIT – I
D.C GENERATORS: Principle of operation - constructional features - Action of commutator –
armature windings – lap and wave windings – simplex and multiplex windings – use of laminated
core – E. M.F Equation – Problems, Armature reaction – Cross magnetizing and de-magnetizing
AT/pole – compensating winding - Commutation – reactance voltage – methods of improving
commutation. Methods of Excitation – separately excited and self- excited generators – build-up of
E.M.F - critical field resistance and critical speed - causes for failure to self-excite and remedial
measures. Load characteristics of shunt, series and compound generators
UNIT – II
D.C. MOTORS: Principle of operation – Back E.M.F. - Torque equation – characteristics and
application of shunt, series and compound motors – Armature reaction and commutation. Speed
control of D.C. Motors - Armature voltage and field flux control methods. Motor starters (3 point
and 4-point starters).
UNIT – III
TESTING OF D.C. MACHINES: Losses – Constant & Variable losses – calculation of efficiency
condition for maximum efficiency. Methods of Testing – direct, indirect and regenerative testing –
brake test – Swinburne’s test – Hopkinson’s test – Field’s test – Retardation test – separation of
stray losses in a DC Motor test.
UNIT – IV
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS: Principle of operation - constructional features -Types -
minimization of hysteresis and eddy current losses- EMF equation - operation on no load and on
load - phasor diagrams. Equivalent circuit - losses and efficiency – regulation - All day efficiency -
effect of variations of frequency & supply voltage on iron losses.
UNIT – V
TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS AND POLY-PHASE TRANSFORMERS: OC and SC tests - Sumpner’s test -
predetermination of efficiency and regulation-separation of losses test- parallel operation with
equal and unequal voltage ratios - auto transformers- equivalent
circuit - comparison with two winding transformers. Poly-phase transformers – Poly-phase
connections - Y/Y, Y/Δ, Δ/Y, Δ/Δ and open Δ
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Electric machinery – A.E. Fitzgerald, C.Kingsley and S.Umans, Mc Graw Hill Companies,
REFERENCE BOOKS:
3. P. C. Sen, “Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics”, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
5. Electric Machines by I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari, Tata Mc Graw –Hill Publishers.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of this course the student would get
4. Carry out different testing methods and assess the performance of transformers.
UNIT – I
D.C GENERATORS
CONTENTS:
Principle of operation- Constructional features
Action of Commutator
Armature windings – lap and wave windings – simplex and
multiplex windings
Use of laminated core –
E. M.F Equation – Problems,
Armature Reaction – Cross magnetizing and demagnetizing
AT/pole – compensating winding
Commutation – reactance voltage – methods of improving
commutation.
Methods of Excitation – separately excited and self- excited
generators – build-up of E.M.F - critical field resistance and
critical speed - causes for failure to self-excite and remedial
measures.
Load characteristics of shunt, series and compound generators
Important concepts and Formulae:
Illustrative examples
Page 1
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Introduction:
Let us consider a single turn of coil ABCD mounted on a cylindrical shaft and
rotated in an anticlockwise direction at constant angular velocity of ‘ω‘ rad/sec
within a uniform magnetic field of flux density B webers/mtrs2 as shown in the
figure below .
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Let l be the length and b be the breadth of the rectangular coil in meters.
According to Faradays law the emf induced in a conductor is given by e =
− N.dØ/dt where e is the induced emf , N is the number of conductors , Ø is the
flux linkage and t is the time. The flux linkage Ø is given by : Ø = B.area of the
coil.cos ωt = B.l.b.Cos ωt
Since we are considering only one conductor the induced emf in the conductor is
given by:
As can be seen from the above equation for induced emf the voltage in a given
generator can be increased by either increasing the flux density ‘B’ or the
rotational speed ’ω’ .
The induced emf ‘e’at any position of the coil as a function of time ‘t’ as derived
above is then given by : e = Em Sin ωt where Em = B.l.b.ω. As can be seen
dØ/dt i.e rate of change of flux linkage is minimum (=0) when the coil is at
perpendicular position to the flux lines and hence the induced voltage e is also
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
minimum (=0) . We will call this as position Ѳ = 00 at the instant of say t = 0 sec.
And dØ/dt is maximum when the coil is at parallel position to the flux lines and
hence the induced voltage e is also maximum( = Em = B.l.b.ω) and this position
will then be Ѳ = 900 .When Ѳ = 1800 the induced emf is again zero and when Ѳ =
2700 the emf induced is again maximum but now it would be negative. When Ѳ =
3600 the coil is back to the original position and the induced emf is again equal to
zero. For the two pole generator shown in the figure one complete cycle of
change takes place in one rotation of the coil. A plot of the induced emf ‘e’ as
function of coil position Ѳ is an alternating voltage as shown in the figure below.
When the two terminals of the coil are connected to an external load (resistance
in this case) through two separate rings (called slip rings) mounted on the
armature current flows through the resistance and the current also would be
sinusoidal.
Action of commutator: We have seen that the output from a simple single turn
generator in one full revolution is a sinusoidal in nature (AC). Commutator is the
most important part of a DC Generator which converts the AC to DC. The current
flowing through the external load can be made unidirectional by replacing the
two slip rings with two split rings as shown in the figure below which is the basis
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
One slip ring is split into two equal segments P and Q which are insulated from
each other and the armature shaft. The two coils AB and CD are connected to the
two segments P and Q .Two fixed (stationary) brushes B1 and B2 sliding along
these two split rings will be collecting the current from the generator. During the
first half of the revolution segment P is positive and current flows along
ABPLMQCD through brush B1 which is positive and into brush B 2 into segment Q
which is negative. Next during the other half cycle, the location of the segments
AB & CD will reverse along with the respective segments P and Q . Now
conductor CD and segment Q are positive and current flows along DCQLMPBA
through the Brush B1 which is again positive and into the brush B2 which is again
negative as shown in the figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
In each half revolution the positions of the conductors AB & CD and the segments
P &Q reverse but the brushes B1&B2 are stationary and continue to collect current
from the Positive side and deliver current to the Negative side respectively. Hence
the voltage across the load will be a unipolar voltage as shown in the waveform
above. The changeover of brushes B1&B2 between segments P &Q takes place
when the voltage is minimum so as to avoid or minimize the arcing between the
split segments. In practical generators there will be more number of conductors
and also more number of Pole pairs and hence more number of split segments
are required and such a set of more number of split segments is called
commutator.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
The physical structure of the machine consists of two parts: the stator and the
rotor.
The stationary part consists of the main frame (yoke), and the pole pieces, which
project inward and provide a path for the magnetic flux. The ends of the pole
pieces that are near the rotor spread out over the rotor surface to distribute its
flux evenly over the rotor surface. These ends are called the pole shoes. The
exposed surface of a pole shoe is called a pole face, and the distance between the
pole face and the rotor is the air gap.
There are two principal windings on a dc machine:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
The air-gap is kept very small to keep the reluctance of the magnetic circuit low.
The armature is a laminated cylinder and is mounted on a shaft. The armature
laminations are about 0.4–0.6 mm thick and are insulated from one another. The
armature is laminated to reduce the eddy-current loss in the core. Slots are
stamped on the periphery of the armature laminations. The armature slots house
the armature windings. The stator core, the yoke and the poles may not be
laminated as they encounter DC flux.
Due to the presence of slots on the armature surface, there is flux pulsation at the
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Stator pole-face. The stator pole shoes, therefore, should be laminated to reduce
the eddy-current loss. However, for mechanical reasons, in many cases the whole
of the pole core is laminated. In DC Machines of high ratings slots are cut on the
pole-faces to house a separate winding called the compensating winding. The
compensating winding is connected in series with the armature winding and
neutralises the effect of armature reaction. To neutralize the effect of armature
reaction in the space in between two poles, smaller poles, called interpoles, are
fixed on the yoke as shown in Fig. 2.2.
As mentioned earlier, the armature winding is placed inside the armature slots.
The slots are lined with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded
over the armature conductors. The conductors in the slots are secured in their
places by hard wooden wedges or fiber glass wedges. The armature windings are
first made on formers and then placed on slots.
Enamel insulated copper wires are used for the armature winding. Each armature
coil end is connected with each segment of the commutator.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Armature windings:
The armature windings are vital part of a DC Machine. This is where emf is
induced in the case of a Generator and and force is developed that results in the
turning of the rotor in the case of a Motor. The design of the armature winding is
more critical than the design of other parts of a DC machine. The armature
winding is housed in slots made on the armature surface. Formed coils are placed
on slots. The ends of the coils are joined with commutator segments.
Commutator: The commutator is made up of a number of commutator
segments. Coil-ends are connected to each commutator segment. The segments
of the commutator are made of hard-drawn copper and are separated by thin
sheets of mica or micanite ( insulator) .
The induced emf per conductor in a DC machine is small. The problem is how
these conductors are to be connected together so as to form a complete winding.
Figure below shows the cross-sectional view of the armature of a four-pole
machine.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
The average pitch Ya, back pitch Yb, and the front pitch Yf are calculated as:
Ya = 16/4= 4
Ya = (Yb + Yf) /2
Yb – Yf = ±2
For progressive lap winding
Yb – Yf = 2
Yb = 5, Yf = 3
Figure gives the details of end connections of the conductors, connection of coils
with commutator segments, and the position of brushes on the
commutatorsurface with their polarities. This type of winding is called lap
winding. In the winding shown in Fig. 2.11, single-turn conductors are used. As
many as 16 conductors make eight coils. The coils are 1-6, 3-8, 5-10, 7-12, 9-14,
11-16, 13-2 and 15-4. The design of a lap winding of the type shown in Fig. 2.11 is
described as follows.
2.3.2 Lap Winding
In a lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected via the commutator
segment to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole. In
this way all the coils are connected. The winding is known as lap winding because
the sides of successive coils overlap each other (see Fig. below). A coil may consist
of any number of turns. The number of slots required on the armature is equal to
the number of coil sides if two coil-sides are placed in each slot. With two coil-
sides in each slot, a two layer winding is obtained. While making a winding
diagram in a two-layer winding, all top coil-sides are numbered odd whereas the
bottom coil-sides are numbered even (shown by dotted lines) as shown in Fig..
For an eight-coil armature, therefore, eight slots are required on the armature
surface. The following terminologies are required to be understood for preparing
an armature winding diagram.
Pole Pitch: It is equal to the number of coil-sides per pole. For a single turn, eight
coil, four-pole armature pole pitch is calculated as:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Coils and Coil-sides: The DC armature windings are double-layer type having at
least two coil-sides per slot. Each coil consists of an upper coil-side at the top of
one slot and a lower coil-side situated at the bottom of another slot. The distance
between the two coil-sides of a coil is approximately equal to the pole pitch. A coil
may be of single turn or of many turns. If two coil-sides are placed in one slot,
then the number of slots required on the armature for housing the coils is equal
to the number of coils of the winding. For low-speed high-voltage winding,
however, the number of coil-sides per slot is more than two. This is because the
winding will have a large number of coils and it may not be possible to have an
equal number of slots on the armature.
Back Pitch: The distance measured in terms of the number of armature
conductors (coil sides) between the two coil-sides of a coil measured around the
back of the armature, i.e., away from the commutator end of the armature is
called the back pitch, Yb.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Front Pitch: The distance between two coil-sides connected to the same
commutator segment is called the front pitch, Yf .
Resultant Pitch: It is defined as the distance in terms of the number of coil-sides
between the start of one coil and the start of the next coil to which it is
connected.
Commutator Pitch: It is defined as the distance measured in terms of
commutator segments between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are
connected.
For calculating back pitch Yb and front pitch Yf for a lap winding, the following
relations are used:
(i) Yb – Yf = ± 2m Also, Yb = (Z/P)± 1
where m = 1 for simplex winding
= 2 for duplex winding
When Yb is greater than Yf , the winding is a progressive one, i.e., it progresses
from left to right. If Yb is less than Yf , the winding is called a retrogressive one,
i.e., it progresses from right to left.
(ii) The back pitch and front pitch must be odd.
(iii) The average pitch, Ya = (Yb + Yf)/2 should be equal to the pole pitch, i.e.,
equal to Z/P, where Zis the number of coil sides.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
(iv) The commutator pitch is equal to m, i.e., equal to 1, 2, etc. for simplex, duplex
etc. type of winding.
(v) The number of parallel paths in the armature winding for a simplex lap winding
is equal to the number of poles, P.
(vi) The resultant pitch is always even, being the difference of two odd numbers.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Connections of the coil-sides are made as follows: for connections at the back end
of the armature, add the back pitch with the coil-side which is to be connected.
Thus coil-side 1 is to be connected with coil-side 1 + Yb, i.e., 1 + 9 = 10. On the
commutator end side, coil-side 10 is connected to coil-side 3. This is achieved by
subtracting Yf , i.e., 7 from coil-side number 10 (10 – 7 = 3). Coil-side 3 is now
connected to 3 + Yb = 3 + 9 = 12. In this way the winding is completed.
The positions of the four poles are also shown in Fig. 2.15. Eight coil-sides placed
in four slots are under each pole. Assuming a direction of rotation of the
armature, say anticlockwise in Fig. 2.15, the direction of the induced emf in the
armature conductors is determined by applying Fleming’s right-hand rule. The
direction of the current in the coil-sides under north poles will be downward and
under south poles upward as shown in Fig. 2.15.
The position of brushes can be determined by tracing the directions of current in
various coil-sides. From Fig. 2.15, it can be observed that directions of current in
coil-sides 1 and 8 are downward and they are connected to commutator segment
1. A brush placed on commutator segment 1 will have positive polarity. Similarly
in coil-sides 9 and 16, the current is upwards. The two coil-sides are connected to
commutator segment 5. The brush placed on commutator segment 5 will have
negative polarity. Similarly the positions of the other two brushes are fi xed. Two
positive brushes and two negative brushes are joined together to output
terminals A and B respectively.
The number of parallel paths of the armature winding across the output terminals
is four (equal-to the number of poles) which can be examined as follows: Redraw
the armature winding of Fig. 2.15 in a simplifi ed manner as shown in Fig. 2.16.
Between terminals A and B there are four parallel paths shown as M, N, O and P.
The total emf generated in the machine is equal to the emf generated in one
parallel path.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Unequal values of emf generated in the parallel paths will circulate a considerable
amount of current in the armature circuit without doing any useful work. This
circulating current will be large as the armature circuit resistance is generally very
low. This circulating current will generate heat and while circulating through the
brush contacts will cause commutation diffi culties (like sparking on the
commutator surface).
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Page 19
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
If Ya is taken to be odd, i.e., 5, then the front pitch and back pitch will be equal.
Thus, Ya = Yb = Yf = 5.
Connections of the coil sides will be as shown in figure. The connection diagram is
achieved by adding Yb and Yf with the coil numbers progressing in the forward
direction. Coil-side 1 is connected at the back with coil side 6 (1 + Yb = 6). Coil side
6 is connected at the front with coil-side 11 (6 + Yf = 11) and so on.
The positions of brushes are fixed as follows: for ease of understanding, the
connection diagram of Fig. 2.17 is reproduced in Fig. 2.19. The directions of
current in the coil-sides are also shown by observing the directions from Fig. 2.18.
By carefully examining the directions of current in the coil-sides it is seen that
between points P and Q current gets divided in two parallel paths. From point P
the current fl ows to Q via two paths, viz. through 11-16-21- ... 6-11-18-13-
The point P in Fig. 2.19 is the separating point of the emf in the two sections of
the winding and therefore corresponds to the position of one of the brushes, viz.
the negative brush. For placing of the positive brush, it is seen from Fig. 2.19 that
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
at point Q current is coming out from both the coil-sides. Therefore, point Q
corresponds to the position of the positive brush.
It may be noted from Fig. 2.18 that coil-sides 6 and 17 lie in the interpolar region.
The direction of current in these coil-sides will depend upon the direction of
current in the other coil side of the respective coils, viz. coils 1-6 and 17-22.
Dummy Coils: As mentioned earlier wave winding is possible with a particular
number of coil-sides. But if standard stampings with a definite number of slots are
to be used, the number of coil-sides needed to be placed in all the slots may be
more than the required number. In such a case, the extra coils are left
unconnected. These coils are called dummy coils. Dummy coils are used so as to
make the armature dynamically balanced. They, otherwise, do not contribute to
the induced emf or developed torque.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Example-3 : Calculate the winding pitches and draw developed and sequence
diagrams of the winding for a four-pole wave connected armature winding of a dc
generator having seven coils. In the diagram, show the position of poles and the
position and polarity of brushes.
Solution:
Number of coil-sides = 7 × 2 = 14
Ya = (Z ±2)/P = (14 ±2)/4 = 3 or 4
Ya should be an integer, Yb and Yf should be odd numbers.
Therefore, we choose
Ya = Yb = Yf = 3
The sequence and layout diagrams of the winding are shown in Fig. 2.20.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Rotor (armature) windings are further classified according to the plex of their
windings. A simplex rotor winding is a single, complete, closed winding wound on
a rotor. A duplex rotor winding is a rotor with two complete and independent sets
of rotor windings. If a rotor has a duplex winding, then each of the windings will
be associated with every other commutator segment. One winding will be
connected to segments I, 3, 5, etc., and the other winding will be connected to
segments 2, 4, 6, etc. Similarly, a triplex winding will have three complete and
independent sets of windings, each winding connected to every third commutator
segment on the rotor. Collectively, all armatures with more than one set of
windings are said to have multiplex windings.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
EMF Equation:
In a practical machine all the conductors are not connected in series. They
are divided into groups of parallel conductors and then all the groups are
connected in series to get higher voltage. In each group there are ‘a’
conductors in parallel and hence there are ‘a’ parallel current paths and
each parallel path will have Z/a conductors in series.
Now consider one conductor on the armature. As this conductor makes one
complete revolution it cuts PØ webers of flux.
Since the induced emf in a conductor is its rate of cutting of flux lines ( Rate of
change of Flux linkage ) the emf ‘e’ induced in such a single conductor is equal to
∴ the total induced emf ‘E’ = (Z/a) NPØ/60 = ( NPØ Z )/ (a. 60)
EA = (Ø ZN/60).( P/a)
The armature conductors are generally connected in two methods. Viz. Lap
winding and Wave winding.
∴ ‘E’ = (Ø ZN/60)
Where Ka = ZP/60.a
(since N/60 RPS = 2π. N/60 Radians /sec = ω Radians /sec and ∴ N/60 = ω/2π)
Where Ka is the generalized constant for the DC machine’s armature and is given
by :
Ka = (ZP/2πa)
Where Ø is the flux/per pole in the machine (Webers), N is the speed of rotation
(RPM) ω is the angular speed (Radians/sec) and Ka is a constant depending on
the machine parameters.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
And thus finally EA = Ka. Ø. ω and we can say in general, the induced voltage in
any DC machine will depend on the following three factors:
1. The flux Ø in the machine
2. The angular speed of rotation ω and
3. A constant representing the construction of the machine. (ZP/2πa)
(i.e. the number of conductors ‘Z’, the number of poles ‘P’ and the number of
parallel paths ‘a’ along with the other constant ‘2π’)
Armature Reaction:
the rotor windings, as shown in Figure 8- 23c. This rotor magnetic field affects the
original magnetic field from the poles that produced the generator's voltage in
the first place. In some places under the pole surfaces, it subtracts from the pole
flux, and in other places it adds to the pole flux. The overall result is that the
magnetic flux in the air gap of the machine is skewed as shown in Figure 8- 23d
and e. Notice that the place on the rotor where the induced voltage in a
conductor would be zero (the neutral plane) has shifted.
For the generator shown in Figure 8- 23, the magnetic neutral plane shifted in the
direction of rotation. If this machine had been a motor, the current in its rotor
would be reversed and the flux would bunch up in the opposite corners from the
bunches shown in the figure. As a result, the magnetic neutral plane would shift
the other way.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Page 28
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
In general, the neutral-plane shifts in the direction of motion for a generator and
opposite to the direction of motion for a motor. Furthermore, the amount of the
shift depends on the amount of rotor current and hence on the load of the
machine.
So what's the problem with neutral-plane shift? It 's just this: The commutator
must short out commutator segments just at the moment when the voltage
across them is equal to zero. If the brushes are set to short out conductors in the
vertical plane, then the voltage between segments is indeed zero until the
machine is loaded. When the machine is loaded, the neutral plane shifts, and the
brushes short out commutator segments with a finite voltage across them. The
result is a current now circulating between the shorted segments and large sparks
at the brushes when the current path is interrupted as the brush leaves a
segment. The end result is arcing and sparking at the brushes. This is a very
serious problem, since it leads to drastically reduced brush Iife, pitting of the
commutator segments, and greatly increased maintenance costs. Notice that this
problem cannot be fixed even by placing the brushes over the full-load neutral
plane, because then they wouId spark at no load.
In extreme cases, the neutral-plane shift can even lead to flashover in the
commutator segments near the brushes. The air near the brushes in a machine is
normally ionized as a result of the sparking on the brushes. Flashover occurs
when the voltage of adjacent commutator segments gets large enough to sustain
an arc in the ionized air above them. If flashover occurs, the resulting arc can even
melt the commutator's surface.
The second major problem caused by armature reaction is called flux weakening.
To understand flux weakening, refer to the magnetization curve shown in Figure
8-24. Most machines operate at flux densities near the saturation point.
Therefore, at locations on the pole surfaces where the rotor magnetomotive force
adds to the pole magnetomotive force, only a small increase in flux occurs. But at
locations on the pole surfaces where the rotor magnetomotive force subtracts
from the pole magnetomotive force, there is a larger decrease in flux. the net
result is that the total average flux under the entire pole face is decreased (see
Figure 8- 25).
Flux weakening causes problems in both generators and motors. In generators,
the effect of flux weakening is simply to reduce the voltage supplied by the
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
generator for any given load. In motors, the effect can be more serious. As the
early examples in this chapter showed, when the flux in a motor is decreased, its
speed increases. But increasing the speed of a motor can increase its load,
resulting in more flux weakening. It is possible for some shunt dc motors to reach
a runaway condition as a result of flux weakening, where the speed of the motor
just keeps increasing until the machine is disconnected from the power line or
until it destroys itself.
Figure 8-24: A typical magnetization curve shows the effects of pole saturation
where armature and pole magnetomotive forces add.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
Reactance voltage:
The voltage rise in the short circuited coil due to inductive property of the coil,
which opposes the current reversal in it during the commutation period, is called the
reactance voltage. It is given by :
Reactance voltage = Coefficient of self-inductance(L) x Rate of change of current
(di/dt).
We know that the coil undergoes commutation when the two commutator
segments get short-circuited by the brush. During this period the current say I
changes from +I to -I . That means di= change in current = 2I.
The time taken for this change in current is given by dt = (Wb-Wc)/v where
Wb =Width of the brush (cms)
Wm =Width of the mica insulator between the commutator segments (cms)
V = peripheral (linear) velocity of the commutator (armature) (cm/sec)
Then reactance voltage = L.di/dt = L .2I.v/(Wb-Wc)
This reactance voltage also causes sparking at the brushes resulting in the same
phenomenon as that produced by neutral phase shifting due to armature reaction.
We can produce reversing e.m.f in two ways. By brush shifting. By using inter-poles or
commutating poles.
Shifting of Brushes: By shifting the brushes to the new MNA, sparking due to
commutation can be avoided. The brushes are to be shifted by the same angle by
which the MNA has shifted due to loading. They are to be shifted in the forward
direction (in the direction of rotation) in a generator, and backward in a motor.
The disadvantage with this method is that the angle of shift will depend upon the
load on the machine and therefore is practically difficult to shift the brushes
continuously with change in load.
Commutating poles or Interpoles: The basic idea behind this approach is that if
the voltage in the conductors undergoing commutation can be made zero, then
there will be no sparking at the brushes. To accomplish this, small poles, called
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Unit 1: D C Generators
commutating poles or interpoles, are placed midway between the main poles.
These commutating poles are located directly over the conductors being
commutated. By providing a suitable amount of flux with proper polarity from the
commutating poles, the voltage in the coils undergoing commutation can be
exactly canceled. If the cancellation is exact, then there will be no sparking at the
brushes. Exact cancellation of the voltage in the commutator segments is
accomplished for all values of loads by connecting the interpole windings in series
with the windings on the rotor, as shown in the figure below.
The commutating poles do not change the operation of the machine, because
they are so small that they affect only the few conductors about to undergo
commutation. The armature reaction under the main pole faces is unaffected,
since the effects of the commutating poles do not extend that far. This means
that the flux weakening problem in the machine is not solved by the commutating
poles.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
As the load increases and the rotor current increases, the magnitude of the
neutral-plane shift and the size of the L dildt effects increase too. Both these
effects increase the voltage in the conductors undergoing commutation.
However, the interpole flux increases too, producing a larger voltage in the
conductors that opposes the voltage due to the neutral-plane shift. The net result
is that their effects cancel over a broad range of loads. Note that interpoles work
for both motor and generator operation, since when the machine changes from
motor to generator, the current both in its rotor and in its interpoles reverses
direction. Therefore, the voltage effects from them still cancel.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
To oppose this voltage, the interpoles must have the opposite flux, which is the
flux of the upcoming pole. In a motor, however, the neutral plane shifts opposite
to the direction of rotation, and the conductors undergoing commutation have
the same flux as the pole they are approaching. In order to oppose this voltage,
the interpoles must have the same polarity as the previous main pole. Therefore,
1. The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the next upcoming main pole in
a generator.
2. The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the previous main pole in a
motor.
The use of commutating poles or interpoles is very common, because they correct
the sparking problems of dc machines at a fairly low cost. They are almost always
found in any dc machine of 1 hp or larger. It is important to realize, though, that
they do nothing for the flux distribution under the pole faces, so the flux-
weakening problem is still present. Most medium-size, general-purpose motors
correct for sparking problems with interpoles and just live with the flux
weakening effects.
Compensating windings: For very heavy, severe duty cycle motors, the flux-
weakening problem can be very serious. To completely cancel armature reaction
and thus eliminate both neutral-plane shift and flux weakening, a different
technique was developed. This technique involves placing compensating windings
in slots carved in the faces of the poles parallel to the rotor conductors, to cancel
the distorting effect of armature reaction. These windings are connected in series
with the rotor windings, so that whenever the load changes in the rotor, the
current in the compensating windings also changes. Figure 8- 30 shows the basic
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Unit 1: D C Generators
concept. In Figure 8-30(a), the pole flux is shown by itself. In Figure 8-30(b), the
rotor flux and the compensating winding flux are shown. Figure 8-30(c) represents
the sum of these three fluxes, which is just equal to the original pole flux by itself.
The major disadvantage of compensating windings is that they are expensive,
since they must be machined into the faces of the poles. Any motor that uses
them must also have interpoles, since compensating windings do not cancel
L di /dt effects. The interpoles do not have to be as strong, though, since they are
canceling only L di /dt voltages in the windings, and not the voltages due to
neutral-plane shifting. Because of the expense of having both compensating
windings and interpoles on such a machine, these windings are used only where
the extremely severe nature of a motor's duty demands them.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
2. Self- excitation: The field is excited either from its own armature voltage
(Shunt Excitation: fig-b) or own armature current (Series excitation : fig-c)
1. Shunt excitation : Here the field winding is excited in parallel with armature
circuit and hence the name shunt excitation. It is provided with a large number
(hundreds or even thousands) of turns of thin wire and therefore, has a high
resistance and carries a small current. Since the armature voltage of a dc machine
remains substantially constant, the shunt field could be regulated by placing an
external series resistance in its circuit.
2. Series excitation : Here the field winding has a few turns of thick wire and is
excited with armature current by placing it in series with armature, and therefore
it is known as series field winding. For a given field current, control of this field is
achieved by means of a diverter, a low resistance connected in parallel to series
winding. A more practical way of a series field control is changing the number of
turns of the winding by suitable tappings which are brought out for control
purpose.
3. Compound Excitation: In compound excitation both shunt and series fields are
excited. If the two fields aid each other such that the resultant air gap flux per
pole is increased (their ampere turns are additive), then the excitation is called
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Unit 1: D C Generators
cumulative compound excitation as shown in Fig. (d). If the series field flux
opposes the shunt field flux such that the resultant air gap flux per pole is
decreased, then the excitation is called differential compound excitation as
shown in Fig. (e). The series field is so designed that the increase or decrease in
flux/pole is to a limited extent.
Further there are two types of compounding connections. Long Shunt and Short
shunt . In long shunt compound of Fig. (f ) the shunt field is connected across the
output terminals. In short shunt compound, the shunt field is connected directly
across the armature as shown in Fig. (g). There is no significant difference in
machine performance for the two types of connections. The choice between
them depends upon mechanical consideration or the reversing switches.
Figure below shows the physical arrangement of shunt and series field windings
on one pole of a machine.
Fig: Arrangement of shunt and series field windings on one pole of a machine.
Excellent and versatile ways of controlling the shunt and series excitations are
now possible by use of solid-state devices and associated control circuitry.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
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Unit 1: D C Generators
The diagram of the test setup required to obtain the above data is shown in the
figure below.
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
The prime mover gives the required mechanical energy to the DC Machine and it
can be a small Diesel engine. The rheostat connected between the DC Input and
the field winding is used to adjust and get the required field current. The field
current is initially set to Zero and the Armature volatage is measured. Then the
field current is gradually increased and the corresponding values of Armature
voltage are measured until the output voltage saturates. Next the field current is
brought back to zero gradually and the corresponding Armature voltages are
measured at a few points. The corresponding data on Armature voltage is plotted
against field current and is shown in the figure below.
IF
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Though the field current is zero we get a small value of Armature voltage as seen
at point 1 due to the residual magnetism present in the field coil. Subsequently
armature voltage increases with field current upto some point 3 and then the rate
of rise decreses. Finally at poin 4 field flux gets saturated and hence the emf also
gets saturated. The plot of armature voltage vs.field current is not same during
the field current reduction as that during the field current increase and this is due
to the property of magnetic hysteresis in the Ferro magnetic materials. In the
return path the induced volatage at zero field current is higher than that during
the field current increase. This is due to the combined effect of Hysterisis and the
residual magnetism.
The DC generators are classified according to the manner in which the field flux is
produced. Let us consider the following important types of DC Generators and
their characteristics along with their equivalent circuits.
Separately Excited Generator: In this type the field flux is derived from a separate
power source which is independent of the Generator. The equivalent circuit of
such a machine along with the governing equations is shown in the figure below.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
When the load supplied by the generator increases, the load current IL increases
and hence the armature current IA also increases. When the armature current
increases, the IARA drop increases, so the terminal voltage of the generator droops
(falls). It is called a drooping characteristic.
Shunt Generator: In this the field flux is derived by connecting the Field directly
across the Armature terminals. The equivalent circuit of such a generator is
shown in the figure below along with the governing equations.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
Fig: The equivalent circuit of a DC Shunt generator along with the relevant
governing equations
As could be seen, in this machine the armature current supplies both the load
current and the field current. Using the Kirchhoff’s voltage law the terminal
voltage is seen to be same as that of a separately excited voltage i.e. VT = (EA −
IARA ). In this the advantage is that no external supply is required for the field
circuit. But this leaves an important question. If the generator supplies its own
field current how does it get the initial field flux that is required to start the
machine and generate voltage when it is first turned on? This is explained below.
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
a m.m.f. in the poles which in turn increases the flux in them. The increase in the
flux causes an increase in EA = k.Ø↑. ω which in turn increases the terminal
voltage VT . When VT rises, IF increases further, increasing the flux more which
increases EA and so on. This voltage build up phenomenon is shown in the figure
below.
Critical Resistance: For understanding the terms critical Resistance and critical
speed, the open circuit characteristic (OCC) or the magnetization characteristic of
a DC machine is shown again in the figure below along with air gap line and Rf
line. The extension of the liner portion of the magnetization curve, shown dotted
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
in the figure below is known as the air-gap line as it represents mainly the
magnetic behavior of the machine’s air-gap.
Fig: Open Circuit Characteristic of DC machine along with Air gap and Rf lines
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Unit 1: D C Generators
Ia = If
V = Ea – IfRa
The field current in a shunt generator being very small, the voltage drop IfRa can
be neglected so that : Vo= Ea(If) (magnetization
characteristic)
And for the field circuit:
Vo = If Rf
which is a straight line relationship, called the Rf -line as shown in the OCC plot
earlier. The no-load terminal voltage is the solution of the above two eqations for
Vo.Thus the intersection point P of the Rf -line with the magnetization
characteristic as shown in the OCC gives the no-load terminal voltage (V0) and the
corresponding field current. Further, it is easy to visualize from this figure that the
no-load voltage can be adjusted to a desired value by changing the field
resistance.
It can be seen in the figure below that as the field resistance is increased the no-
load voltage decreases.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
Critical speed: Consider now the operation with fixed Rf and variable armature
speed as illustrated in the figure below. It can be observed that as the speed is
reduced, the OCC proportionally slides downwards so that the no-load voltage
reduces. At a particular speed, called the critical speed, the OCC becomes
tangential to the Rf line and as a result the generator would fail to excite.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
A shunt generator may not get excited in certain conditions. The causes of such
failure to excite, the method of detection and the corresponding remedial
measures are given in the table below.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
The terminal characteristics of the shunt generator differ from that of the
separately excited generator because the amount of field current depends on its
terminal voltage. As the generator load is increased, the load current IL increases
and so IA = IF + IL↑ also increases . An increase in IA increases the IARA drop
causing VT = (EA -- IA ↑RA ) to decrease. This is precisely the same behavior we
have seen in the case of separately excited generator. However, in the shunt
generator when VT decreases the field current decreases ,hence the field flux
deceases thus decreasing the generated Voltage EA . Decreasing the EA causes a
further decrease in the terminal voltage VT = (EA↓ --IA RA ). The resulting
characteristic is shown in the figure below.
It can be noticed that the drop with load is steeper than that of a separately
excited motor due to the field weakening affect. This means that the regulation of
a Shunt Generator is worse than that of a Separately Excited Generator.
DC Series Generator: In this the field flux is derived by connecting the Field coil in
series with the Armature of the Generator as shown in the figure below.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
As shown, the armature current, load current and field current are same in a DC
series generator. i.e IA = IF = IL . Since the mmf produced by the fields is
given by = NI and the field current is more in the DC series generator , the
fileld winding is wound with lesser number of turns and also with a thicker gauge
so as to offer less field resistance since full load current flows through the field
winding .
The terminal characteristic of a DC Series Generator looks very much like the
magnetization curve of any other type of generator and is shown in the figure
below.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
DC Compound generator:
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Unit 1: D C Generators
The circuit diagram is shown with standard dot convention on the field windings.
i.e. The current flowing into the dot side of the winding produces a positive mmf
.
And as can be seen that both IF in the shunt winding and IA in the series winding
flow into the dot side and hence both produce magnetic fields which are positive
and hence aid each other.
When the two fields are aiding each other we get a characteristic which will have
the combined effect of drooping (due to the shunt coil) and rising (due to the
field coil). Whichever coil current is more its effect will be more predominant. The
terminal characteristics of a cumulative compound DC Generator are shown in
the figure below for all the three cases.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
1. If the Series field effect is more dominating than that of the Shunt field coil
then we get the Over compounded characteristic where the full load
terminal voltage is higher than the no load terminal voltage.
2. If the Series field effect is equal to that of the Shunt field coil then we get
the Flat compounded characteristic where the full load terminal voltage is
equal to the no load terminal voltage.
3. If the Shunt field effect is more dominating than that of the Series field coil
then we get the Under compounded characteristic where the full load
terminal voltage is lower than the no load terminal voltage.
The normal shunt characteristic is also shown in the figure for comparison.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 1: D C Generators
Illustrative Examples:
Ex.1: Calculate the e.m.f. generated by a 6 pole DC Generator having 480
conductors and driven at a speed of 1200 RPM. The flux per pole is 0.012 webers.
(a) When the machine is lap wound (b) When the machine is wave wound
Solution: We know that the e.m.f. generated by a DC Generator is given by
EA = (Ø ZN/60)( P/a) where
Ø Flux per pole (webers) = 0.012Wb
Z Total number of conductors on the armature = 480
a The number of parallel paths = No of Poles P ( = 6 ) when Lap wound and
= 2 when
wave wound
N Speed of rotation of the machine (RPM) = 1200 RPM
P The number of poles = 6
Ex.2 : A 50 Kw ,250 V shunt generator operates at 1500 RPM .The armature has 6
poles and is lap wound with 200 turns. Find the induced e.m.f and the flux per
pole at full load given that the armature and the field resistances are 0.01 Ω and
125 Ω respectively.
Solution:
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Unit 1: D C Generators
But we know that armature voltage in terms of the basic machine parameters
is also given by
Solution:
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Unit 1: D C Generators
First let us calculate the Voltage generated by the machine while running as a
generator under the given conditions:
Output line current = Output power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
Next let us calculate the Voltage generated by the machine while running as a
motor under the given conditions :
Input line current = Input power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
We know that the voltage induced in the machine is proportional to the speed
i. e
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Solution:
Step-1 : Let us draw the Field resistance line corresponding to 354.5 Ω on the
OCC ( magnetization characteristic). This can be done by identifying a point
corresponding to a Voltage and current below the OCC corresponding to 354.5
Ω and extending the line joining this point with the origin.
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Unit 1: D C Generators
3. Critical Speed: We know that as speed reduces the armature voltage reduces.
i.e. the OCC leans down wards with decrease in speed and becomes
tangential to the existing Rf line itself. So to find out the critical speed we have
to find out the new Ea from the OCC corresponding to the lesser speed which
deviates from the existing Rf line. This is done by dropping a vertical
perpendicular line from the point of deviation of the critical resistance line
from the original OCC and identifying its intercept on the existing Rf line. Then
by drawing a line parallel to the If axis from this point and locating its
intercept with the Voltage axis, the new Ea is found out.
Then Critical speed = Original RPM x new Ea / Original Ea = 300 x71/90 =
236.7 RPM
4. To find out the additional resistance to be introduced into the field to get a
new no load voltage of 175 V first we have to find out the value of If
corresponding to the new no load voltage. This can be directly read from the
OCC and then from these voltage and current values we can directly get the
new value of Rf and thus the additional value of R f to be introduced into the
field circuit.
Thus new Rf = 175/0.44 = 397.7 Ω and
The additional resistance to be introduced into the field = 397.7 – 354.5 =
43.2 Ω
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Unit 2: D C Motors
UNIT – II
D.C. MOTORS
CONTENTS:
Principle of operation
Back E.M.F - Torque equation
Characteristics and application of shunt, series and compound
motors
Armature reaction and commutation.
Speed control of D.C. Motors - Armature voltage and field flux
control methods.
Motor starters (3 point and 4-point starters)
Important concepts and Formulae
Illustrative examples
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Unit 2: D C Motors
In this figure, the armature circuit is represented by an ideal voltage source EA and
the armature resistance RA. The field coils, which produce the magnetic flux in
the motor, are represented by inductor LF and the field resistance RF. The
separate external variable resistor used to control the amount of current in the
field circuit is also combined with the field resistance and is together shown as RF.
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Unit 2: D C Motors
We know from the earlier study of generators that the voltage generated in a DC
Machine when It’s armature is rotating in a magnetic flux of Ø webers/pole is
given by EA = KA. Ø.ω where KA is given by:
KA = (ZP/2πa)
Now in the DC Motor also, when it is rotating, from the same fundamental
principle of Generator a Voltage is generated across the armature and it is now
called back EMF and is normally shown as Eb to distinguish it from the voltage
generated in the armature of a generator which was shown as EA .
(as against VT = EA - IaRA in the case of a generator where IA flows from armature
towards the external terminals i.e external load )
The power delivered to the motor is given by : Pin = VT . Ia . From this, the loss of
power in the armature is equal to I a2RA and hence the net power given to the
motor armature is given by :
Pm = VT . Ia - Ia2RA = Ia (VT - IaRA ) = Ia . Eb
Pm = Ia . Eb
This net electrical power is converted into mechanical power. We know that in
mechanical rotational systems the power is equal to Torque times the speed. In
the SI system of units which is the present Industry standard it is given by :
P mech (watts ) = τ (Nw.mtrs ).ω (Radians/second )
For simplification if we ignore the mechanical losses in the motor,then :
Pm = Ia . Eb = P mech = τ .ω
i.e. τ .ω = Ia . Eb = Eb . Ia
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Unit 2: D C Motors
In general, the torque τ in the DC motor will depend on the following 3 factors:
1. The flux Ø in the machine
2. The armature current Ia in the machine
3. The same constant KA representing the construction of the machine
There are three important types DC Motors: DC separately excited, Shunt and
Series motors. We will explain their important features and characteristics briefly.
They can be obtained from the Motor’s Induced voltage and torque equations we
have derived earlier plus the Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the armature circuit
and are again given below for quick reference.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
The Equivalent circuits of DC separately excited and Shunt Motors along with
their governing equations are shown in the figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
the field and the armature are connected to the same source and cannot be
controlled independently. When the supply voltage to a motor is assumed
constant and is same to the field and armature circuits, there is no practical
difference in behavior between these two machines. Unless otherwise specified,
whenever the behavior of a shunt motor is described, it would be same as that of
a separately excited motor.
In both their cases, with a constant field current the field flux can be assumed to
be constant and then (Ka.Φ) Would be another constant K. Then the above
Generalized Torque speed relations would become:
ω = VT / K -- (Ra/ K). Ia
ω = VT / K -- [Ra/ (K)2].τ
This equation is just a straight line with negative slope. The resulting Speed/
Torque Characteristics of a DC Separately Excited /Shunt Motor for a rated
terminal voltage and full field current are shown in the figure below. It is a
drooping straight line.
Speed (ω )
Torque (T)
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
The no load speed is given by the Applied armature terminal voltage and the field
current. Speed falls with increasing load torque. The speed regulation depends on
the Armature circuit resistance. The usual drop from no load to full load in the
case of a medium sized motor will be around 5%. Separately excited motors are
mostly used in applications where good speed regulation and adjustable speed
are required.
If motor armature reaction is taken into account, then as its load increases, the
flux-weakening effects reduce its flux. From the motor speed equation above, the
effect of reduction in flux is to increase the motor’s speed at any given load over
the speed it would run at without armature reaction. Though at a first glance of
the Speed torque equation it may appear that the effect of reduction in flux is to
decrease the motor’s speed at any given load (since Φ2 is in the denominator)
actually since the first positive term contains V T which is much larger quantity
compared to the second negative term, IaRa drop the net effect would only be to
increase the motor’s speed at any given load. The torque-speed characteristic of a
shunt motor with armature reaction is shown below:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
understanding of the other characteristics like speed vs. I a and Torque vs. Ia would
also give additional insight into the performance of the motor and hence they
are obtained from the basic equations and presented below:
Fig: Speed and torque vs. Armature current for a DC shunt motor
DC Series Motor:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
In a series motor the field current and armature current are same and hence the
field flux is directly dependent on the armature current. Hence during the initial
i.e unsaturated region of the magnetization characteristic the flux Φ can be
assumed to be proportional to the armature current.
Then Φ = Kf.Ia
And using this value in the first basic motor relation given earlier we get:
Substituting the above two values of Φ and τ in the second basic motor equation
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
From the relation τ = Ka. Φ.Ia = Ka. Kf.Ia2 we get Ia = √τ/Kaf and substituting
this in the above equation ω = VT / Kaf.Ia -- [Ra/ (Kaf)]
Where Ra is now the sum of armature and field winding resistances and Kaf = Ka.Kf
is the total motor constant. The Speed-Torque characteristics of a DC series motor
as obtained from the above relation are shown in the figure below.
Speed (ω )
Rated Torque
Saturation and armature reaction demagnetization both cause the flux per pole to
increase (with respect to Ia ) at a rate slower than the assumed linear relationship.
Actual characteristics are shown in dotted lines.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Series motors are suitable for applications requiring high starting torque and
heavy overloads. Since Torque is proportional to square of the armature current,
for a given increase in load torque the increase in armature current is less in case
of series motor as compared to a separately excited motor where torque is
proportional to only armature current. Thus during heavy overloads power
overload on the source power and thermal overload on the motor are kept
limited to reasonable small values. According to the above Speed torque
equation, as speed varies inversely to the square root of the Load torque, the
motor runs at a large speed at light load. Generally the electrical machine’s
mechanical strength permits their operation up to about twice their rated speed.
Hence the series motors should not be used in such drives where there is a
possibility for the torque to drop down to such an extent that the speed exceeds
twice the rated speed.
DC Compound Motor:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
A compound motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series field. Such a motor is
shown in the Figure below. The dots that appear on the two field coils have the
same meaning as the dots on a transformer: Current flowing into a dot produces a
positive magneto motive force. If current flows into the dots on both field coils,
the resulting magneto motive forces add to produce a larger total magneto
motive force.
This situation is known as cumulative compounding. If current flows into the dot
on one field coil and out of the dot on the other field coil , the resulting magneto
motive forces subtract. In the Figure below the round dots correspond to
cumulative compounding of the motor, and the squares correspond to differential
compounding.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Fig: Speed vs. Armature current in a DC Compound Motor Compared with other
Motors
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Fig: Speed vs. Torque in a DC Compound Motor Compared with other Motors
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Eb = Ka. Φ.ω
VT = Eb+ Ia.Ra
We have the expression for the speed ω = ( VT ‒ Ia.Ra )/ Ka. Φ. From this equation
we can (Since Ka is a constant and Ia is load dependent) easily see that the speed
can be controlled by two methods:
Let us study them one by one for all the three types of Motors
This method involves changing the voltage applied to the armature of the motor
without changing the Voltage applied to the field. This is possible with a
separately excited DC Motor only and not with DC Shunt Motor. So first we shall
explain for a DC separately excited motor and extend the same logic to a shunt
Motor. If the armature terminal Voltage VT is increased, then the IA will rise since
[ IA = (VT ↑ -Eb)/RA]. As IA increases, the induced torque τ = Ka. Φ.Ia↑ increases,
making τind > τload , and the speed of the motor increases.
But, as the speed ω increases, Eb = Ka. Φ.ω↑ increases, causing the armature
current IA to decrease since [ IA = (VT ‒ Eb↑)/RA]. This decrease in IA decreases
the induced torque, causing τind to become equal to τload at a final higher steady
state rotational speed ω. Thus we can see that an increase in Armature voltage
results in a higher speed and the resulting Speed Torque characteristics with AVC
is shown in the figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Notice that the no-load speed of the motor is shifted by this method of speed
control , but the slope of the curve remains constant
The cause-and-effect behavior in this method of speed Control can be
summarized as below:
In the case of a DC Shunt motor since changing the voltage applied to the
armature of the motor without changing the Voltage applied to the field is not
possible, a Variable resistance is introduced in series with the Armature which
results in a reduction in the Armature current I A. Effectively reduction of Armature
current is equivalent to reduction in Armature voltage as seen in the above logic.
Hence we get the same type of Speed control as shown in the figure above except
that the characteristic with VA2 represents the nominal rated speed and that with
VA1 represents with additional resistance introduced in series with the Armature.
With this method, speed control is possible but speed can only be reduced from
the rated or nominal speed. Even for a separately excited DC Motor it can provide
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
speed control below Base speed only because armature voltage cannot exceed the
rated value.
The insertion of a resistor is a very wasteful method of speed control, since the
losses in the inserted resistor are very large. For this reason, it is rarely used.
Flux control:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Another method of Shunt motor speed control is to change the flux in the field. In
a shunt motor Field current and hence field flux cannot be changed without
changing the armature voltage. Hence flux control in Shunt motor is achieved by
changing the Field resistance. Field coil resistance being fixed we cannot reduce it
but increase the field circuit resistance by adding a variable resistance in series
with the field coil as shown in the figure below.
Accordingly, when the resistance increases, the field current decreases (IF↓ =
VT/RF↑), and as the field current decreases, the flux decreases. A decrease in flux
causes an instantaneous decrease in the back emf ( Eb↓ = Ka. Φ↓.ω ) which
causes an increase in the machine’s armature current since,
IA ↑ = (VT -- EB↓)/RA
The induced torque in a motor is given by τind = Ka. Φ↓.Ia↑ .
Here since the flux in this machine decreases while the current IA increases, which
way does the induced torque change?
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
From practical data it is seen that for an increase in field resistance the decrease
in flux is much lesser than the increase in armature current i.e. the increase in
current predominates over the decrease in flux.
Hence, τind increases i.e. τind > τload , and the motor speeds up.
However, as the motor speeds up, Eb rises, causing IA to fall. Thus, induced torque
τind too drops, and
Finally τind equals τload at a higher steady-state speed than the original speed .
Fig: Shunt Motor Speed control with Flux control (Change in field resistance)(
over the normal operating Range )
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
The Speed Torque characteristics with change in Field Resistance are shown in the
figure below. Notice that with flux control i.e. with insertion of additional
resistance in the field circuit, the flux in the machine decreases and hence:
The no- load speed of the motor increases, while the slope of the torque-
speed curve becomes steeper and also
Speeds above base speed only can be achieved. (as against with Armature
resistance insertion control , speeds below base speed only can be
achieved) since to achieve speed below base speeds field current has to be
increased beyond its rated value which is not permitted. In a normally
designed motor the maximum speed can be twice the rated speed and in
specially designed motors it can be up to six times the rated speed.
which describes the technical characteristic of the motor. In this equation, the no-
load speed is proportional to the reciprocal of the flux in the motor, while the
slope of the curve is proportional to the reciprocal of the flux squared. Therefore,
a decrease in flux causes the slope of the torque- speed curve to become steeper.
The earlier figure shows the technical characteristic of the motor over the range
from no-load to full-load conditions. Over this range, an increase in field
resistance increases the motor's speed, as described above. Hence for motors
operating between no- load and full-load conditions, an increase in RF may
reliably be expected to increase the operating speed.
Now let us examine the figure shown below. This figure shows the technical
characteristic of the motor over the full range i.e. from no- load to stall
conditions. It is apparent from the figure that at very slow speeds an increase in
field resistance will actually decrease the speed of the motor. This effect occurs
because , at very low speeds, the increase in armature current caused by the
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
decrease in Eb. is no longer large enough to compensate for the decrease in flux in
the induced torque equation. With the flux decrease being actually larger than
the armature current increase, the induced torque decreases, and the motor
slows down.
Fig: Shunt Motor Speed control with Flux control (Change in field resistance)(
over the complete operating Range i.e. from no load to stall condition)
Some small DC motors used for control purposes actually operate at speeds close
to stall conditions. For these motors, an increase in field resistance might have no
effect, or it might even decrease the speed of the motor. Since the results are not
predictable, field resistance speed control should not be used in these types of dc
motors. Instead, the armature voltage method of speed control should be
employed.
Unlike with the shunt dc motor, there is only one efficient way to change the
speed of a series dc motor. That method is to change the terminal voltage of the
motor. If the terminal voltage is increased, the first term in Equation
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
The speed of DC series motors can also be controlled by the insertion of a series
or parallel (Diverter) resistor into the motor circuit as shown in the figures below
along with the resulting effect on Speed torque characteristics. But in this
technique large amount of power is dissipated as heat and thus wasted. Hence
this method is used only for intermittent periods during the start-up of some
motors.
Until the last 40 years or so, there was no convenient way to change VT, so the
only method of speed control available was the wasteful series resistance
method. That has all changed today with the introduction of solid-state control
circuits. We will study the techniques of obtaining variable terminal voltages
subsequently in another subject ‘Power Electronics ‘
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
An armature voltage control system of this type known as ward Leonard Speed
control system is shown in the Figure below .
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Furthermore, if the field current of the generator is reversed, then the polarity of
the generator's armature voltage will be reversed, too. This will reverse the
motor's direction of rotation. Therefore, it is possible to get a very wide range of
speed variations in either direction of rotation using a Ward-Leonard DC motor
control system.
Another advantage of the Ward-Leonard system is that it can "regenerate," or
return the machine’s energy of motion to the supply lines. If a heavy load is first
raised and then lowered by the DC motor of a Ward-Leonard system, when the
load is being lowered, the DC motor acts as a generator and supplying power back
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
to the power system. In this fashion, much of the energy required to lift the load
in the
first place can be recovered, reducing the machine's overall operating costs.
The possible modes of operation of the DC machine are shown in the torque-
speed diagram shown in the above Figure. When this motor is rotating in its
normal direction and supplying a torque in the direction of rotation, it is operating
in the first quadrant of this figure. If the generator's field current is reversed, that
will reverse the terminal voltage of the generator, in turn reversing the motor's
armature voltage. When the armature voltage reverses with the motor field
current remaining unchanged, both the torque and the speed of the motor are
reversed, and the machine is operating as a motor in the third quadrant of the
diagram. If the torque or the speed alone of the motor reverses while the other
quantity does not, then the machine serves as a generator, returning power to
the dc power system. Because a Ward-Leonard system permits rotation and
regeneration in either direction, it is called a four-quadrant control system.
The disadvantages of a Ward-Leonard system should be obvious. One is that the
user is forced to buy three full machines of essentially equal ratings, which is quite
expensive. Another is that three machines will be much less efficient than one.
Because of its expense and relatively low efficiency, the Ward-Leonard system has
been replaced in new applications by SCR-based controller circuits.
Before studying the principle of operation of these starters let us understand the
basic principles underlying the starters.
DC motors are by themselves self starting type. Once the appropriate field
and armature supply are given the motors start automatically. They do not
need any additional device for the purpose of starting.
But DC motor starters are required for safe starting of the motors. Initially
just at the starting of the motor, the speed is zero and hence the back emf
Eb is also zero. In this condition if the Rated terminal voltage Vt is applied to
the motor we can see from the basic governing equation
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Ia = ( Vt ‒ Eb )/Ra
That the motor draws excessive current which would be easily 10 to 15
times that of the nominal rated current of the motor. This excessive
current would flow till the motor develops the rated speed.
During this transient period when the excessive current flows the torque
developed also would be excessive. With the result the motor would get
damaged both electrically and mechanically.
To protect the motor from such damage, a resistance is introduced in
series with the motor as shown in the figure below which would be
withdrawn gradually in steps as the motor picks up speed.
This is a basic arrangement of a DC motor starter and its operation is totally
manual. But practical starters have been developed with additional
protective and automatic starting features. They are called 3 point starters
and 4 point starters, the subject of our study.
3 Point starter:
The circuit diagram and the arrangement of a three point starter are shown in the
figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
The basic component viz starter resistance comes in steps with contact
points brought out as studs 1,2,3.. Run.
The three points are:
L – The line terminal to be connected to the DC positive terminal
through a two pole switch
A – The terminal to be connected to the terminal A1 of the armature.
F – The terminal to be connected to the terminal F 1 of the Field
winding
The other ends A2 of the armature and F2 of the field are connected to the
other contact of the two pole switch which gets connected to the negative
terminal of the DC power supply when switched on.
Point L in turn is connected to the pivot point of the handle through a
protective device called OLR ( Over Load Relay )
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
The handle which is spring loaded comes back to the OFF position under its
own force until locked in the RUN position due to the electromagnetic pull
of the other protective device known as NVC ( No Volt Coil)
The field terminal F is connected to starting point 1 of the resistance in a
parallel path through the NVC.
Operation of the starter: The starter is gradually moved from the initial position
to the final RUN position manually against the spring force. When the handle
comes in contact with stud -1 , the field supply gets extended to the field coil
through the parallel path connected directly from stud -1 through NVC . In the
starter initially entire resistance comes in series with the armature and as the
handle is moved towards RUN, the portion of the series resistance that comes out
of the armature circuit gets added to the field circuit. Finally when the handle is
brought to the Run position, the entire resistance gets removed from the
Armature circuit and the motor runs at the rated speed. The handle is held in RUN
position due to the action of the NVC.
Action of the NVC: When the field current flows through the NVC it attracts the
handle with the soft iron piece and keeps it in contact the NVC electromagnet.
Hence NVC is also called as Hold On Coil. In addition to holding the handle in the
final RUN position, the NVC works as a safety/protection device by releasing the
handle back to the start position from the RUN position whenever there is a
power failure or when the field circuit breaks. Thus the entire starting resistance
comes into the armature circuit every time the motor is started from zero speed
and prevents high inrush currents during every fresh starting attempt after a
power failure.
Action of the OLR: As can be seen from the figure there is another protective
relay called OLR (Over Load Relay) which is also an electromagnet which works in
conjunction with an arm fixed on a fulcrum at one end and with a triangular iron
piece fixed on the other end. Whenever there is an overload current beyond a set
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
safety value, the electromagnet activates and pulls the arm upwards and the
triangular iron piece short circuits the two terminals which are connected to the
two ends of the NVC coil. Thus with any overload due to a fault in the motor or
associated circuit , the NVC gets deactivated and releases the handle back to the
initial safe start condition. After the fault is rectified the motor can be started
afresh with full resistance brought back into the armature circuit.
In the earlier version of the 3 Point starter as we have seen, as the handle is
moved towards RUN position, the portion of the series resistance that comes out
of the armature circuit gets added to the field circuit. Thus finally when the motor
is running, the entire starter resistance gets added to the field circuit. But since
the starting resistance value is very small compared to field winding resistance,
this hardly reduces the field current and hence there is no any practical impact.
However this addition of resistance in the field circuit can be avoided by providing
a brass or copper arc with one end connected to the stud -1 and the other end
connected to the NVC as shown in the figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
With such an arrangement when the handle moves on the arc the field current
directly flows through the arc to the NVC thus avoiding the starting resistance.
With such an arc in place, the earlier parallel connection from stud -1 to the NVC
start terminal is no more required and hence is removed.
4 Point starter: The operation of the 4 point starter is explained along with the
schematic diagram shown below.
The basic difference between a 3 Point starter and a four point starter is : In a
3 point starter NVC was connected in series with the field coil while in a 4
point starter the NVC is connected independently to the supply through a
fourth terminal termed as N in addition to L, F and A.
With this arrangement any change in the field current due to the change field
control resistance will not affect the performance of the NVC. This ensures
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
that NVC always produces a force enough to hold on the handle irrespective of
the amount of field current. Adequate current required for the confirmed
operation of the NVC is obtained by adjusting the resistor R connected in
series with the NVC coil.
However the 4 point starter has a separate disadvantage: Since now the NVC is
connected separately excluding the field current, it cannot detect the field
failure and hence the resulting over speed cannot be prevented.
Illustrative examples:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Ex.1: A 500 V shunt motor with Rf = 250 Ω and Ra = 0.2 Ω runs at 2500 RPM taking
a current of 25 A from the mains supply . Calculate the resistance to be added to
the armature circuit to reduce the speed to 1500 RPM keeping the armature
current constant.
Solution:
First let us calculate the back e.m.f developed by the motor in the given first set
of conditions:
Armature current Ia = Il – If = ( 25 – 2 ) = 23 A
Back e.m.f Eb = VT - Ia Ra = 500 – 23 x 0.2 = 495.4 V
We know that the back e.m.f is proportional to the speed
∴ Eb1 / Eb2 = N1/ N2 i.e 495.4 / Eb2 = 2500/1500 ∴ Eb2 = 495.4 x 1500
/ 2500
= 297.24 V
But we also know that Eb2 = VT - Ia Ra2 ( Since the terminal voltage and the
armature current remain the same )
∴ 297.24 = 500 – 23 x Ra2 from which we get Ra2 = ( 500 – 297.24 ) /23 =
8.82 Ω
This is the total new resistance of the armature circuit (including the original
armature resistance of 0.2 Ω to get a speed of 1500 RPM)
Hence the new resistance to be added into the armature circuit = 8.82- 0.2 =
8.62 Ω
Ex.2: A DC shunt motor takes 22 A from 250 V supply. Ra = 0.5 Ω , Rf = 125 Ω.
Calculate the resistance required to be connected in series with the armature to
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
halve the speed (a ) when the load torque is constant ( b) When the load torque
is proportional to the square of the speed
Solution :
First let us calculate the speed of the motor when the load current I l is 22 A :
Field current If = Rated Terminal voltage / Field resistance = 250/125 = 2 A
Armature current Ia = Il - If = 22 -2 = 20 A
Back e.m.f Eb = VT - Ia Ra = 250 – 20 x 0.5 = 240 V
(a) we have to find out the New Ra when the speed is halved with torque
maintained constant :
We know that Torque T = Ka. Ø.Ia . In this case since change is only in the
armature resistance field current and hence flux Ø remains the same. Further
since the torque is maintained constant the armature currents are also equal and
hence Ia1 = Ia2 = 20 A
We also know that Eb = Ka. Ø.ω . As already explained, Ka. Ø remains same and
hence when the speed is halved the back e.m.f also gets halved.
Hence Eb2 = 120 V = VT – IaRa2 i.e 250 – 20 x Ra2 = 120 V i.e Ra2 = (250 -
120)/20 = 6.5Ω
Hence the Resistance to be added to halve the speed = Ra2 - Ra = 6.5-0.5 = 6.0 Ω
(b) Next we have to find out the New Ra when the speed is halved when torque is
proportional to square of speed.
2
When the torque is proportional to the square of the speed τ1 = K ω and τ =
1 2
K ω22
∴ τ1 / τ2 = K ω 12 / K ω 22 = ω 12 / ω22 = (1/0.5 )2 = 4
But Torque is also proportional to the product of flux (and hence field current
)and Armature current. Here field circuit is not disturbed and hence the field
current is same. Using this relation we can find out new armature current Ia 2
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 2: D C Motors
Page 37
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
UNIT – III
TESTING OF D.C. MACHINES
CONTENTS:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Losses:
The losses are broadly classified as constant losses and variable losses. Constant
losses are constant and are independent of the load where as the variable losses
are dependent on the load. They are further classified in detail as below.
1. Electrical or Copper Losses (I2R Loss): Current flow through the resistance of
Armature and Field coils gives rise to I2R losses and since the coils are
normally made up of copper these losses are called Copper losses.
Armature copper loss: PA = I 2 R
A A
Field copper loss: 2
PF = I R F
F
2. Brush losses: The brush drop loss is the power lost across the contact potential
at the brushes of the machine. It is given by the equation:
PBD = VBD x IA
where PBD = brush drop loss
VBD = brush voltage drop
IA = armature current
The brush losses are calculated in this manner because the voltage drops
across a set of brushes are
approximately constant over a large range of armature currents. Unless
otherwise specified. The
brush voltage drop is usually assumed to be about 2 V.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
3. Core Losses: Hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in the Armature and
Field cores together are called core losses.
Hysteresis loss: in an iron core is the loss of power due to the hysteresis
loop in the magnetization characteristic of the core in each cycle of the
alternating current applied to the core. In the case of DC machines though
there is no alternating current applied to the core, the change in the
magnetic flux within the machine due to its constructional features result in
a small hysteresis loss
Eddy current losses: A time-changing flux induces voltage within a
ferromagnetic core in just the same manner as it induces voltage in the
conductors around the core of the armature. These voltages cause swirls of
current to flow within the core, much like the eddies seen at the edges of a
river. It is the shape of these currents that gives rise to the name eddy
currents. These eddy currents flowing in a resistive material (the iron of the
core) cause power loss thus heating the iron core and the resulting loss is
called eddy current loss. This loss is proportional to the thickness of the
core material and hence to minimize this loss the core is made up of thin
sheets called laminations instead of a single thick block. An insulating oxide
or resin is used between the strips so that the current paths for eddy
currents are limited to very small areas. Thus the eddy current losses have a
very little effect on the core's magnetic properties.
4. Mechanical Losses: They are associated with the mechanical effects and they
are mainly Friction and windage losses.
Friction losses are losses caused by the friction in the bearings of the
machine and
Windage losses are due to the friction between the moving parts of the
machine and the air flow in the machine housing.
5. Stray Losses: They are other miscellaneous losses that cannot be grouped into
any of the above categories.
Out of the above, Core Losses and Mechanical Losses are grouped under Constant
losses. Electrical or Copper Losses and Stray Losses are grouped under variable
losses.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
The losses and their classification explained above is summarized in the form of a
tree and is shown below.
The power flow in DC machines showing the stages where the different losses
occur is shown clearly in the figure below.
One of the most convenient techniques for accounting for power losses and
showing them clearly in the order in which they occur in a machine is the power-
flow diagram. A power-flow diagram for a DC generator is shown in the figure (a)
below. In this figure, mechanical power is input into the machine, and then the
stray losses, mechanical losses, and core losses are subtracted. After they have
been subtracted, the remaining power is ideally converted from mechanical to
electrical form at the point labeled Pconv. The mechanical power that is converted
is given by:
PCONV = τind . ωm
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
and the resulting electric power produced is given by: PCONV = EA.IA
However, this is not the power that appears at the machine's terminals. Before
the terminals are reached, the electrical power losses like the copper losses and
the brush losses must be subtracted.
In the case of dc motors, this power-flow diagram is simply reversed. The Power
flow diagram for a motor is shown in the above figure (b) above
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Efficiency:
Using this basic relation and from a clear understanding of the above Power flow
the η calculations when the machine is working as a Generator and as a Motor are
given below.
Generator:
The efficiency is obtained as: η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = (VT.IL )/( VT.IL + IA2 RA + IF2 RF
+WC).100%
Neglecting the field current which is small compared to armature current we get
η = (VT.IL )/( VT.IL + IL2 RA +WC).100% = 1/[1 + IL2 RA /(VT.IL ) +WC/(VT.IL )].100
= 1/ [1 + IL RA / VT +(WC/(VT IL )].100
The efficiency is maximum when the denominator is maximum. Hence the
condition for maximum efficiency becomes: d/dIL [1 + IL RA / VT +(WC/(VT IL )] = 0
i.e. RA / VT - (WC/(VT IL2 ) = 0
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Motor:
The efficiency is obtained as: η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = [{Pin-( I 2 ARA + I 2 FRF +WC )}/
(VT.IL ) ] . 100%
= [{VT.IL -( I A2 RA + IF2 RF +WC )}/ (VT.IL ) ] . 100%
Neglecting the field current which is small compared to armature current we get
η = *,VT.IL - ( IL2 RA + WC )}/ (VT.IL ) ] . 100%
= 1 – [(IL2 RA + WC )/ (VT.IL ) ] . 100
η becomes maximum when the term in the square brackets becomes minimum
and thus the condition for maximum efficiency becomes d/d IL [(IL2 RA + WC )/
(VT.IL ) ] = 0 which again finally becomes :
IL2RA = WC
Or Variable losses = Constant Losses
Testing of DC machines:
Involves the measurement of the various losses and then finding out the
efficiency of the machine by various methods. The methods are broadly classified
as:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Brake Test: This is a direct method of testing. In this method the motor is put on a
direct friction load arrangement with a belt and a pulley as shown in the figure
below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
By adjusting the tension in the pulley the motor can be subjected from no load to
its full load capability. Since the load is applied by the physical braking action, the
test is called the Brake test.
The tension in the belt is adjusted by using the handle. The tension (kgf) is
obtained from the spring balance readings. The net force applied on the pulley by
this braking arrangement is given by:
N = Speed in RPM
Pulley respectively.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
With this force exerted on the pulley, the load torque applied on the motor shaft
is given by:
With this applied load torque τ load , the output power(mechanical ) of the motor
is given by:
Apart from the efficiency, we can also find out all the characteristics like Torque
vs Speed , Speed vs Armature current and Torque vs armature current of the
motor by noting down the currents and voltage along with the speed N at various
load settings. The speed is measured by using physical contact type Tachometer.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1. Due to the friction lot of energy is wasted in the form of heat. Hence the
test is quite expensive and is suitable for only small machines.
2. Since heat energy is not accounted for, the efficiency observed would be
inaccurate to that extent.
Swinburne’s test:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Input to the motor = VT. INL = Total losses (Since the machine is on no
load there is no output. i.e. the entire input power on no load goes as
losses.)
Therefore constant losses PC = (Total losses - Variable losses) = (VT. INL)-( I A2
.RA)
Using these constant losses PC , the efficiency of the machine can be estimated
at any other load when working either as a Motor or as a Generator.
Variable loss = IA2 R A (RAis obtained from the no load test or from
Machine data)
(PC is obtained from the No load test and IA2RA is calculated using IA
corresponding to the required IL at which the efficiency is to be calculated)
Variable loss = IA2 RA (RA is obtained from the no load test or from
Machine data)
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
(PC is calculated and obtained from the No load test and IA2R Ais calculated
using IA corresponding to the required IL at which the efficiency is to be calculated)
This is a very simple to determine the efficiency of the machine at any load
just by conducting the no load test.
The power required is very less compared to the direct full load test.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
derived from the other machine. Since the power consumption is only to the
extent of the losses they can be tested up to full load.
Figure below shows the Hopkinson’s test up with all the measured voltage and
current parameters marked clearly.
Initially the switch S is kept open and the Motor is run and brought to the rated
speed by adjusting the field current using the field rheostat R1 . The Generator
Voltage is adjusted by adjusting it’s field rheostat R2 until the voltmeter reads
zero volts. (This indicates that the Generator voltage is same as that of the Motor
both in amplitude and polarity) This prevents flow of any high circulating currents
when the switch S is closed and the two machines are connected back to back.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Now the switch is closed thus bringing the machines back to back and the load on
both the machines can be increased gradually by increasing the Generator
excitation or decreasing the Motor excitation. The readings from all the meters
are taken at every load setting for further evaluation. Let us spell out clearly all
the parameters for ease of further derivations.
1. Equal efficiency : Let us now first find out the Efficiency ‘η’ assuming it to be
same for both the machines:
But the output of the generator can also be given as = V I2 and equating these
two we get
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
η = √ [ I2 / (I1 + I2) ]
2. Un equal efficiency: Let us now find out the Efficiency ‘η’ assuming it to be
unequal for the two machines:
In this analysis, the stray losses (Constant Losses) are assumed to be same for
both the machines where as the field and armature copper losses are different
(Since when the efficiencies are different it means that the currents are not the
same and hence the copper losses also will not be same)
So first let us determine the Copper losses of the two machines independently and
then the constant losses of both machines together can taken as the difference
between the input power from the main supply and the total copper losses.
We know that the total losses in both the machines put together are equal to the
input power from the mains supply i.e V I1
Hence we can take that the total stray losses for both the machines put together
are the difference between the input power and all the copper losses put
together. Hence
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Now that we know the variable losses (Armature and Field Copper losses) and the
constant (stray) losses for both the machines we can easily find out the
efficiencies of both Generator and Motor using the above data as shown below.
Efficiency of Generator:
= [(I2 + I3 )2 x Ra + V I3 + Ws/2 ]
Output of Generator = V I2
= V I2 / V I2 + [(I2 + I3 )2 x Ra + V I3 + Ws/2 ]
Efficiency of Motor:
Field’s test:
This test is for finding out the losses and efficiency of DC Series Motors by direct
testing, since series motors cannot be tested on no load. The test is named after
the inventor of test method ‘MB Field ‘. Series motors which are normally used
for Traction are available as pairs and hence this test is devised on two motors
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
which are coupled mechanically. The test setup is shown in the figure below. One
machine works as motor supplying power to the other one working as Generator.
Their mechanical and iron (core) losses (put together called as stray losses or
constant losses) are made equal by: (i) running them with equal speed and
(ii) by connecting their both field windings in the motor armature circuit to the
Motor input supply such that both the machines are equally excited . The load
resistance is adjusted till the Motor draws the rated current as read by ammeter
A1. In this condition all the other parameters are noted down from the respective
meter readings as per the nomenclature given below.
Nomenclature:
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
V = Supply voltage
V2= Generator output voltage connected across the variable load resistance R
I1 = Motor armature current and also the field current of both Motor and
Generator
Also Let RA = Motor armature resistance and RF = Motor field resistance ( which
can be measured independently or can be taken from the machine data )
From this data obtained in this full load condition, the stray losses, copper losses
and then efficiency of both the Motor and the Generator can be found out as
below:
Stray Losses:
Output of Generator = V2 I2
But total losses of both motor and generator WT are also equal to (Armature
Copper losses + Field Copper losses + Stray losses ).Thus
And total Stray Losses = Total Losses – Total Armature and Field copper losses
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Now using this value of stray losses of each machine, the efficiency of the
machine as a Motor and as a Generator can be found out as below.
η as a Motor:
Input to Motor = V1 I1
Total losses = Armature and Field Copper losses + Stray losses = I 2(R
1 +A
RF) + WS
η as a Generator:
This not very important because the machine is working in separately excited
condition. However just for completion sake let us find it out.
Output of Generator = V2 I2
Retardation test or Running down test: This is an indirect test similar to the
Swinburne’s test where in the constant (Stray losses) losses are first determined
and then the efficiency at any load when the machine is working both as a
Generator and Motor are estimated on the same lines. However the constant
losses in this test are determined by a different principle i.e. by finding out the
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
kinetic energy spent by a rotating mass during the process of retardation from the
rated speed to zero speed and then calculating the rate of change of kinetic
energy which is equal to the Power Loss.
Test Procedure: The motor is started and taken to a speed higher than the rated
speed of the machine. Then the supply to the motor is cutoff by moving the Two
Pole Two way switch from the supply side to the open terminals. The armature
then slows down with its’ own inertia and its stored energy is used up to supply
the constant rotational losses (stray losses) like iron, friction, windage etc. This
power loss is found out from the following principle.
If ‘I’ is the moment of Inertia of the Armature, and ‘ω’ is the angular velocity, then
the kinetic energy of the armature is given by:
KE = ½ Iω2 and
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
The power loss which is the rate of change of Energy is given by:
Substituting the value of ‘ω’ in terms of the speed in RPM ‘N’ ( 2πN/60) we get
PL = (2π/60)2 I. N . dN/dt
So, to find out the stray losses we must know ‘I’, the moment of inertia and
dN/dt, the rate of change in speed. The method of finding out these quantities is
given below.
When the motor is cutoff from the input supply, the speed starts falling down.
The motor back e.m.f. as read by the Voltmeter V1 connected across the motor is
noted down as a function of time. Since we know that the back e.m.f is
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
proportional to the speed we can convert the V1 reading into speed in RPM and
plot it as a function of time as shown in the figure below. In this figure, at the
point C corresponding the rated speed a tangent AB is drawn whose slope gives
the rate of change in speed dN/dt.
The same test as earlier is repeated after adding a flywheel of known Moment of
Inertia ‘I1’ to the armature shaft of the motor and the resulting rate of change of
speed is obtained. Let us call the earlier rate of change as dN/dt 1 and the second
rate of change with added inertia as dN/dt2.
Then, since the losses can be assumed to be same with or without the new
flywheel we have the following relations:
After equating the two equations and simplifying we get : I = I1 (t1) /( t2– t1)
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
First, the switch is taken from supply side to the open condition and then
the time taken ( say t1) for the motor to slow down from a speed slightly
higher than the rated speed to a speed slightly lower than the rated speed
(say δN) is noted down with just the Armature alone like in the earlier
method step -1 (without any added external inertia)
Then again the switch S is moved from the supply position to the Resistance
position quickly and again the time taken(say t2) for the same change in
speed (same δN)is noted down. By this effectively we are connecting an
electrical load across the armature in which the stored electrical power is
dissipated thus providing an additional retarding torque.
This additional power loss due to the resistance is given by the product of
the Average Voltage across the Armature (say V ) and the average current
(say IA ) that flows into the Braking Resistance R i.e. I A2 ( R A+R )x V = say W’
Then the powers dissipated during the above two steps are given by
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Windage losses and eddy current losses are both proportional to square of
speed.
Hence Friction losses = AN Watts, Windage losses = BN2 Watts, Hysteresis
losses = CN Watts, and Eddy current losses = DN2 Watts where N = speed
and A,B,C and D are constant coefficients
Further the coefficient C of hysteresis losses is proportional to B max1.6 and
2
the coefficient D of Eddy current losses is proportional to B max
The other standard relation: For a motor on no load, power input to the armature
is the sum of the armature copper losses and the above losses.
Hence from a no load test we can get the constant losses as usual and then
equate them to the constant losses with the above categorization as shown
below:
First the test is conducted with rated field current as per the following procedure:
1. The motor is started on no load with field current set to rated value by
adjusting the field auto transformer.
2. The armature voltage is increased till the speed is about 200 rpm more than
the rated value.
3. Now, the speed is gradually decreased by decreasing the armature voltage,
the values of armature voltage, armature current and speed are noted
down.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
4. From this data W is calculated as explained above and the graph between
W/N & N is plotted as shown in the figure below.
5. The graph between PNL /N & N is a straight line from which (A+C) and (B+D)
can be found. (A+C) is the y axis intercept and (B+D) is the slope of the
straight line.
6. In order to separate out A, B, C and D, the test is repeated again with
reduced field current and the graph between PNL /N & N is drawn again as
shown in the figure which is a straight line given by PNL /N = (A+C’) N +
(B+D’) N from which we can again find out (A+C’) and (B+D’).
At the reduced excitation, friction and windage losses are still AN and BN2,
but hysteresis losses become C’N and eddy current losses become D’ N2.
We can now obtain (A+C’) and (B+D’) as before from the second straight
line .
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
During the two tests we can get the values of back e.m.f s from the measured
values of armature supply voltage V , armature current Ia and armature resistance
Ra using the relation: Eb = V– Ia.Ra and thus get the values of (C/C’) and (D/D’) .
We can also get the values of (C’-C) and (D’-D) by subtracting (A+C) from (A+C’)
and (B+D) from (B+D’)
From these values we can get all the four coefficients A,B,C and D and thus
separate the constant losses PNL into Friction, Windage, Hysteresis and Eddy
current losses
Since the change in speed δN is same in both the cases, dividing the expression 2
by expression 1 we get
(W + W’ )/W = (1/ dt2) / (1/ dt1) = dt1/ dt2 = t1/ t2 and after
simplification we get
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Efficiency of Generator:
η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = (VT.IL )/( VT.IL + I A2 RA + IF2 RF +WC).100%
Efficiency of Motor:
η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = [{VT.IL -( I A2 RA + I F2 RF +WC )}/ (VT.IL ) ] . 100%
Illustrative examples:
Ex.1: A DC shunt motor having a full load efficiency (η )of 85 % takes a line current
of 27A from 250 Volts mains on full load. If R a = 0.5Ω and Rf = 125 Ω, find the
constant losses, load current for maximum efficiency and the maximum
efficiency.
Solution:
Input power at full load = Full load current x Rated voltage = 250 x 27 = 6750 W
Output power = Input power x η = 6750 x 0.85 ( η = 85% ) = 5737.5 W
Hence Total losses = Input power − Output power = 6750 − 5737.5 = 1012.5 W
We know that Total losses = Variable losses ( Ia2Ra ) + constant losses.
If = Rated Terminal Voltage/ Field resistance = 250 / 125 = 2 A
For the Shunt motor armature current Ia = Il − If = 27 − 2 = 25 A
Variable losses = Ia2Ra = 252 x 0.5 = 312.5
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Out Put Power at 80 A line current (Working as Motor) = Input Power – Total
losses at 80 A line current = 40000 -3715 = 36285 W
Efficiency at 80 A line current (Working as Motor) = Output Power /Input Power
= 36285/40000 = 0.9071 or 90.71 %
Finally we will calculate the line current at which the efficiency is maximum and
the value of maximum efficiency:
We know that the condition for maximum efficiency is: Variable losses =
Constant losses
i.e. Ia2Ra ( variable Losses ) at maximum efficiency = 2498.2 W
∴ Ia @max. η = √2498.2 /0.2 = √ 12491 = 111.76 A
∴The line current at maximum η : Il@max. η = Ia@max. η + If = 111.76 + 2 =
113.76 A
Input power at maximum η = Il @max. η x Rated terminal voltage = 113.76 x 500 =
56880 W
O/P power at maximum η = I/P power at maximum η−Total losses =
56880 – (2498.2 + 2498.2) = 51883.6 W
(Since variable losses = constant losses = 2498.2)
Maximum efficiency = Out power at maximum efficiency/ Input power at
maximum efficiency
= 51883.6 /56880 = 0.9122 or 91.22 %
Example: 4
The following readings are obtained when doing a load test on d.c. shunt motor
using a brake drum. Spring balance readings =10kg, and 35 kg, Diameter of drum
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
=40 cm, speed of the motor = 950 r.p.m, Applied voltage = 200 V Line
current =30 A . Calculate the output power and efficiency.
Example 5: A retardation test is carried out on a 1000 r.p.m. d.c. machine. The
time taken for the speed to fall from 1030 r.p.m. to 970 r.p.m. is
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
2) Iron loss
3) Mechanical loss at the mean speed of 1000 r.p.m.
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Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
220+190
Solution : Average voltage across load = = 205 V
2
Iav = 12 A, Armature resistance Ra = 0.5 Ω, Field resistance Rf =
250 Ω
∴ Power absorbed by the load resistance ,
W’ = (205) (12) = 2460 W
t1 = 30 sec, t2 = 5 sec
Let W = Stray losses
W t2 5 5
We have, = = = = 0.2
W′ t1−t2 30−5 25
∴ Stray losses W = 2460×0.2 = 492 W
V 250
Input current = 22 A, If = Rf =250 = 1 A
Armature current Ia = Input current – If = 22-1 =21 A
Armature copper loss = Ia2 x Ra = (21)2 (0.5) = 220.5 W
Shunt field copper loss = Vs x If = (250) (1) = 250 W
Total losses in the machine = Stray losses + Armature copper loss + Shunt field
copper loss
Page 36
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Example 7: The Hopkinson’s test on two shunt machines gave the following
results for full load conditions. Line voltage 250 volts, line current excluding field
current is 50 A, motor armature current 380 A, field currents for generator and
motor are 5 A, 4.2 A respectively. Draw the circuit diagram with the above data
and Calculate the efficiency of each machine. Armature resistance of each
machine is 0.02Ω
Solution : The connections and current distribution based on the given data are
shown in the figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
copper loss
= 12500 – 2178 – 2888 =
7434 W
7434
Stray loss for each = = 3717 W
2
For motor : Field copper loss = V If = 250 × 4.2 = 1050 W
Total loss = 2888 +3717 + 1050 =
7655 W
Motor input = V× Ia + V × If = 250 × 380 +250 × 4.2
= 96050 W
Motor output = Motor input - Total loss
= 88395 W
88395
% ηm = 96050 × 1000 = 92.03 %
For generator : Field copper loss = V If = 250 × 5 = 1250 W
Total loss = 2178 + 3717 + 1250 =
7145 W
Generator input = Generator output + Total
loss
Generator output = V Ia = 250 × 330 = 82500
W
Generator input = 82500 + 7145 = 89645 W
82500
% ηm = 89645 × 100 = 92.02 %
Example 8: The Hopkinson’s test on two similar machines gave the following
full load results: Line current = 48 A, Line voltage = 110 V, Motor armature
current = 230 A
the field currents of motor and generator are 3 A and 3.5 A respectively.
Armature resistance of each machine is 0.035 ohms. Draw the circuit diagram
with the above data and Calculate the efficiency of each machine assuming a
brush contact drop of 1 V per brush.
Page 38
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Solution: The connections and current distribution based on the given data are
shown in the figure below.
Brush contact loss for motor = 230 × 2 = 460 W
Brush contact loss for generator = 188.5 × 2 = 377 W
Motor armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra = (230)2 (0.035) =
1851.5 W
Generator armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra = (188.5)2 (0.035) =
1243.62 w
Motor field copper loss = V If = (110)(3) = 330 W
Generator field copper loss = V If (110)(3.5) = 385 W
Motor and generator field copper loss = 330 + 385 = 715 W
Motor and generator armature copper loss = 1851.5 + 1243.62 = 3095.12
W
Total supply power taken = (110)(48) = 5280 W
Page 39
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Example 9: Two shunt machines loaded for the Hopkinson’s test take 15 A at
200 V from the supply. The motor current is 100 A and the shunt currents are 3
A and 2.5 A for the generator and the motor respectively. The resistance of
each armature is 0.05 Ω. Draw the circuit diagram with the above data and
calculate the efficiency of each machine for its particular conditions of loading.
Solution: The connections and current distribution are shown in the figure
below.
Page 40
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
For generator :
IL = 15 A , Ia = 88 A, If = 3 A, Ra = 0.05 Ω, Vs =
200 V
∴ Armature copper loss = I2 a R a = 387.2 W
∴ Field copper loss = If V = 600 W
For motor : Ia = 97.5 A, If = 2.5 A, Ra = 0.05 Ω, Vs = 200 V
∴ Armature copper loss = I2 a R a = 475.3125 W
∴ Field copper loss = If V = 2.5x200 = 500 W
Power drawn from supply = VI = 200 × 15 = 3000 W
Total copper losses for set = 387.2 + 600 + 475.3125 + 500 = 1962.51
W
∴ Stray losses for both machine = 3000 – 1962.51 = 1037.48 W
1037 .48
∴ Stray losses for each machine = = 518.74 W
2
Efficiency of motor : Pin = VI = 200 × 100 = 20000 W
Total losses = 518.74 + 500 + 475.3125 = 1494.0525
W
Pin −Losses 20000 −1494.0525
∴ %η= × 100 = ×
Pin 20000
100 = 92.53 %
Efficiency of generator : Motor output = Generator input
Pin (gen) = 20000 – 1494.0525 = 18505.9475 W
Total losses = 518.74 + 387.2 + 600 = 1505.94 W
Page 41
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Solution: The circuit diagram with the above data is shown in the figure below.
Page 42
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Page 43
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Page 44
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 3: Testing of D C Machines
Page 45
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
UNIT – IV
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
CONTENTS:
Principle of operation
Constructional features -Types
Minimization of hysteresis and eddy current losses
EMF equation Operation on no load and on load
Phasor diagrams
Equivalent circuit Losses and efficiency
Regulation
All day efficiency
Effect of variations of frequency & supply voltage on iron losses.
Illustrative Problems
Page 1
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Introduction:
In a single phase transformer there are two coils one known as primary and the
other known as secondary both wound on he same magnetic circuit (core)of high
permeability (or low reluctance) as shown in the figure below.
Ideal Transformer:
An ideal transformer has no losses i.e. no I2R losses (its windings have no
resistance) and no core losses. In other words it consists of two pure inductive
coils and a lossless core. But practically it is not possible to realize such an Ideal
transformer.
In an Ideal transformer the no load current will be lagging the applied voltage by
900 since the current flows through a purely inductive primary coil. The flux Ø
induced in the magnetic circuit also will be lagging the applied voltage V1 since
the current in the primary is entirely a magnetizing current (the coil is assumed to
be totally inductive) and will be in phase with the magnetic flux. The voltages
induced in the primary and secondary coils E1 & E2 will be lagging the flux by 900
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
and in phase opposition to the applied Voltage V1. All these relations are clearly
shown in the No load phasor diagram given below.
There are two types of core construction called core type and shell type and are
shown in the figure below.
In Core Form the transformer windings surround the two sides of a
rectangular core.
In Shell Form a three legged laminated core is used with the windings
wrapped around the centre leg.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
The core is constructed of laminations to minimize the eddy current losses. The
laminations are made of thin sheet steel with high silicon content to produce high
permeability and a low hysteresis loss. The laminations are insulated from each
other by a coat of varnish. The laminations are cut in the form of strips of shape L,
E & I called core stampings as shown in the figure below and then stacked
together to get the Core and shell type cores.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
E1/E2 = N1/N2
And this ratio is called the turns ratio ‘a’ or ‘k’ of the transformer.
Since the primary VoltAmp (VA) is nearly equal to that of the secondary due to
the high efficiency of transformers we get the relation : E1 I1 = E2I2 i.e I1/I2
= E2/E1 = N2/N1 = 1/a or 1/k
Dot Convention:
Given that the primary circuit's voltage is positive at a specific end of the coil,
what would the polarity of the secondary circuit's voltage be? In real
transformers, it would be possible to tell the secondary 's polarity only if the
transformer were opened and its windings examined. To avoid this necessity,
transformers utilize the dot convention. The dots appearing at one end of each
winding in the figure tell the polarity of the voltage and current on the secondary
side of the transformer. The relationship is as follows:
I. If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding with respect
to the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted
end also. Voltage polarities are the same with respect to the dots on each side of
the core.
2. If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the
primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the
secondary winding.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Iμ = I0 Sin α along the direction of flux called the magnetizing current and
is responsible for the generation of flux Ø in the core of the transformer
Iw = I0 Cos α along the direction of the primary voltage V1 called the
working (active)component and is responsible to cover the no load losses (
Hysteresis, eddy current and small resistive)or core losses
In this diagram the applied voltage V1 and the flux Ø will have a phase difference
of 900 and are taken as reference.
E1 and E2 are the induced voltages in the primary and secondary and both lag
behind the flux by 900 since the induced voltage is equal to the rate of change of
flux linkages.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
The equivalent circuit of a transformer is a circuit which will take into account all
the major imperfections in a practical transformer and are modeled appropriately
as equivalent resistors and inductors as explained below.
To develop the equivalent circuit of a real transformer, the following losses have
to be taken into account in order to accurately model the transformer into its
equivalent circuit:
Copper (I2R) Losses – Resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer.
They are modeled by placing a resistor R P in the primary circuit and a resistor R S
in the secondary circuit.
Both theses losses produce a core loss current IH+E or ICL (Iw) which is a current
proportional to the voltage applied to the core. Since this is in phase with the
applied voltage this loss is modeled as a resistance RC across the primary voltage
source.
Leakage flux – The fluxes ØLP and ØLS which escape the core and pass
through only one of the transformer windings are called leakage fluxes.
They then produce self-inductances in the primary and secondary coils.
They are modeled as equivalent Inductive reactances XP and XS in the primary and
secondary circuits in series with the resistors RP and RS .
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Apart from the above losses the transformer draws a magnetizing current I μ (or
Im) and since this current lags behind the applied voltage by 900 it is modeled as a
reactance XM
For ease of circuit analysis and mathematical calculation this complete equivalent
circuit is simplified by referring the impedances in the secondary to the primary
and vice versa as shown below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Fig: Equivalent circuit of a Transformer (a) referring to the primary (b) referring
to the secondary
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
representation of the excitation and the eddy current & hysteresis losses which
add an extra branch.
In practical situations, the excitation current Iμ & the core loss current ICL will be
relatively small as compared to the load current, which makes the resultant
voltage drop across Rp and Xp to be very small. Hence Rp and Xp may be lumped
together with the secondary referred impedances to form an equivalent
impedance. In some cases, the excitation current Iμ & the core loss current ICL are
neglected entirely due to their small magnitude.
The equivalent circuits with these simplifications are shown in the figure below.
Fig: Simplified equivalent circuits (a) Referred to the primary side (b) Referred to
the secondary side
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
(c) With no excitation branch, referred to the primary side (d) With no excitation
branch, referred to the secondary side
The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage
remains constant. This is because of the voltage drop in it’s series impedance as
seen in the equivalent circuit. It is normally defined for Full load as a percentage
as given below:
To develop the Phasor diagram on load let us consider once again the simplified
equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Ignoring the excitation branch (since the current flow through the branch is
considered to be small), Series impedances (Req + jXeq) will be more predominant.
Hence Voltage Regulation depends on the magnitude of the series impedance and
the phase angle of the load current flowing through the secondary of the
transformer with respect to the secondary voltage.
Phasor diagram will represent the effects of these factors on the voltage
regulation. A phasor diagram consists of current and voltage vectors. In this
Phasor diagram the secondary voltage VS is assumed as the reference.
Applying Kirchoff Voltage Law to this simplified equivalent circuit we get the
relation :
From this equation, the phasor diagram can be visualized and is shown below for
a transformer operating at a lagging power factor. For lagging loads, VP / a > VS
so the voltage regulation with lagging loads is > 0.
From the Phasor diagram it can be seen that the addition is Vector addition and
not an algebraic addition.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
When the power factor is unity also VS is lower than VP and so VR > 0. But VR is
smaller than before (during lagging PF) as shown in figure (a) below .
With a leading power factor , VS is higher than the referred VP (VP /a) so VR < 0 as
shown in figure(b)
below .
Fig: Phasor diagram of a Transformer on load with (a) unity power factor and (b)
leading power factor
Losses:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
The losses are broadly classified as constant losses and variable losses. Constant
losses are constant and are independent of the load where as the variable losses
are dependent on the load. They are further classified in detail as below.
1. Electrical or Copper Losses (I2R Loss): Current flow through the resistance of
the transformer coils give rise to I2R losses and since the coils are normally
made up of copper these losses are called Copper losses.
Primary copper loss: Pp = I p2 R p
Secondary copper loss: Ps = Is2 Rs
2. Core Losses: Hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in the transformer
core are together called core losses.
3.
Hysteresis loss: in an iron core is the loss of power due to the hysteresis
loop in the magnetization characteristic of the core in each cycle of the
alternating current applied to the core. It is proportional to the area of the
Hysteresis loop and is given by :
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
called eddy current loss. This loss is proportional to the thickness of the
core material and hence to minimize this loss the core is made up of thin
sheets called laminations instead of a single thick block. An insulating oxide
or resin is used between the strips so that the current paths for eddy
currents are limited to very small areas. Thus the eddy current losses have a
very little effect on the core's magnetic properties.
The eddy current loss is given by:
Eddy current loss = Ke B2mf2 t2 watts/ unit volume
Where Ke = Eddy current constant
t = Thickness of the core
Out of the above, Core Losses are also called as Constant losses since the flux in
the core is almost constant as supply voltage V 1 at rated frequency f is always
constant at all the loads and thus the flux density Bm is also constant on which
both hysteresis and eddy current losses are dependent . Electrical or Copper
Losses are also called as variable losses.
Hysteresis losses are minimized by using high grade core material like
silicon steel having very high permeability and low hysteresis loop.
Eddy current loss is proportional to the thickness of the core material and
hence this loss is minimized by making up the core with thin sheets called
laminations instead of a single thick block. An insulating oxide or resin is
used between the strips so that the current paths for eddy currents are
limited to very small areas.
We know that the iron losses in a transformer include two types of losses i.e.
Hysteresis losses & Eddy current losses and are given by the relations:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary there are
few power losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat
which increases the temperature of the device. This temperature must be
maintained below a certain limiting value as it causes deterioration of the
insulation in the Transformer.
Hence the rating of the transformer is decided by the temperature rise which in
turn is decided by the losses.
The copper losses (I2R) in the transformer depend on the current ‘I’ through the
winding while the iron or core loss depends on the voltage ‘V’ as frequency of
operation is constant.
As losses depend on V and I only and not on the load power factor, the rating of
the transformer is specified as a product of these two parameters V × I called
Volt-Ampere Rating or VA rating ( or kVA rating for bigger machines )
On both sides of the transformer i.e. primary and secondary VA rating remains
same. This rating is more generally expressed in kVA (kilo volt amperes rating) for
large capacity machines.
Efficiency of a Transformer:
Page 19
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
From the phasor diagram we know that Pout in a transformer is given by Pout =
VS.IS. Cos Ɵ. Hence
But the primary of such transformers is energized at it’s rated voltage for all the
24 hours to provide continuous supply to the consumer. As we know, there are
various losses in the transformer such as iron and copper loss. The iron loss takes
place in the core of the transformer and it occurs for the whole day in the
distribution transformer. The second type of loss known as copper loss takes
place in the windings of the transformer also known as the variable loss. It occurs
only when the transformers are in the loaded condition and it’s value depends on
the load. For no load the copper losses are very small and on full load it is at the
rated value. Hence the normal power efficiency as defined earlier cannot give the
efficiency of such transformers in it’s true sense.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the transformer
throughout the day. It is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power
in kWh or wh of the transformer over 24 hours.
The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I sm
and maximum efficiency is denoted as ηmax. The efficiency is a function of load i.e.
load current Is , assuming the load power factor cos ∅s and the secondary
terminal voltage Vs as constant. The condition for Maximum Efficiency can be
obtained by differentiating the expression for the efficiency with respect to IS and
then equating the differential to zero. So for maximum efficiency,
dη Vs Is cos ∅s
=0 While η =
dI s V s I s cos ∅ + P +I2s R
s i
dη d Vs Is cos se
∅s
∴ = { }=0
dI s dI s Vs Is cos ∅s + Pi +I2s Rse
dη
Effectively we can equate the numerator of to zero.
dI s
∴ (Vs Is cos ∅s + Pi + I2sRse ) (Vs cos Øs) – (Vs Is cos ∅s ) (Vs cos Øs +
2Is Rse) = 0
Cancelling (Vs cos Øs) from both the terms we get,
Vs Is cos Ø + Pi + I2Rse - Vs Iscos Øs - 2 I2 Rse = 0 i.e. Pi - I2 Rse = 0
s s s s
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
….
We can get Load current Is at maximum Efficiency in terms of the full load current
Is@FL (or rated current) also:
Pi Pi
Is@ max .η 1 Pi =√ =√
∴ = √
(Is )@F.L (Is )@F.L. Rse {(Is )@F.L}2 Rse (PCu )@F.L.
Pi
∴ Is@ max . η = (Is )@F. L √
(PCu )@F.L.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
𝑥
η = 1-
𝑥+𝐶𝑜𝑠 Ø
Thus as the power factor of the load i.e. cos Ø becomes higher, the second term
in the above equation becomes lesser and efficiency will become more.
The family of efficiency curves (as a function of load current) are obtained as
power factor increases, are shown in the figure below. From these plots we can
get the following two important observations.
Maximum efficiency comes at a value lower than the 100% full load
current.
As per factor increases, the efficiency increases.
Page 23
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
The D.C. Supply cannot be used for the transformers for the following reasons.
The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction for which, current
in one coil must change uniformly. If D.C. supply is given, the current will not
change due to constant supply and transformer will not work.
Practically a transformer is designed with a low winding resistance to reduce
the copper losses and thus increase the efficiency. For D.C., the inductive
reactance XL is zero as D.C. frequency is zero. So total impedance of winding
is very low for D.C. Thus winding will draw higher current if D.C. supply is
given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due to extra heat
generated and may cause permanent damage to the transformer.
Page 24
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Illustrative Examples:
Example 1 : A single phase 50 Hz transformer has 100 turns on the primary and
400 turns on the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of core is 250
cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply, determine,
i) The e.m.f. induced in the secondary winding
ii) The maximum value of flux density in the core.
Solution: We have the data:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Example 4: A 6300/210 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has per turn e.m.f of
about 9 volts and maximum flux density of 1.2 T. Find the number of high voltage
and low voltage turns and the net cross sectional area of the core.
Solution: We have the data:
E1 = 6300 V, E2 = 210 V, f = 50 Hz, Bm = 1.2 T and E/turn = 9V
Hence E1 = (E/turn) × N1 i.e. 6300 = 9 × N1
Thus N1 = 6300/ 9 = 700
And similarly
E2 = (E/turn) × N2 i.e. 210 = 9 × N2
Thus N2 = 210 / 9 = 23.33 ≈24
But we also know that E1 is given by: E1 = 4.44 Ømf N1
i.e. 6300 = 4.44 Øm × 50 × 700
∴ Øm = 6300 /4.44 × 50 × 700 = 0.04054 Wb
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
∅m
And we have Bm = a
∅m 0.04054
∴ a= = 1.2
= 0.03378 m2 = 337.8 cm2
Bm
Example 5:The e.m.f per turn for a single phase, 2310/220 volts, 50Hz
transformer is 13 volts. Calculate.
i) The number of primary and secondary turns.
ii) The net cross sectional area of the core, for a maximum flux density of 1.4 T.
Solution : Refer example 4 for the procedure and verify :
N1 = 178, N2 = 17,
a = 417.5 cm2
Example 6: A 1-phase transformer has 500 primary and 1200 secondary turns.
The net cross sectional area of the core is 75 cm2. If the primary winding be
connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply, calculate the peak value of flux density in the
core and voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Solution : Refer example 1 above for the procedure and verify the answers
Bm = 0.4804 Wb/ m2, E2 = 960 V.
We have the data : V1 = 250 V, f = 50 Hz, No load current I0= 4A, P.F = 0.25 and
N1 = 200
i) We know that V1 is given by : V1 = 4.44 Øm f N1 from which we get Øm =
250
4.44 50 200
m
∴ Øm = 5.63 mWb, Ø(RMS) = = 3.98 mWb
2
ii) Core loss = V1 I0 P.F = 250x 4x 0.25 = 250 W
iii) P.F = cos θ = 0.25 from which we get Sin θ = 0.9682
Then we can get magnetizing current as Im = I0 sin θ = 4 × 0.9682 =
3.873 A
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
= 0.5696 A
Example 11: A single phase transformer with 10:1 turns ratio and rated at 50
kVA, 2400/240 volts, 50 Hz, is used to step down the voltage of a distribution
system. The L.V. side voltage is kept constant at 240 V. Find the value of load
impedance on L.V. side so that the transformer will be loaded fully. Find also the
maximum flux in the core if L.V. side has 23 turns.
Solution : Vs = 240 V, Vp = 2400 V, Ns = 23, 50 kVA
50 103
(Is)F.L., = VA rating/Vs = = 208.333 A
240
240
∴ Zs = Load impedance on F.L = VS/ IsFL = = 1.152 Ω
208.333
Vs ( Voltage on LV side ) = 4.44 × Øm× 50 × 23
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Example 13: A 6600/400 V single phase transformer has primary resistance of 2.5
Ω and secondary resistance of 0.01 Ω. Calculate total equipment resistance
referred to primary and secondary.
Solution : The given values are,
R1 = 2.5 Ω, R2 = 0.01 Ω
K = 6600/400 = 16.5
For finding equivalent resistance referred to primary, transfer R 2 to primary as
R2eq,
R2eq = K2R2= 0.01x16.52 = 2.7225 Ω
R1e = R1 + R2eq = 2.5 + 2.7225 = 5.2225 Ω
It can be observed that primary is high voltage side and hence high resistance
side hence while transferring R2 from low voltage to high voltage side , its value
increases.
Similarly to find total equivalent resistance referred to secondary, first calculate
R1 referred to secondary as
R1eq = R1/ K2 = 2.5/16.52
= 0.00918 Ω
∴ R2e = R2 + R1eq = 0.01 + 0.00918 = 0.01918 Ω
Example 14: A 20 kVA, 2000/200 V single phase transformer has the following
parameters. H.V. Winding: R1 = 3 Ω, X1 = 5.3 Ω, L.V. winding: R2 = 0.05 Ω, X2 = 0.1
Ω. Find the voltage regulation at, i) Power factor of 0.8 lagging. ii) UPF iii) 0.707
power factor leading.
20 103
(I1)FL = VA rating / Primary voltage = = 10 A
2000
i) Cos Ø = 0.8 lagging, Sin Ø = 0.6
∴ % Regln. = (Voltage drop with full load current /Input Voltage)
= [ I1 {R1eq Cos Ø + X1eq Sin Ø} / V1 ] x 100
= [ 10 {8x 0.8 + 15.3x 0.6} / 2000 ] x 100 = 7.79 %
ii) cos Ø = 1, sin Ø = 0
∴ % Regln = (Voltage drop with full load current /Input Voltage)
= [ I1 {R1eq Cos Ø + X1eq Sin Ø} / V1 ] x 100
= [ 10 {8 x 1 + 15.3 x 0} / 2000 ] x 100 = 4%
iii) Cos Ø = 0.707 leading, Sin Ø = 0.707
∴ % Regln = (Voltage drop with full load current /Input Voltage)
= [ I1 {R1eq Cos Ø • X1eq Sin Ø} / V1 ] x 100
= [ I1 {8x 0.8 - 15.3x 0.6} / 2000] x 100 = - 2.5805 %
Example 15: A 230/460 volts transformer has a primary resistance of 0.2 Ω and
reactance of 0.5 Ω and the corresponding values for secondary are 0.75 Ω and 1.8
Ω respectively. Find the secondary terminal voltage when supplying 10 amps at
0.8 power factor lagging.
Solution : We have the data:
V1 = 230 , V2 = 460 V, R1 = 0.2 Ω, X1 = 0.5 Ω, R2 = 0.75Ω, X2 = 1.8 Ω
K = = 230/460 = 0.5
We have to find out the secondary terminal voltage while supplying a load
current of 10Amps. Since it is supplying current on the secondary side we have
to find out the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary side.
∴ R2e = R2 + R1e = R2 + R1/ K2= 0.75 + 0.2/(0.5)2 = 1.55 Ω
Similarly X2e = X2 + X1e = X2 + X1/K2= 1.8 + 0.5/(0.5)2 = 3.8 Ω
We have to find the secondary terminal voltage at Cos Ø = 0.8 lagging and load
current of I2 = 10 A. Sin Ø = 0.6 ( from the value of Cos Ø = 0.8)
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Example 16: A 100 kVA, 6.6 kV/415 V single phase transformer has an effective
impedance of (3+j8) Ω referred to HV side. Estimate the full load voltage
regulation at
i) 0.8 pf lagging ii) 0.8 pf leading
Solution : Refer example 14 for the procedure with R1e = 3 Ω,
X1e = 8 Ω and verify the answers as,
i) + 1.652 % ii) -0.551 %
Example 17: A 230/460 V transformer has a primary resistance of 0.2 Ω and the
corresponding values for the secondary are 0.75 Ω and 1.8 Ω respectively. Find
the secondary terminal voltages when supplying 10 A at 0.8 p.f lagging and its
voltage regulation.
Solution : We have the data K = 230/460 = 0.5 , R1 = 0.2 Ω, X1 = 0.5 Ω
R2 = 0.75 Ω, X2 = 1.8 Ω, I2 = 10 A, cos Ø = 0.8 lag
Since we have the current on the load side we will find out the equivalent
resistance/reactance on secondary side.
R2e = R2 +R1/ K2 = 0.75 + (2)2× 0.2 = 1.55 Ω
X2e = X2 + X1/ K2= 1.8 + (2)2× 0.5 = 3.8 Ω
∴ Voltages drop = I2 [R2e cos Ø + X2e sinØ]
= 10 [1.55 ×0.8 + 3.8 × 0.6] = 35.2 V
∴ V2 (terminal ) = V2 - drop = 460 - 35.2 = 424.8 V
35.2
∴ % Reg = Voltagedrop × 100 = × 100 = + 7.652 %
V2 460
Example 18 : 1 kV/2kV transformer has 750 W hysteresis losses and 250 W eddy
current losses. When the applied voltage is doubled and frequency is halved, find
Page 33
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Pe 2 V2 f1 f 2
Now voltage is doubled and frequency is halved and hence V2 = 2V1 and f2 = 0.5
f1
750
∴ The new hysteresis loss is given by: = (0.5)1.6× (0.5)1.6× 2
Ph 2
250
and new eddy current loss is given by: = (0.5)2× (0.5)2× (2)2
Pe 2
From which we get P h 2 = 3446.095 W and P e2 = 1000 W
∴ Total new iron loss = Ph2 + Pe 2 = 4446.095 W
Page 34
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Let us find out equivalent circuit referred to primary because we are given the
values of secondary referred to primary i.e. R2e and X2e
Because we have taken equivalent circuit referred to primary. Let us find out the
value of load impedance referred to primary
ZLe (ZL’ ) = ZLxK2= ZLx102= (0.4+j0.3) = 40 + j30 Ω
Page 35
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Example 21: A single phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40
turns on the secondary winding. The mean length of the magnetic path in the
iron core is 150 cm and the joints are equivalent to an air gap of 0.1 mm. When a
potential difference of 3000 V is applied to the primary, maximum flux density is
1.2 Wb/m2. Calculate:
i) The cross- sectional area of the core ii) No-load secondary voltages.
iii) The no load current drawn by the primary iv) Power factor on no-load
Given that AT/cm for a flux density of 1.2 Wb/m2 in iron to be 5, the
corresponding iron loss to be 2 watt/kg at 50 Hz , the density of iron as 7.8
Page 36
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Page 37
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
(Core loss component is working component which is in phase with the applied
voltage.
Hence Ic = Power/Voltage)
∴ I0 = I C2 I m2 = (0.176)2 (1.196)2 = 1.208 A
IC
iv) cos Ø0 = = 0.176 = 0.1457 lagging.
I0 1.208
Page 38
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Additional Problems:
From the problem we can see that we have to find out the efficiency while
supplying in different conditions. Hence we have to get the parameters reflected
to secondary side. So we have to calculate
Page 39
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Example 2: The maximum efficiency of a 500 kVA, 3300/500 Volts, 50Hz, single-
phase transformer is 97 % and occurs at 3/4th full load with unity p.f. If the
impedance is 10 %, calculate the regulation at full load and 0.8 p.f. lagging.
We are given the % impedance as 10% which can be taken on either primary side
or secondary side for calculating the regulation. Accordingly the % resistance and
%reactance also are to be calculated on either primary side or secondary side. Let
us calculate on primary side.
Page 40
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
= 2.311 Ω
𝐼1 [𝑅𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅+𝑋𝑙𝑒 sin ∅]
% Regulation = × 100
𝑉1
151.515[0.4491 ×0.8+2.1311 ×0.6]
= 3300
× 100 (Given Cos Ø = 0.8 lag we
get Sin Ø =0.6)
= 7.52 %
We know that efficiency at Full load and any p.f cos Ø is given by :
Page 41
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅
% ȠFL = x100
𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃𝑖+(𝑃𝐶𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿.
We have the data of all the parametrers in this equation except Pcu @FL which can
be found from the relation
𝑃𝑖
kVA for ƞ max = kVA rating ×√
(𝑃𝐶𝑈 )𝐹.𝐿.
600.616
∴ 0.9 ×[50×103] = [50×103] × √
(𝑃𝐶𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿.
From which Pcu @FL = Full load copper loss = 741.5012 W
Rating : 1000 kVA, V1 =110 V, V2 = 200 , Ƞ@1/2FL and cos Ø = 0.8 = 98.5 %,
Page 42
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
we get :
𝑛×𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅
% ƞHL = × 100 (in this case n =
𝑛 ×𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃𝑖 +𝑛2(𝑃 𝐶𝑈 )𝐹,𝐿,
0.5)
0.5 ×1000 ×103 ×0.8
98.5 = × 100
0.5 ×1000 ×103 ×0.8+𝑃 𝑖 +(0.5)2×(𝑃 𝐶𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿.
From which we get Pi + 0.25 (Pcu) F.L. = 6091.3705
……(1)
Similarly in the second case:
Ƞ@FL and cos Ø = 1 = 98 %,
𝑛×𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅
% ƞ@FL = 𝑛 ×𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃𝑖 +𝑛2 (𝑃 𝐶𝑈 )𝐹,𝐿, × 100 (in this case n
= 1)
1000 ×103 ×1
98 = 1000 ×103 ×1+𝑃 +(𝑃 × 100
𝑖 𝐶𝑈 )𝐹.𝐿.
1319.1062
= 1000 × √ 19089.0569 = 262.874 kVA
At ƞmax, Pi = Pcu = 1319.1062 W
[𝑉𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ƞ𝑚𝑎𝑥 ] ×cos ∅
∴ % ƞ max = [𝑉𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ƞ × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑥 ] ×cos ∅ + 2𝑃𝑖
Page 43
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
262.874 ×103 ×1
= × 100
262.874 ×103 ×1+2 ×1319.1062
= 99 %
Example 5: A 100 Kva, 50 Hz, 440/11 Kv, single phase transformer has an
efficiency of 98.5 % when supplying full load current at 0.8 p.f. lagging and an
efficiency of 99 % when supplying half load current at unity power factor. Find the
core losses and copper losses corresponding to full load current. At what value of
load current will the maximum efficiency be attained?
Solution : Refer example 4 for the procedure and verify the answers :
Pi = 267.309 W, Pcu(FL) = 950.964 W.
𝑉𝐴 100 ×103
I2 (FL) = 𝑉 = 11 × 103
= 9.0909 A
2
𝑃𝑖
I2m = I2 (FL) ×√
𝑃𝑐𝑢 (𝐹𝐿)
= 4.822 A
Page 44
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
12.5 𝑅1𝑒
∴ 0.012 = i.e. R1e = 1.92 Ω
2000
𝐼1 𝑋𝑙𝑒
Per unit X = 0.05 =
𝑉1
0.05 ×2000
i.e. X1e = = 8Ω
12.5
1
At half full load, I1(HL) = 2 × 12.5 = 6.25 A
cos Ø = 0.8, sin Ø = 0.6
𝐼1 (𝐻𝐿)[𝑅1𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅+𝑋1𝑒 sin ∅]
% Reg = × 100 = 1.98 %
𝑉1
𝑃𝑖
kVA for ηmax = kVA × √
𝑃𝑐𝑢 (𝐹𝐿)
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
∴ 18.75 = 25 × √ i.e. = 0.5625
𝑃𝑐𝑢 (𝐹𝐿) 𝑃𝑐𝑢 (𝐹𝐿)
2 2
PCu (FL) = [I1(FL) Rle = 12.5 × 1.92 = 300 W
Pi = 0.5625 × 300 = 168.75 W
0.5 ×𝑉𝐴 cos ∅
∴ % ηHL = 0.5 ×𝑉𝐴 cos ∅+𝑃 +[(0.5)2𝑃 (𝐹𝐿)]
× 100 (n = 0.5)
𝑖 𝑐𝑢
0.5 × 25 × 103 × 0.8
= 0.5 ×25 ×103 × 0.8+168.75+(0.52 ×300 × 100
= 97.62 %
Example 7: A 250/500 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has the following
equivalent circuit parameters: Rt1 = 0.715 Ω ; Xt1 = 0.375 Ω ; Rc1 = 780Ω ; Xm1 =
265Ω
Determine the voltage regulation ,losses and efficiency of the transformer when it
is delivering 6 kVA at 0.8 pf leading and at rated voltage.
Solution :
Rt1 = R1e = 0.175 Ω, Xt1 = X1e = 0.375 Ω
Rc1 = Ro = 780 Ω, Xml = Xo = 265 Ω
Because the kVA of 6 given is while delivering we have to calculate using the
secondary equivalent parameters. So the given primary parameters are to be
referred to secondary.
Page 45
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
250
K = 500 = 0.5, R2e = R1e / K2 = 0.175/(0.5)2 =0.7 Ω
X2e = X1e/ K2 = 0.375 /(0.5)2 = 1.5 Ω
𝑉𝐴 6 ×103
I2 = = = 12 A (Since 6 kVA given is on
𝑉2 500
load side )
𝐼2 (𝑅2𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅−𝑋2𝑒 sin ∅)
∴ % Reg = × 100 ( negative sign is because
𝑉2
Cos Ø = 0.8 is leading)
12(0.7 ×0.8−1.5 ×0.6)
= 500 𝑉1 250
× 100 = - 0.816%
𝑉1
R = i.e. I = = = 0.3205 A
0 c 780
𝑉𝐼1𝑐 𝑅0
X= i.e. I = 𝑉1
=
250 = 0.9434 A
o m 265
𝐼𝑚 𝑋0
𝐼𝑚
∴ tan Ø = = 2.9435, Ø = 71.2350
𝐼𝐶
Io = √𝐼2 + 𝐼2 = 0.9963 A
𝑐 𝑚
∴ Pi = Iron losses = V1I0 cos Ø0 = 80.1242 W
Pcu = Copper losses = 𝐼22 R2e = 122 × 0.7 = 100.8 W
𝑉𝐴 cos ∅
∴ %η= × 100
𝑉𝐴 cos ∅+𝑃𝑖+𝑃𝑐𝑢
6 ×103 ×0.8
= 6 ×103 ×0.8+80.1242 +100.8 × 100
= 96.36 %
Page 46
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 4: Single Phase Transformers
Example 9: The full load copper and iron losses of a 15 kVA single phase
transformer are 320 W and 200 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency of the
transformer at unity power factor at full load and half load.
Solution : ARting = 15 kVA, Pi = 200 W, Pcu (FL) = 320 W
𝑉𝐴 cos ∅
%ηFL = × 100
𝑉𝐴 cos ∅ +𝑃 𝑖 +𝑃 𝐶𝑈 (𝐹𝐿)
Page 47
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022 -23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
UNIT – V
TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS AND THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
CONTENTS:
OC and SC tests
Sumpner’s test
Predetermination of efficiency and regulation
Separation of losses test
Parallel operation with equal and unequal voltage ratios
Auto transformers- equivalent circuit
Comparison with two winding Transformers
Poly phase Transformers
Poly phase Connections
Y/Y, Y/Δ, Δ/ Δ, Δ/Y open Δ connections
Illustrative examples
Page 1
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2021-22)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
They are conducted on the transformer to find out the transformer losses and
from them to determine the circuit constants that are used to represent the
equivalent circuit. From these parameters the transformer efficiency and
regulation can also be calculated. These tests are conducted without actually
loading the transformer to its full load and hence the power consumed during the
test is very small as compared to its full load (rated) power.
The test setup to conduct the OC test is shown in the figure below.
Low voltage side is designated as Primary and High voltage side is designated as
Secondary. Voltmeter V1 , Ammeter A and wattmeter W are connected in the
primary as shown . Voltmeter V2 is connected in the open circuited Secondary.
Since the secondary is open circuited a small value of no load current called I0
flows in the primary and this is measured by the ammeter A. The power loss in
the transformer is due to core losses and a very small I2R loss in the primary.
There is no I2R loss in the secondary since the secondary is open and there is no
secondary current. Since I2R loss in the primary also is very small the no load
current is very small (usually 2 to 5 % of the full load current). The core loss is
dependent on the flux which in turn depends on the applied voltage. Since full
Page 2
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2021-22)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
rated voltage is applied to the primary in this test, full rated flux will be set up and
the full Core losses will be present. And these core losses will be constant at all
loads. Since the I2R loss in the primary is very small compared to the core losses,
they can be ignored and the full power consumed in the primary as read by
wattmeter W can be regarded as the core losses. With this understanding the
readings of the various meters in the OC test are as follows.
No load power factor : Cos Ɵ = PCL / V1.I0 (Since Input power = PCL = V1.I0.
Cos Ɵ )
We already know from the equivalent circuit description that ICL is the core loss
current corresponding to RC and IM is the magnetizing current corresponding to
XM and in terms of the present measurements are given by :
ICL = I0. Cos Ɵ and IM = I0. Sin Ɵ
The test setup to conduct the SC test is shown in the figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2021-22)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
HV side LV side
In this test high voltage side is designated as Primary (where an input voltage is
applied) and the low voltage side is designated as Secondary which is usually
short-circuited by a thick conductor(or sometimes through an Ammeter to read
additionally the secondary load current).Voltmeter V, Ammeter A and wattmeter
W are connected in the primary as shown.
A very low voltage through a Variac (Variable auto transformer) is applied to the
primary gradually from zero Volts to about 5 to 10 % of the rated primary value
till the primary current is just equal to the rated primary current. Since the
secondary is short circuited we will get rated primary current with a low value of
voltage itself. Since the applied voltage is very low the flux produced is also very
low. Hence the core losses also will be low and can be neglected. Now since the
rated currents are flowing in both the Primary and the secondary the input power
will be mostly consumed as copper losses. Since the secondary is short circuited
the secondary voltage is zero and the entire input voltage V1 drops in the total
equivalent impedance Z EQP of the transformer reflected to the primary.
Page 4
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2021-22)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
With this notation the power factor Cos ƟSC in this test is given by:
From the above readings and the governing equations we can calculate the
Equivalent Resistance, Equivalent Impedance and Equivalent Reactance
parameters of the transformer referred to the primary as below.
Equivalent Resistance: R EQP = PCUL / I2 PSC
Sumpner's Test :
Sumpner's test or back to back test on transformer is another method for
determining transformer efficiency, voltage regulation and heating under loaded
conditions. Short circuit and open circuit tests on transformer can give us
parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer, but they cannot help us in finding
the heating information. Unlike O.C. and S.C. tests, actual loading is simulated in
Sumpner's test. Thus the Sumpner's test gives more accurate results of regulation
and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.
Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two
identical transformers are available. Both transformers are connected to supply
such that one transformer is loaded on another. Primaries of the two identical
Page 5
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2021-22)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
In the above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Their secondaries are
connected in voltage opposition, i.e. both the emf's E EF and EGH cancel each other,
as transformers are identical. In this case, as per superposition theorem, no
current flows through secondary. And thus the no load test is simulated. The
current drawn from V1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal to no load current of each
transformer. Thus , input power measured by wattmeter W 1 is equal to iron losses
of both the transformers.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage
transformer. The voltage V2 is adjusted such that, the rated current I2 flows
through the secondary. In this case, both primaries and secondaries carry rated
current. Thus short circuit test is simulated and wattmeter W2 shows total full
load copper losses of both transformers. i.e. Copper loss per transformer PCu =
W2/2.
From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given
as:
Calculation of efficiency:
We have obtained Iron losses Pi as the input power W0 from the OC test and then
Full load ( or at any load ) copper losses Pcu as the input power Psc from the SC
test.
Using this data we can predetermine efficiency and regulation at any load and
power factor as shown below.
% η at full (rated load) = *,Rated KVA x cos Ɵ- / , Rated KVA x cos Ɵ + Pi + Psc } ]
x 100
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Similarly at any load which is a fraction of full load we can predetermine the
efficiency
% η at any load = *,n x Rated KVA x cos Ɵ- / , n x Rated KVA x cos Ɵ + Pi + n2Psc
} ] x 100
Calculation of Regulation:
From the SC test we can obtain the equivalent circuit parameters. We shall use
the following designation and get the expression for regulation by using the
circuit parameters referred to both primary and secondary.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Then
Regulation at any other load can be calculated using the same relation as above
except that the currents Ip and Is are to be multiplied by the corresponding load
fractions ‘n’ and the relations will become
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Fig: Simplified equivalent circuits (a) Referred to the primary side (b) Referred to
the secondary side
(c) With no excitation branch, referred to the primary side (d) With no excitation
branch, referred to the secondary side
Parallel operation of transformers:
(i) The transformers must be connected properly as far as their polarities are
concerned so that the net voltage around the local loop is zero. A wrong polarity
connection results in a dead short circuit.
(ii) Three-phase transformers must have zero relative phase displacement on the
secondary sides and must be connected in a proper phase sequence. Only the
transformers of the same phase group can be paralleled. For example, Y/Y and
Y/D transformers cannot be paralleled as their secondary voltages will have a
phase difference of 30°. Transformers with +30° and –30° phase shift can,
however, be paralleled by reversing the phase-sequence of one of them.
(iii) The transformers must have the same voltage-ratio to avoid no-load
circulating current when transformers are in parallel on both primary and
secondary sides. Since the leakage impedance is low, even a small voltage
difference can give rise to considerable no-load circulating current and extra I2R
loss.
(iv) There should exist only a limited disparity in the per-unit impedances (on their
own bases) of the transformers. The currents carried by two transformers (also
their kVA loadings) are proportional to their ratings if their ohmic impedances (or
their pu impedances on a common base) are inversely proportional to their
ratings or their per unit impedances on their own ratings are equal. The ratio of
equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance should be the same for all
the transformers. A difference in this ratio results in a divergence of the phase
angle of the two currents, so that one transformer will be operating with a higher,
and the other with a lower power factor than that of the total output; as a result,
the given active load is not proportionally shared by them.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
The primary voltages V1 and V2 are obviously equal. If the voltage-ratio of the two
transformers are not identical, the secondary induced emf’s, E1 and E2 though in
phase will not be equal in magnitude and the difference (E1 – E2)will appear across
the switch S. When secondaries are paralleled by closing the switch, a circulating
current appears even though the secondaries are not supplying any load. The
circulating current will depend upon the total leakage impedance of the two
transformers and the difference in their voltage ratios. Only a small difference in
the voltage-ratios can be tolerated.
Now we will consider ideal case of two transformers having the same voltage
ratio and their voltage triangles are equal in size and shape.i.e. apart from their
impedances being same, their X/R ratios are also same. The circuit shown in the
figure below consists of two transformers in parallel.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
As seen from this figure the impedance voltage triangles of both the
transformers are same. I1 and I2 are the currents flowing through transformers 1
and 2 which are in parallel. These currents are in phase with the load current and
are inversely proportional to the respective impedances.
Current sharing : Let us now find out the distribution of the given load current for
this condition between the two transformers. Let I be the total current and I1 and
I2 be the currents shared by the two transformers.
V2 = E - I1 ZA = E – I2Z2
Also I1 Z1 = I2 Z2
I1 / I2 = Z2 / Z1
Applying current divider formulae we get
I1 = I Z2 / (Z1 + Z2 )
and I2 = I Z1 /(Z1 + Z2)
Let us now consider the case of two transformers connected in parallel having
equal voltage ratios. The two transformers are having no load secondary voltage
same. i.e. E1 = E2 = E. These voltages are in phase with each other. This is possible
if the magnetizing currents of the two transformers are not much different. With
this case the primaries and secondaries of the two transformers can be connected
in parallel and no current will circulate under no load condition. This is
represented in the figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
The phasor diagram under this case is shown in the figure below .
The two impedances Z1 and Z2 are in parallel. The values of Z1 and Z2 are with
respect to secondary.The impedances Z1 and Z2 are equal in magnitude but not in
phase. i.e. the ratios X1/R1 and X2/R2 are not equal.
Fig: Phasor diagram of the two transformers with equal voltage ratios connected in
parallel
Current distribution:
I2 = I Zeq/ = I Z1/( Z1 + Z2
Multiplying both terms of above equation by voltage V 2,
V2 I1 = V2 I Z2 /( Z1 + Z2 )
V2 I2 = V2 I Z1/( Z1 + Z2)
The two transformers work at different power factor. One operates at high p.f.
while the other at low p.f. If the impedances Z1 and Z2 are equal both in
magnitude and quality i.e. ( X1/ R1 = X2/R2 ), then both transformers operate at the
same p.f. which is the p.f. of the load.
Now we will consider the case of two transformers working in parallel and having
unequal voltage ratio. This is shown in the figure below. The voltage ratios of the
two transformers are not equal. The parallel operation under this case is still
possible. But as seen previously there would be a circulating current under no
load condition.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Fig: Phasor diagram of two transformers with unequal voltage ratios connected in parallel
As can be seen the two transformers apart from having unequal output voltages
E1 and E2 , their impedances Z1 and Z2 and their X/R ratios are also unequal.
Φ1 and Φ2 are the power factor angles of these two transformers and Φ is the
combined p.f. angle.
Let us consider that the voltage ratio of transformer-1 is slightly more than that of
transformer-2. So the induced e.m.f E1 is greater than E2. Thus the resultant
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
terminal voltage will be (E1 - E2 ) which will cause a circulating current Ic under no
load condition.
Ic = (E1 - E2)/(Z1 + Z2 )
From the circuit diagram we have,
E1 = V2 + I1 Z1
E2 = V2 + I2 Z2
Also, IL = I1 + I2
V2 = IL ZL = ( II + I2 ) ZL
E1 =(I1 + I2) ZL + II Z1 ......................... (1)
E2 =(I1 + I2 ) ZL + I2 Z2 ........................ (2)
Subtracting equation (b) from (a) we have,
E1 - E2 = I1 Z1 - I2 Z2 from which we get
I1 = [(E1 - E2) + I2 Z2] /Z1.................... (3)
and I2 = [ I1 Z1- (E1 - E2)]/Z2 ......................(4)
From which we get: I2 = [E2 Z1 - (E1 - E2)ZL) / (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2)+ ............ (5)
Similarly by Substituting the value of I2 from equation (4) in equation (1) we get :
From which we get: I1 = [E1 Z2 + (E1 - E2)ZL)/ (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2)+........... (6)
If impedances Z1 and Z2 are small in comparision with load impedance ZL then the
product Z1 Z2 in the above equations (6) and (5) for currents I1 and I2 may be
neglected so that finally we get the current distribution between the two
transformers as,
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Where the second term (E1 - E2) / (Z1 + Z2) is the circulating current Ic which adds
to the load shared by transformer-1 whose output voltage E1 is higher and
subtracts from the load shared by transformer-2 whose output E1 is lower. Hence
transformer-1 gets overloaded and the transformers will not share the load
according to their ratings.
Introduction:
Almost all the major power generation and distribution systems in the world
today are three-phase ac systems. Since three-phase systems play such an
important role in modern life, it is necessary to understand how transformers are
used in them.
Transformers for three-phase circuits can be constructed in two ways. One
approach is simply to take three single-phase transformers and connect them in a
three-phase bank. An alternative approach is to make a three-phase transformer
consisting of three sets of windings wrapped on a common core.
These two possible types of transformer construction are shown in the figures
below.
The construction of a single three-phase transformer is the preferred practice
today, since it is lighter, smaller, cheaper, and slightly more efficient. The older
construction approach was to use three separate transformers. That approach
had the advantage that each unit in the bank could be replaced individually in the
event of trouble, but that does not outweigh the advantages of a combined three
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
phase unit for most applications. However, there are still a great many
installations consisting of three single-phase units in service.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
4. Delta-Wye(star) (∆-Y)
WYE-WYE CONNECTION:
The Y-Y connection details of three-phase transformers are shown in the figure
below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Advantage/Application: This is useful and economical for low power high voltage
transformers because the phase voltage is 1/√3 times the line voltage. Hence the
number of turns per phase and the strength of insulation required would be less.
Disadvantages:
1. If loads on the transformer circuit are unbalanced, then the voltages on the
phases of the transformer can become severely unbalanced.
2. Third-harmonic voltages can be large.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
One or the other of these correction techniques must be used any time a Y-Y
transformer is installed. In practice, very few Y-Y transformers are used, since the
same jobs can be done by one of the other types of three-phase transformers.
DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION:
The ∆- ∆ connection details are shown in the figure below.
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
In a ∆- ∆ connection, VLP = VØP and VLS = VØS, so the relationship between primary
and secondary line voltages is given by:
Advantages/Application:
Transformers with this configuration are economical for high power low
voltage application since the number of turns required for a given line
voltage are more (since line voltage is same as phase voltage)
This transformer has no phase shift associated with it and no problems with
unbalanced loads or harmonics.
For the secondary voltage to be perfect sinusoidal the magnetizing currents
must contain third harmonic components. The Delta configuration provides
a closed path for the circulation of third harmonic components of current.
Hence the flux remains sinusoidal thus resulting in better sinusoidal
voltages.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
The phase current is lesser than the Line current (by 1/√3). Hence the
conductor cross sectional area can be smaller thus resulting in saving of
conductor material.
Disadvantages:
VØP / VØS = a
so the overall relationship between the line voltage on the primary side of the
bank and the line voltage on the secondary side of the bank is:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Advantages/Application:
This connection is advantageous/economical for high power high voltage
step down power transformers. Primary in star configuration can be used
for higher voltage since line voltage is √3 times the phase voltage and thus
the number of turns required per phase will be lesser for a higher line
voltage. The delta side with lower line voltage (line voltage being equal to
phase voltage) can be used as secondary.
The neutral available in primary can be earthed to avoid distortion
Hence transformers with this type of connection are used in the main
receiving end of a transmission line where a step down transformer is
required.
The Y - ∆ connection has no problem with third-harmonic components in its
voltages, since they are consumed in a circulating current on the ∆ side.
This connection is also more stable with respect to unbalanced loads, since
the ∆ partially redistributes any imbalance that occurs. i.e. Load side
(secondary) large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactorily.
Disadvantages:
This arrangement has one problem. Because of this type of connection,
the secondary voltage is shifted 300 relative to the primary voltage of the
transformer which can be further positive shift or negative shift. The fact
that a phase shift has occurred can cause problems in paralleling the
secondaries of two transformer banks together. The phase angles of
transformer secondaries must be equal if they are to be paralleled, which
means that attention must be paid to the direction of the 30 0 phase shift
occurring in each transformer bank to be paralleled together.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
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Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
formed by connecting c1a2, a1b2 and b1c2 with the lines connected to these
junctions being labeled as a, b and c respectively as shown in Fig. (a). The phasor
diagram is drawn in Fig. (b). It is seen from the phasor diagram on the delta side
that the sum of voltages around delta is zero. This is a must as otherwise closed
delta would mean a short circuit. It is also observed from the phasor diagram that
phase a to neutral voltage (equivalent star basis) on the delta side lags by – 30° to
the phase-to-neutral voltage on the star side. This is also the phase relationship
between the respective line to- line voltages. This connection, therefore, is known
as – 30°-connection. Or YD1 representing 1O clock position. With this notation
secondary Delta lags the primary star by 300.
The + 30°-connection follows from the phasor diagram of Fig. (a) above with the
corresponding connection diagram shown in Fig. (b).
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
the above figures .But what was the – 30°-connection will now be the + 30°-
connection and vice versa.
DELTA-WYE CONNECTION:
∆-Y connection details of three-phase transformers are shown in the figures
below. In a ∆-Y connection, the primary line voltage is equal to the primary-phase
voltage VLP = VØP , while the secondary voltages are related by VLS = √3VØS .
Therefore, the line-to-line voltage ratio of this transformer connection is given by
:
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Advantages/Application:
This connection is advantageous/economical for high power high voltage
step up power transformers. Primary in Delta configuration can be used for
lower voltage (line voltage being equal to phase voltage) And secondary in
Wye (star) configuration can be used for higher voltage since line voltage is
√3 times the phase voltage and thus the number of turns required per
phase will be lesser for a higher line voltage.
Hence transformers with this type of connection are used at the starting
(Generating station) end of a transmission line where a step up transformer
is required.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Disadvantages:
This connection has the same disadvantages and the same phase shift as the Y - ∆
transformer. The connection shown in the figure above makes the secondary
voltage differ the primary voltage by 30° as in Y -∆.
The resulting configuration is known as open ∆ (or V-V) Connection and is shown
in the figure below.
Figure: Third transformer (VBR) removed from the Three transformer Bank and
the corresponding Phasor diagram
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
If the open Delta primary is now excited from a balanced three phase supply, then
the voltage across the gap where the third transformer used to be would exactly
be the same voltage that would be present if the third transformer were still
there .
Thus, the open-delta connection lets a transformer bank work as a three phase
transformer with only two transformers, allowing some reduced power flow to
continue even with a damaged phase removed.
Power Delivered in Open Delta configuration:
How much apparent power can the bank supply with one of its three
transformers removed? At first, it seems that it could supply two-thirds of its
rated apparent power, since two-thirds of the transformers are still present.
Things are not that simple. To understand what happens when a transformer is
removed, let us see the figures (a) and (b) below. Figure (a) shows ∆ - ∆
connection and figure (b) shows V-V connection.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
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Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
We know that the power output from a three phase system is √3 VLIL Cos φ
where Cos φ is the power factor. Hence in figure (a) ∆ - ∆ capacity = √3 VLIL Cos
φ = √3 VL √3IPh Cos φ (since IL = √3IPh)
Summary conclusion:
The total load carried by an open ∆ (V- V) connection is 57.7 % of the total
capacity of the ∆- ∆ and not 2/3rd (66.6 % ) of the total capacity of the ∆- ∆ as
might be expected. Thus for example, in a ∆- ∆ bank of three transformers each of
100kVA if one transformer is removed, then the total capacity of the resulting V-V
bank becomes 57.7 % of 300kVA i.e. 173.2kVA and not 200kVA.
In other words in V-V configuration the resultant capacity becomes 86.6% of the
rated capacity of the two transformers put together. i.e. 0.866 x 200kVA = 173.2
kVA .
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
When the three phase load is too small to warrant the installation of full
three phase transformer bank.
When one of the three transformers in a ∆ - ∆ bank is disabled service is at
a reduced capacity is adequate , till the faulty transformer is repaired and
restored.
When it is expected that in the future , the total load will increase
necessitating the closing of the open ∆.
Illustrative examples:
Example1: The following test results were obtained for a 20 kVA,2400/240 V
distribution transformer : O.C test(l.v side)240 V,1.066 A,126.6 WS.C test (h.v
side) 57.5V, 8.34 A, 284 W Calculate a) Equivalent circuit parameters when
referred to h.v side and draw it. b) Efficiency of the transformer at half full-load
with 0.8 power factor lagging. C) Regulation at full load 0.8 power factor lagging.
( JNTU May-15)
V0
X ' 259.095
0
Im
V1 2400
K 10
V2 240
R0 R0 'K 2 45.497k
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Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Wsc 284
R1e 4.083k
2
I le 8.342
V
∴ Z1e I sc 6.8944
sc
X 1e Z 1e2 R1e2 5.555
The equivalent circuits referred to h.v. side is shown in the figure below.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
= 97.589 %
= 2.293 %
Example 2 : Two similar 200 kVA, single phase transformers gave the following
results in Sumpner’s test : Mains wattmeter W1 = 4 kW, Series wattmeter W2 = 6
kW at full load current. Find out individual transformer efficiencies at i) Full load
at unity p.f.and ii) Half load at 0.8 p.f. lead. (JNTUK April-12)
i) At full load,
VAratingcos2
% 100 with cos Ø2 = 1
VAratingcos2 Pi ( pcu )F.L
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Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
200103 1
100
200103 1 2 103 3103
= 97.56 %
1
ii) At half load, cos Ø2 = 0.8 and n = = 0.5
2
∴ % n (VArating) cos2
n (VArating) cos P n2 (P )F.L 100
2 i cu
= 96.67 %
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
1.6
200
250 = Kh ×60× i.e. Kh = 0.607
60
2
2 200
90 = Ke × 60 i.e. Ke = 0.00225
60
Now E = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
1.6
230
∴ Ph = 0.607 ×50× = 348.795 W
50
2
2 230
Pe = 0.00225 ×50 × = 119.025 W
50
∴ Core loss = Ph + Pe = 467.82 W at 230 V, 50 Hz
V1 = 8.8 and V2
∴ = 8.8
f1 f2
∴ Ph = A f and Pe = B f2
∴ Pi = Ph + Pe = A f + B f 2
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
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Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Example 5:Two single phase transformer with equal turns have impendance of
(0.5 +j3) ohm and (0.6 +j10) ohm with respect to the secondary.If they operate in
parallel, determine how they will share a total load of 100 kW at p.f. 0.8 lagging ?
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Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
= [125 /- 36.860] 0.5 j3
(0.5 j3) (0.6 j10)
(125/_ 36.860 )(3.041/_ 80.530 )
=
13.046 85.160
380.125/_ 43.670 0
= 0 = 29.13 /- 41.49 kVA
13.046/_ 85.16
Example 6: Two single phase transformer A and B of equal voltage ratio are
running in parrallel and supplying a load of 1000 A at 0.8 p.f. lag. The equivalent
impedance of the two transformers are (2+j3)and (2.5+j5) ohms respectively.
Calculate the current supplied by each transformer and the ratio of the kW output
of the two transformer.
IB ZA 2 j3 3060555/_ 56.300
= 1.5504 /7.130
IA
∴ = 1.54+j 0.1924 I = (1.54 + j 0.1924) I
A B
IB
Total current I = 1000 A and p.f. of total current = 0.8 lag
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
E A Z B Z L (E A EB )
IA =
Z A Z B Z L (Z A Z B )
And IB = EB Z A Z L (E A EB )
Z A Z B Z L (Z A Z B )
Page 42
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Page 43
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Page 44
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
Solution:
𝑁1 𝑉𝑝 ℎ 1
∴ K= = 10 = and V = 11 Kv
ph1
𝑁2 𝑉𝑝 ℎ 2
𝑉𝑝 ℎ 1 11 ×10 3
∴ Vph2 = = 10
= 1100 V
10
Solution:
The load is 1500 kVA hence the rating of each transformer is (1500/3) = 500 kVA
and is same for all configurations. Since input is 11kV and output is 2200V, in all
configurations the line voltages are also same on both primary side and secondary
side. . i.e. VL1=11kV and VL2 = 2,200 V. The voltage and current ratings are
specified on Phase basis only and hence lets us find out VPh and I Ph on both HV
side and LV side for the given four configurations.
Page 45
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
i) 11 kV Y and 2200 V Δ
11103
Vph1 = = 6350.8529 V
3
Vph1 Iph1 = 500 × 103 i.e. Iph1 = 78.729 A
Vph2 = 2200 V
Vph2 Iph2 = 500 × 103 i.e. Iph2 = 227.2727 A
ii) 11 kV Δ and 2200 V Y
2200
Vph1 = 11 kV and Vph2 = 3 = 1270.1705 V
500103
∴ Iph1 = 11103 = 45.45 A
500103
∴ Iph2 = 1270.1705 = 393.6479 A
iii) 11 kV Y and 2200 V Y
11103 2200
Vph1 = 3 = 6350.8529 V, Vph2 = 3 = 1270.1705 V
500103
∴ Iph1 = 6350.8529 = 78.729 A
1500103
∴ Iph2 = 1270.1705 = 393.6479 A
Solution : VL1 = 6.6 kV, VL2 = 1.1 kV, Vph1 = VL1, Vph2 = VL2/√3
1200103 1200103
I1(FL) = 3VL1 = 3 6.6 103 = 104.9727 A (line value )
Page 46
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
1200103 0.9
100
= 1200103 0.9 20103 57740.9313 = 93.285%
Example 4: A 5000 kVA, 3 phase transformer 6.6 /33 kV, Δ/ Y has a no load loss of
15 kW and full load of 50 kW. The impedance drop at full load is 7%. Calculate the
primary voltage when a load of 3200 kW at 0.8 p.f. is delivered at 33 kV.
VA 5000103
∴ IL2 = = 87.4773 A = Iph2
3VL2 3 33103
7 3
Impedance drop per phase = 7 % of V = × 3310 = 1333.6791 V
Ph2
100 3
1333.6791 1333.6791
∴ Z2e = = 15.2459 Ω/ph
I ph2 87.4773
35103
But, Pcu(FL) = 3 × I 22ph R2e i.e. R2e = = 1.524 Ω
3 (87.4773)2
Page 47
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
3200103
IL2 = P2 = 69.98 A = I2ph
3VL2 cos 3 33103 0.8
I 2 ph [R2e cos X 2e sin]
∴ %R= × 100
V2 ph
11
Since Secondary is Star: VL2 = 11 kV, Vph2 = = 6.35 kV
3
Vph1 33
∴ K= = 5.1975
Vph2 6.35
R1 = 35 Ω, R2 = 0.876 Ω
3VL1 3 3310 3
3
Page 48
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Dr.Karimulla P Sk)
Unit 5: Testing of Transformers &Three Phase Transformers
I1 (FL)
∴ Pcu (FL) = 3× I12ph (FL) × R1e and I1ph =
3
2
8.7477
=3× × 58.6643 = 4489.1245 W
3
∴ %ղFL = VA cos
× 100
VA cos P P (FL)
i cu
500103 0.8
= × 100
500103 0.8 3050 4489.12
= 98.15 %
%ղHL = 0.5 VAcos × 100
0.5 VA cos P [(0.5)2 P (FL)]
i cu
Page 49
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology
Department of EEE (2022-23)
TESTS ON
TRANSFORMER
3. Polarity Test
Open Circuit Test or No-load Test
Qoc S oc Poc
2 2
where:
B.
2
Eoc 2502
Rm 250
Poc 250
C.
Soc Eoc Ioc 2504 1000VA
Qoc Soc Poc 10002 2502 968.24VAR
2 2
2
2
Eoc 250
Xm 64.55
Qoc 968.24
Short Circuit Test
where:
X e Z e Re
2 2
31.567 10.193
2 2
X e 29.88
Polarity Test
where:
Vp = test input voltage (volt)
V = voltmeter reading (volt)
If V>Vp, the polarity is additive
If V< Vp, the polarity is subtractive
Example:
E1 N1 N2
E2 E1
E2 N 2 N1
230
E2 120 12volts
2300
Reading = 120 + 12 = 132 volts for additive
Reading = 120 – 12 = 108 volts for subtractive
TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Copper Loss
- I2R loss in the primary and secondary windings.
Peddy ke ( f m ) ke ' E g
2 2
1.6
Eg
Physteresis kh f kh ' 0.6
1.6
m
f
where:
400
1.6
2500 ke ( 400) kh 0.6
2
50
2500 160000ke 1392.88kh
kh 1.795 114.87ke Eq.1
2201.6
850 ke (220) kh 0.6
2
25
850 48400ke 811.17kh Eq.2
Substitute Eq. 1 in Eq. 2:
Pe ke E g 0.01353(400)
2 2
Pe 2165watts
The efficiency of the transformer is the ratio of its output power
(power drawn by the load) to the input power (power developed
by the transformer).
Poutput
Poutput V2 I 2 pf Pinput Poutput Plosses
Pinput
where:
Poutput = output power or power delivered to the load
Plosses = power losses
V2 = load voltage (volt)
I2 = secondary current or load current (ampere)
pf = power factor
TRANSFORMER BANKS
FOR
THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
1. Delta-to-delta (Δ-Δ) connection
- This connection is seldom used in three-
phase transformers.
2. Delta-to-wye (Δ-Y) connection
- It is often used for distribution service
where a four-wire secondary distribution
circuit is desired.
3. Wye-to-delta (Y-Δ) connection
- This is extensively used for power
transmission and distribution.
4. Wye-to-wye (Y-Y) connection
- It is used when tying together two high-voltage
transmission system of unequal voltage.
Seatwork:
1. The following data were obtained when a
short circuit test was performed upon a 100
kVA, 2400/240V distribution transformer:
Esc = 72 volts; Isc = 41.6 A; Psc = 1180W.
All instruments are on the high side during
the short circuit test. Calculate the
equivalent resistance and reactance of the
transformer.
2. The no-load loss of a transformer at rated
voltage is 100watts at 30 Hz and 300 watts
at 60 Hz. What is the hysteresis loss at 60 Hz
and rated voltage? (Note: Since not specified, the
maximum flux density (βm) is assumed constant.)
Assignment:
𝑰𝒑 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟏𝟕 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
∅𝑚 = 𝛽𝑚 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑊𝑏
∅𝑚 = (0.93 ) (7.752 × 10−3 𝑚2 )
𝑚2
∅𝑚 = 7.209 𝑚𝑊𝑏
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 4.44𝑓∅𝑁
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 4,600
𝑁𝑝 = =
4.44𝑓∅ (4.44)(60)(7.209×10−3 )
𝑵𝒑 = 𝟐, 𝟑𝟗𝟓 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 230
𝑁𝑠 = =
4.44𝑓∅ (4.44)(60)(7.209×10−3 )
𝑵𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔
9. A single-phase transformer has a no-load power input of 250 Watts, when supplied
at 250 V, 50 Hz has a p.f of 0.25. What is the magnetizing component of the no-load
current?
A. 4.00 A B. 3.87 A C. 1.00 A D. none of these
Solution:
𝑃 250
𝑆= =
𝑝.𝑓 0.25
𝑆 = 1, 000 𝑉𝐴
𝑝𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.25
𝑝𝑓 = 75.52°
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼
1,000∠75.52
𝐼= = 4∠75.52° 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
250
𝐼 = 1 + 𝑗 3.873 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑰𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟕𝟑 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
REE – September 2011
10. A 4, 400 V, 60 Hz transformer has a core loss of 840 Watts, of which one-third is
eddy current loss. What is the core loss when the x’former is connected to a 4, 600 V,
50 Hz source?
A. 977 Watts B. 907 Watts C. 927 Watts D. 944 Watts
Solution:
1
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦
3
1
𝑃𝑒1 = (840)
3
𝑃𝑒1 = 280 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝑒
𝑃ℎ1 = 840 − 280
𝑃ℎ1 = 560 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑒2 𝑘2 (𝐸2 )2
=
𝑃𝑒1 𝑘1 (𝐸1 )2
4,6002
𝑃𝑒2 = 280 ( )
4,4402
𝑃𝑒2 = 306.033 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝐸 1.6
𝑘2 ( 20.6 )
𝑃ℎ2 𝑓2
= 𝐸1 1.6
𝑃ℎ1 𝑘1 ( 0.6 )
𝑓1
4,6001.6
( )
500.6
𝑃ℎ2 = 560 [ 4,4001.6
]
( )
600.6
𝑃ℎ2 = 670.788 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒2 = 𝑃ℎ2 + 𝑃𝑒2 = 670.788 + 306.033
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆𝟐 = 𝟗𝟕𝟔. 𝟖𝟐𝟏 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
13. Given a 10-kVA transformer with full-load losses amounting to 70 Watts in the iron
and 140 Watts in the copper. Calculate the efficiency at half-load unity power factor.
A. 98.62% B. 97.97% C. 97.28% D. 97.94%
Solution:
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐻𝐿 𝑆𝐻𝐿 2
=( )
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐹𝐿 𝑆𝐹𝐿
140(52 )
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐻𝐿 =
102
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐻𝐿 = 35 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑜 𝐻𝐿 5,000
ɳ 𝐻𝐿 = × 100% = × 100%
𝑃𝑜 𝐻𝐿+𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 +𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐻𝐿 5,000+35
ɳ 𝑯𝑳 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟒%
17. Calculate the all-day efficiency of a 100-kVA transformer operating under the
following conditions: 6 hours on a load of 50 kW at 0.73 power factor; 3 hours on a
load of 90 kW at 0.82 power factor; 15 hours with no load on secondary. The iron
loss is 1, 000 Watts and the full-load copper loss is 1, 060 Watts.
A. 96.31% B. 94.87% C. 95.33% D. 95.29%
Solution:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (50, 000)(6) + (90, 000)(3) + (0)(15)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 570 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = (1, 000)(24)
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 24 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝐶𝑢 1 𝑘𝑉𝐴 2
= (𝑘𝑉𝐴 1 )
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝐿
50/0.73 2
𝑃𝐶𝑢 1 = 1, 060 ( )
100
𝑃𝐶𝑢 1 = 497.279 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
90/0.82 2
𝑃𝐶𝑢 2 = 1, 060 ( )
100
𝑃𝐶𝑢 2 = 1, 276.919 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝐶𝑢 3 = 0 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐶𝑢 1 (6) + 𝑃𝐶𝑢 2 (3) + 𝑃𝐶𝑢 3 (15)
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (487.279)(6) + (1, 276.919)(3) + (0)(15)
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 6.814 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 570
ɳ𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = × 100% = × 100%
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒+𝑃𝐶𝑢 570+24+6.814
ɳ𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒅𝒂𝒚 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟖𝟕%
REE – September 2005
18. A 50-kVA, single-phase transformer has 96% efficiency when it operates at full-load
unity power factor for 8 hours per day. What is the all-day efficiency of the
transformer if the copper loss is 60% of full-load losses?
A. 92% B. 90% C. 89.5% D. 93%
Solution:
50
0.96 =
50+𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐹𝐿
50
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐹𝐿 = − 50
0.96
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐹𝐿 = 2.083 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐹𝐿 = (0.6)(2, 083)
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐹𝐿 = 1, 249.8 𝑊
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝐹𝐿 = 2, 083 − 1, 249.8
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 833.2 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (50 𝑘𝑉𝐴)(1.0)(8)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 400𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (833.2)(24)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 19.997 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (1, 249.8)(8)
𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 9.998 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
400
ɳ𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = × 100%
400+19.997+9.998
ɳ𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒅𝒂𝒚 = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟎𝟐%
20. A 500 kVA, single-phase, 13, 200/2, 400 Volts transformer has 4% reactance and
1% resistance. The leakage reactance and resistance of the high voltage (primary)
winding are 6.34 Ω and 1.83 Ω, respectively. The core loss under rated condition is
1, 800 Watts. Calculate the leakage reactance and resistance of the low voltage
(secondary) winding.
A. 7.56 Ω and 1.66 Ω B. 13.69 Ω and 3.42 Ω
C. 0.25 Ω and 0.055 Ω D. 13.9 Ω and 3.48 Ω
Solution:
(𝑉𝑏 )2 (13,200)2
𝑍𝑏 = =
𝑆𝑏 500,000
𝑍𝑏 = 348.48 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑅𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑅𝑝𝑢 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = (0.01)(348.48)
𝑅𝑒 𝑝 = 3.4848 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑋𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑋𝑝𝑢 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = (0.04)(348.48)
𝑋𝑒 𝑝 = 13.9392 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑅𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑟𝑝 + 𝑎2 𝑟𝑠
13,200
𝑎=
2,400
𝑎 = 5.5
𝑅𝑒 𝑝 −𝑟𝑝 3.4848−1.83
𝑟𝑠 = =
𝑎2 5.52
𝒓𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟓
𝑋𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑋𝑝 + 𝑎2 𝑋𝑠
𝑋𝑒 𝑝−𝑋𝑝 13.9392−6.34
𝑋𝑠 = =
𝑎2 5.52
𝑿𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟏 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
21. In Problem No.20, calculate the %V.R and efficiency of the transformer at full-load,
0.85 p.f. lagging and 2, 400 Volts.
A. 4% and 97.8% B. 6% and 95.4% C. 5% and 96.8% D. 3% and 98.4%
Solution:
𝑟𝑝 1.83
=
𝑎2 5.52
𝑟𝑝
= 0.0605 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑎2
𝑋𝑝 6.34
=
𝑎2 5.52
𝑋𝑝
= 0.21 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑎2
−1
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (0.85)
𝜃 = 31.79°
500,000 ∠−31.79°
𝐼𝑇 =
2,400
𝐼𝑇 = 208.33 ∠ − 31.79°
𝑟𝑝 𝑋𝑝
𝑍𝑒 𝑠 = ( + 𝑟𝑠 ) + 𝑗 ( + 𝑋𝑠 ) = (0.0605 + 0.055) + 𝑗(0.21 + 0.25)
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑍𝑒 𝑠 = 0.1155 + 𝑗0.46 Ω
𝑉𝑝 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑍𝑒 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑝 = (208.33 ∠ − 31.79°)(0.1155 + 𝑗0.46) + 2, 400
𝑉𝑝 = 2, 471.89 ∠1.6° 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
2,471.89−2,400
%𝑉𝑅 = × 100
2,400
%𝑽𝑹 = 𝟑%
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (500 𝑘𝑉𝐴)(0.85)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 425 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 1, 800 𝑊
𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝐼𝑇 2 𝑅𝑇 = (208.33)2 (0.1155)
𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 5, 012.86 𝑊
425,000
ɳ= × 100
425,000+1,800+5,012.86
ɳ = 𝟗𝟖 %
22. An 11, 000/230 V, 150 kVA, single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has a core loss of 1.4
kW and a full-load copper loss of 1.6 kW. What is the value of maximum efficiency at
unity p.f?
A. 98.17% B. 98.04% C. 97.22% D. 97.64%
Solution:
𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1, 400 𝑊
𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
=( )
𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝐹𝐿 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐹𝐿
1,400
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √(1502 ) ( )
1,600
ɳ𝑭𝑳 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟓𝟔 %
REE – September 2002
24. A 20 kV/7.87 kV autotransformer has 200 A current in the common winding. What
is the secondary line current?
A. 143.52 B. 200 C. 56.48 D. 329
Solution:
𝐼𝑐
=𝑎−1
𝐼𝑝
20,000
𝑎=
7,870
𝑎 = 2.54
200
= 2.54 − 1
𝐼𝑝
𝐼𝑝 = 129.76 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑝 + 𝐼𝑐 = 129.76 + 200
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟑𝟐𝟗. 𝟕𝟔 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
25. An autotransformer is adjusted for an output voltage of 85.3 Volts when operated
from a 117 Volts line. The variable power load draws 3.63 kW at unity power factor
at this setting. Determine the transformed power and the connected power from the
source to the load.
A. 980 Watts and 2, 650 Watts B. 1, 343 Watts and 2, 287 Watts
C. 1, 815 Watts and 1, 815 Watts D. 1, 210 Watts and 2, 420 Watts
Solution:
117
𝑎=
85.3
𝑎 = 1.37
1 1
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 (1 − ) = (3, 630) (1 − )
𝑎 1.37
𝑷𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔 = 𝟗𝟖𝟎. 𝟑𝟔 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑃𝑖𝑛 3,630
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑎 1.37
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏 = 𝟐, 𝟔𝟒𝟗. 𝟔𝟒 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝐼𝑝 = 104.17 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑆 500,000
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑉 =
𝑠 4,80
𝐼𝑠 = 1, 041.7 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝐼𝑝 ′ = 𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑝 ′ = 1, 041.7 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑆 = 𝑉𝑝 ′𝐼𝑝 ′ = (5, 280)(1, 041.7)
𝑺 = 𝟓. 𝟓 𝑴𝑽𝑨
𝑺∅ 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝑽𝑨
30. Two single-phase, 100 kVA transformers are connected in V (open delta) bank
supplying a balanced three-phase load. If the balanced three-phase load is 135 kW
at 0.82 p.f lagging and 0.823 efficiency, determine the overload kVA on each
transformer.
A. 10.5 B. 5.5 C. 15.5 D. 20.5
Solution:
𝑃 135,000
𝑆𝐿 = =
𝑝.𝑓 0.82
𝑆𝐿 = 164.634 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
ɳ=
𝑃𝑖𝑛
135
𝑃𝑖𝑛 =
0.823
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 164.034 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑛 164.034 𝑘𝑊
𝑆𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑝.𝑓 0.82
𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 200.041 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛 200.041
𝑆∅ = =
√3 √3
𝑆∅ = 115.494 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑆∅ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 100 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑆𝑂.𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿∅ − 𝑆∅𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 115.494 − 100
𝑺𝑶.𝑳 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟒𝟗𝟒 𝒌𝑽𝑨
31. In problem No. 30, determine the p.f of each transformer secondary.
A. 0.820 lagging and 0.820 lagging B. 0.996 lagging and 0.424 leading
C. 0.996 lagging and 0.424 lagging D. 0.410 lagging and 0.410 lagging
Solution:
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (0.82)
𝜃 = 34.92°
𝑝. 𝑓1 = 𝑐𝑜 𝑠(30 + 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜 𝑠(30 + 34.92)
𝒑. 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟒 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑝. 𝑓2 = 𝑐𝑜 𝑠(30 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜 𝑠(30 − 34.92)
𝒑. 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟔 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈
34. A polarity test is performed upon a 1, 150/115 V transformer. If the input voltage is
116, calculate the voltmeter reading if the polarity is subtractive.
A. 127.6 V B. 106 V C. 126 V D. 104.4 V
Solution:
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
1,150
𝑎= 115
𝑎 = 10
116
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 116 − 10
𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟒 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
35. A 20:1 potential transformer is used with a 150-V voltmeter. If the instrument
deflection is 118 Volts, calculate the line voltage.
A. 3, 000 V B. 2, 850 V C. 2, 360 V D. 2, 242 V
Solution:
𝑉𝐿
𝑎=
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
20 𝑉𝐿
=
1 118
𝑽𝑳 = 𝟐, 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
REE –September 2010
36. A three-phase wye-delta connected, 50 MVA, 345/34.5 kV transformer is protected
by differential protection. The current transformer on the high side for differential
protection is 150:5. What is the current on the secondary side of CT’s?
A. 3.83 A B. 2.53 A C. 4.50 A D. 4.83 A
Solution:
𝑆 50,000,000
𝐼∅ 𝑝 = = 345,000
3𝑉∅𝑝 3( )
√3
𝐼∅ 𝑝 = 83.67 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑦𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼∅ 𝑝 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑝
𝐼𝐶𝑇 𝑝 = 𝐼𝐶𝑇 𝑝 = 83.67 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝐿 ∅
𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑝
𝑎= =
𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑠
150 83.67
=
5 𝐼𝐶𝑇 𝑠
∅
(83.67)(5)
𝐼𝐶𝑇 𝑠 =
∅ 150
𝐼𝐶𝑇 𝑠 = 2.789 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
∅
39. Two single-phase transformers are connected in parallel at no-load. One has a turns
ratio of 5, 000/440 and rating of 200 kVA, the other has a ratio of 5, 000/480 and
rating of 350 kVA the leakage reactance of each is 3.5%. The no-load circulating
current is .
A. 207 A B. 702 A C. 720 A D. 270 A
Solution:
2
(𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1 ) (440)2
𝑋𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1 = =
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1 200,000
𝑋𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1 = 0.968 Ω
2
(𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒2 ) (480)2
𝑋𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒2 = =
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒2 350,000
𝑋𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒2 = 0.658 Ω
𝑋𝑒−𝑠1 = 𝑋𝑒 𝑋𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1 = (0.035)(0.968)
𝑿𝒆−𝒔𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟗 Ω
𝑋𝑒−𝑠2 = 𝑋𝑒 𝑋𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒2 = (0.035)(0.658)
𝑿𝒆−𝒔𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 Ω
REE – October 1997
40. A power transformer rated 50, 000 kVA, 34.5/13.8 kV is connected Y-grounded
primary and delta on the secondary. Determine the full load phase current at the
secondary side.
A. 2, 092 A B. 1, 725 A C. 1, 449 A D. 1, 208 A
Solution:
𝑆 = √3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿
50,000,000
𝐼𝐿 𝑝 =
(34,500)(√3)
𝐼𝐿 𝑝 = 836.74 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝐼𝐿 𝑝 = 𝐼∅ 𝑝
𝑉𝑝 𝐼
= 𝐼𝑠
𝑉𝑠 𝑝
(34,500)(836.74)
𝐼∅ 𝑠 = 13,800 (√3)
𝑰𝒔 ∅ = 𝟏, 𝟐𝟎𝟕. 𝟕𝟑 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
50,000,000
𝐼𝐿 𝑠 = (
√3) (13,800)
𝐼𝐿 𝑠 = 2, 091.849 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝐼𝐿 𝑠 2,091.849
𝐼∅ 𝑠 = =
√3 √3
𝑰∅ 𝒔 = 𝟏, 𝟐𝟎𝟕. 𝟕𝟑 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
𝐼𝐿 𝑝 = 44.626∠44.41°
𝑰𝑳 𝒑 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
2 𝑀𝑊 ∗
∠𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (0.75)
0.75
𝐼𝐿 𝑠 = [ ]
√3 (2,400)
𝐼𝐿 𝑠 = 641.5∠44.41°
𝑰𝑳 𝒔 = 𝟔𝟒𝟏. 𝟓 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
REE – April 2005
42. A 3, 000 kVA, 2, 400 V, 75% power factor load is to be supplied from a 34, 500-V,
three-phase line through a single bank of transformers. What is the voltage rating of
each transformer if the connection is wye-wye?
A. 20, 000/1, 380 B. 18, 500/1, 350 C. 18, 000/1, 850 D. 19, 000/1, 350
Solution:
34,500
𝑉∅ 𝑝 =
√3
𝑽∅ 𝒑 = 𝟏𝟗, 𝟗𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟖𝟒 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
2,400
𝑉∅ 𝑠 =
√3
𝑽∅ 𝒔 = 𝟏, 𝟑𝟖𝟓. 𝟔𝟒𝟏 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
46. Three 5:1 transformers are connected in delta-wye to step up the voltage at the
beginning of a 13, 200-Volt three-phase transmission line. Calculate the line voltage
on the high side of the transformers.
A. 114, 300 V B. 66, 000 V C. 132, 000 V D. 198, 000 V
Solution:
5 𝑉∅ 2 𝑉∅ 2
= =
1 𝑉∅ 1 13,200 𝑉
𝑉∅ 2 = 𝑎𝑉𝑝
𝑉∅ 2 = (5)(13, 200)
𝑉∅ 2 = 66, 000 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑉𝐿 = √3 𝑉∅ 2 = √3 (66, 000)
𝑽𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒, 𝟑𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟓𝟑 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a highly efficient device for changing ac voltage from one value to another, without any change in its
frequency. There exists no simple device that can accomplish such changes in dc voltages. Thus, the transformer has provided a
feature to ac power system that lacks in dc power system.
The general practice is to generate ac voltage at about 11 kV, then step up by means of a transformer to higher voltages of 132
kV, 220 kV and 400 kV for the transmission lines. This conversion aids the transmission of huge electrical power at low cost.
High-voltage lines carry low currents, and hence the cost of lines and the power loss are tremendously reduced. At distribution
points, other transformers are used to step the voltage down to 400 V or 220 V for use in industries, offices and homes. Since
there are no moving parts in a transformer, it practically needs almost no maintenance and supervision.
Apart from the above, the transformers are also used in communication circuits, radio and TV circuits, telephone circuits,
instrumentation and control systems.
1.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A transformer operates on the principle of mutual induction between two coils. Figure 1.1a shows the general construction of a
transformer. The vertical portions of the steel-core are termed limbs, and the top and bottom portions are called yokes. The two
coils P and S, having N1 and N2 turns, are wound on the limbs. These two windings are electrically unconnected but are linked
with one another through a magnetic flux in the core. The coil P is connected to the supply and is therefore called primary; coil S
is connected to the load and is termed the secondary.
1
Figure 1.1b shows the circuit symbol of a transformer. The thick line denotes the iron core. By having different ratios
N1/N2 of the two windings, power at lower or at higher voltage can be obtained. When N2 > N1, the transformer is called a step up
transformer; and when N2 < N1, the transformer is called a step down transformer.
EMF Equation
Consider a sinusoidally varying voltage V1 applied to the primary of the transformer shown in Fig. 1.1a. Due to this voltage, a
sinusoidally varying magnetic flux is set up in the core, which can be represented as
Φ = Φm sin ωt = Φm sin 2π ft
...(1.1)
where, Φm is the peak value of the flux and f is the frequency of sinusoidal variation of flux. As per the law of electromagnetic
induction, the induced emf in a winding of N turns is given as
dΦ d
e = −N = − N (Φm sin ωt ) = − N ωΦm cos ωt = ω NΦm sin (ωt − π / 2)
dt dt
...(1.2)
Thus, the peak value of the induced emf is Em = ωNΦm. Therefore, the rms value of the induced emf E is given as
Em ω NΦm 2π fNΦm
E= = = = 4.44 fNΦm
2 2 2
or E = 4.44 fNΦm
...(1.3)
This equation, known as emf equation of transformer, can be used to find the emf induced in any winding (primary or secondary)
linking with flux Φ.
Example 1.1 The primary of a 50-Hz step-down transformer has 480 turns and is fed from 6400 V supply. Find (a) the peak
value of the flux produced in the core, and (b) the voltage across the secondary winding if it has 20 turns.
Solution: (a) Using Eq. 1.3, we get
E 6400
Φm = = = 0.06 Wb = 60 mWb
4.44 fN1 4.44 × 50 × 480
(b) The voltage induced in the secondary winding is given as
E = 4.44 fN 2Φm = 4.44 × 50 × 20 × 0.06 = 266.4 V
2
(a) The circuit. (b) The phasor diagram.
Fig. 1.2 Ideal transformer.
Figure 1.2b shows the phasor diagram of the ideal transformer. We have taken flux Φ as reference phasor, as it is common to
both the primary and secondary. As per Eq. 1.2, the induced emfs E1 and E2 lag flux Φ by 90°. The voltage V1 is equal and
opposite to emf E1. Thus, the applied voltage V1 leads the flux Φ by 90°. According to the first condition of ideality, the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit is zero and hence the required magnetizing current to produce flux Φ is also zero.
Transformation Ratio
The ratio of secondary voltage to the primary voltage is known as transformation ratio or turns-ratio. It is denoted by letter K.
Let N1 and N2 be the number of turns in primary and secondary windings, and E1 and E2 be the rms values of the primary and
secondary induced emfs. Using Eq. 1.3, we can write
E1 = 4.44 fN1Φ m
...(1.4)
and E2 = 4.44 fN 2Φ m
...(1.5)
Then, the transformation ratio or turns-ratio can be expressed as
V2 E2 N 2
K= = =
V1 E1 N1
...(1.6)
Thus, the side of the transformer with the larger number of turns has the larger voltage. Indeed, the voltage per turn is
constant for a given transformer. By selecting K properly, the transformation of voltage can be done from any value to any other
convenient value. There can be two1 cases:
(i) When K > 1 (i.e., N2 > N1); V2 > V1: the device is known as step-up transformer.
(ii) When K < 1 (i.e., N2 < N1); V2 < V1: the device is known as step-down transformer.
In general, a transformer can have more than 2 windings. The windings of a three-winding transformer are called primary,
secondary and tertiary. The primary is connected to an ac supply. Different loads may be connected across the secondary and
tertiary2. The induced emf in a winding is still proportional to its number of turns,
E1 : E2 : E3 :: N1 : N 2 : N3
Volt-Amperes
Consider again the two-winding transformer of Fig. 1.2a. For an ideal transformer, the current I1 in the primary is just sufficient to
provide mmf I1N1 to overcome the demagnetizing effect of the secondary mmf I2N2. Hence,
I 2 N1 1
∴ I1 N1 = I 2 N 2 or = =
I1 N 2 K
...(1.7)
Thus, we find that the current is transformed in the reverse ratio of the voltage. That is, the side of the transformer with the larger
number of turns has the smaller current. For example, a step-up transformer would have a primary with few turns of thick wire
(small voltage, large current) and the secondary would have many turns of thin wire (large voltage, small current).
Combining Eqs. 1.5 and 1.7, we have
E1I1 = E2 I 2
Hence, in an ideal transformer the input VA and output VA are identical.
1
The third case, when K = 1 (i.e., N1 = N2) is not important. We hardly ever use a transformer with unity turns ratio. Such a
transformer is used only when you need electrical isolation between two electrical circuits.
2
Sometimes, the tertiary winding has a centre-tap; the two halves having same number of turns, N3. The voltage of such a
winding is then specified as E3/0/ E3, or E3 - 0 - E3.
3
Impedance Transformation
Equations 1.6 and 1.7 reveal a very useful property of transformers, called impedance transformation. Figure 1.3 shows an ideal
transformer. It has N1 and N2 turns in its primary and secondary windings respectively. A load impedance ZL is connected across
its secondary, and an equivalent impedance Zeq is defined at its primary.
Fig. 1.3 The transformer changes the impedance ZL to equivalent impedance Zeq.
The equivalent impedance Zeq as faced by a source V1 is given as
V1 V1 × (V2 I 2 ) ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ I 2 ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z eq = = = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ZL
I1 I1 × (V2 I 2 ) ⎝ V2 ⎠ ⎝ I1 ⎠ ⎝ I 2 ⎠ ⎝ K ⎠ ⎝ K ⎠
or Z eq = Z L / K 2
...(1.8)
Therefore, the impedance is transformed in inverse proportion to the square of the turns-ratio. The concept of impedance
transformation is used for impedance matching. As per maximum power transfer theorem, the load impedance has to be properly
matched with the source impedance, as illustrated in Example 1.3 given below.
Example 1.2 A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has 30 primary turns and 350 secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of
the core is 250 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 230-V, 50-Hz supply, calculate (a) the peak value of flux density in
the core, (b) the voltage induced in the secondary winding, and (b) the primary current when the secondary current is 100 A.
(Neglect losses.)
Solution: (a) The peak value of the flux in the core is given as
E1 230
Φm = = = 0.034534 Wb
4.44 fN1 4.44 × 50 × 30
Therefore, the peak value of the flux density in the core is
Φm 0.034534
Bm = = = 1.3814 T
A 250 × 10 −4
(b) The voltage induced in the secondary winding is
N2 350
E2 = E1 × = 230 × = 2683.33 V = 2.683 kV
N1 30
(c) The primary current is
⎛N ⎞ ⎛ 350 ⎞
I1 = I 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 100 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1166.67 A 1.167 kA
⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠
Example 1.3 A source with an output resistance of 50 Ω is required to deliver power to a load of 800 Ω. Find the turns-ratio of
the transformer to be used for maximizing the load power.
Solution: For delivering maximum power to the load, the equivalent resistance must be equal to the source resistance. This
requires a resistance of 50 Ω looking into the primary of the transformer. That is,
Req = RL / K 2 or 50 = 800 / K 2 ⇒ K = 800 / 50 = 16 = 4
Thus,
N2
K= =4
N1
Example 1.4 Determine the load current IL in the ac circuit shown in Fig. 1.4a.
4
Ip 20 Ω j20 Ω 2:1 IL Ip 20 Ω j20 Ω
( 2)
2
×2 Ω
+ 2Ω +
−
30 V ⇒ −
30 V
( 2 ) × ( − j10 ) Ω
2
-j10 Ω
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4
Solution: We first transform the load impedance into the primary to simplify the circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.4b. The primary
current is then calculated as
30∠0°
Ip = = 0.872∠35.53° A
20 + j 20 + 22 (2 − j10)
The load current, which is the same as the secondary current, is given by Eq. 1.7 as
I L = 2 × I p = 2 × 0.872∠35.53° = 1.74∠35.53° A
Example 1.5 A single-phase transformer has a core with cross-sectional area of 150 cm2. It operates at a maximum flux density
of 1.1 Wb/m2 from a 50-Hz supply. If the secondary winding has 66 turns, determine the output in kVA when connected to a
load of 4-Ω impedance. Neglect any voltage drop in the transformer.
Solution: Φm = Bm A = 1.1× 0.015 = 0.0165 Wb . Since the voltage drop in the transformer is negligible, we have
V2 = E2 = 4.44 fN 2Φm = 4.44 × 50 × 66 × 0.0165 = 241.76 V
V2 241.76
The output current, I 2 = = = 60.44 V
ZL 4
∴ Output volt-amperes = 241.76 × 60.44 = 14 612 VA = 14.612 kVA
Example 1.6 A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a square core having a net cross-sectional area of 9 cm2, and three
windings designed for the following voltages:
(i) Primary: 230 V; (ii) Secondary: 110 V; and (iii) Tertiary: 6/0/6 V.
Find the number of turns in each winding if the flux density is not to exceed 1 T.
Solution: Φm = Bm A = 1× 9 × 10 −4 = 9 × 10−4 Wb . The tertiary winding is divided into two halves; each half having a
voltage E3 = 6 V. Thus, the number of turns in each half of the tertiary is
E3 6
N3 = = = 30 turns
4.44 f Φ m 4.44 × 50 × 9 × 10−4
∴ Total number of turns on the tertiary winding = 2 × 30 = 60 turns .
We have seen that across 30 turns of the tertiary winding, the induced emf is 6 V. Therefore, the number of turns on the
primary and secondary can be calculated as follows :
N1 E1 N 3 E1 30 × 230
= or N1 = = = 1150 turns
N 3 E3 E3 6
N 2 E2 N 3 E2 30 ×110
and = or N2 = = = 550 turns
N 3 E3 E3 6
1.4 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER AT NO LOAD
In actual practice, a transformer can never satisfy any of the conditions specified above for the ideal transformer. Nevertheless, the
concept of ideal transformer is helpful to understand the working of an actual transformer. We shall consider these conditions one
by one, and see in what way a practical transformer deviates from the ideal transformer. In this Section, we shall consider only the
first two ideality conditions. The remaining two conditions shall be considered in Section 1.7.
Consider a transformer with its primary connected to an alternating voltage source V1, and no load connected across its
secondary (Fig. 1.5a). With open circuit, the current in the secondary winding is zero. If the transformer were truly ideal, the
primary current too would be zero, as per 713.5. But, in practice there does flow a little no-load current I0 in the primary. This
current I0 is also called the exciting current of the transformer. Following are the two reasons why the no-load current I0 flows in
the primary.
5
(1) Effect of Magnetization
Consider the first ideality condition. No magnetic material can have infinite permeability so as to offer zero reluctance to the
magnetic circuit. Hence, in a practical transformer a finite mmf is needed to establish magnetic flux in the core. As a result, an
in-phase magnetizing current Im in the primary is needed to set up flux Φ in the core. This current Im is purely reactive and lags
the voltage V1 by 90°. The flux Φ induces emfs E1 and E2 in the primary and the secondary windings. As per Eq. 1.2, both these
emfs lag flux Φ by 90°, as shown in Fig. 1.5b.
(a) The circuit. (b) The phasor diagram. (c) The equivalent circuit.
Fig. 1.5 Transformer on no load.
As the current I2 in the secondary is zero (no load connected), the voltage drop in the secondary winding is zero. Hence, V2 =
E2. The induced emf E1 counter balances the applied voltage V1 and establishes an electrical equilibrium. If the third and fourth
ideality conditions (i.e., the effect of the resistance of the winding and the leakage of flux) are ignored, the magnitude of V1 will be
the same as that of emf E1. Thus, V1 = -E1.
(2) Effect of Core Losses
Let us now consider the second ideality condition. There exist two reasons (hysteresis and eddy current) for the energy loss in
the core of the transformer. The source must supply enough power to the primary to meet the core losses. Therefore, a core-loss
current Iw (in phase with V1) flows through the primary, as shown in the phasor diagram of Fig. 1.5b.
Thus, we find that the no-load current I0 has two components, Im and Iw. The magnetizing current Im lags voltage V1 by 90° and
the loss component Iw is in phase with voltage V1. The angle φ0 is the no-load phase angle. Thus, from the phasor diagram of Fig.
1.5b, we have`
Example 1.7 A single-phase, 230-V/110-V, 50-Hz transformer takes an input of 350 volt amperes at no load while working at
rated voltage. The core loss is 110 W. Find the loss component of no-load current, the magnetizing component of no-load
current and the no-load power factor.
Solution: Given: V1 I 0 = 350 VA .
VA 350
∴ I0 = = = 1.52 A
V1 230
The core loss = Input power at no load, Pi = V1 I 0 cos φ0
Therefore, the power factor at no load is given as
Pi 110 W
pf = cos φ0 = = = 0.314
V1 I 0 350 VA
The loss component of no-load current is given as
I w = I 0 cos φ0 = 1.52 × 0.314 = 0.478 A
The magnetizing component of no-load current is given as
Since the core losses occur in the iron core, these are also called iron losses. These losses have two components: (i) Hysteresis
Loss, and (ii) Eddy-Current Loss
6
(i) Hysteresis Loss: When alternating current flows through the windings, the core material undergoes cyclic process of
magnetization and demagnetization. It is found that there is a tendency of the flux density B to lag behind the field strength H.
This tendency is called hysteresis3. The effect of this phenomenon on the core material can be best understood from the B-H plot
shown in Fig. 1.6.
3
In Greek, hysterein means ‘to lag’.
7
Note that the eddy-current loss varies as the square of the frequency, whereas the hysteresis loss varies directly with the
frequency. The total iron loss is given as
Pi = Ph + Pe
...(1.11)
Example 1.8 A single-phase, 230-V/110-V, transformer has iron loss of 100 W at 60 Hz, and 60 W at 40 Hz. Determine the
hysteresis and eddy-current losses at 50 Hz.
Solution: We know that the hysteresis loss, Ph ∝ f ⇒ Ph = Af
and the eddy-current loss, Pe ∝ f 2
⇒ Pe = Bf 2
Then, the total iron loss, Pi = Ph + Pe = Af + Bf . Therefore, at the given two frequencies, we have
2
At 60 Hz : 100 = 60 A + 3600 B
At 40 Hz : 60 = 40 A + 1600 B
Solving the above two equations, we get A = 1.167 and B = 0.00834. We can now calculate the two losses at 50 Hz,
Hysteresis loss at 50 Hz, Ph = Af = 1.167 × 50 = 58.35 W
Eddy-current loss at 50 Hz, Pe = Bf = 0.00834 × (50) 2 = 20.85 W
2
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8 Core type transformer.
(2) Shell Type Transformer: It has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on the central limb (shown schematically in
Fig. 1.9a). The LV and HV windings are sandwiched as shown in Fig. 1.9b. Here, the core surrounds a considerable part of the
windings.
8
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9 Shell type transformer.
In core type transformer, the flux has single path. But in shell type transformer, the flux divides equally in the central limb and
returns through the outer two legs. Since there is more space for insulation in the core type transformer, it is preferred for high
voltages. On the other hand, the shell type construction is more economical for low voltages.
1.6 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
Let us examine what happens when a load is connected to the secondary of the transformer. Note that for simplicity we are still
considering a partially ideal transformer (i.e., a transformer satisfying only the ideality conditions (iii) and (iv) stated on page
000). Before connecting the load, there exists a flux Φ in the core due to the no-load current I0 flowing in the primary. On
connecting the load, a current I2 flows through the secondary, as shown in Fig. 1.10. The magnitude and phase of I2 with respect
to the secondary voltage V2 depends upon the nature of the load.
9
(a) Resistive load. (b) Inductive load. (c) Capacitive load.
Fig. 1.11 Phasor diagrams for a transformer on load.
Example 1.9 A single-phase, 440-V/110-V, 50-Hz transformer takes a no-load current of 5A at 0.2 power factor lagging. If the
secondary supplies a current of 120 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging to a load, determine the primary current and the primary
power factor.
Solution: φ0 = cos −1 0.2 = 78.46° and φ2 = cos −1 0.8 = 36.87°
V2 110 1
The transformation ratio, K = = =
V1 440 4
∴ I1' = K × I 2 = (1/ 4) ×120 = 30 A
The angle between I 0 and I1' ,θ = φ0 − φ2 = 78.46° − 36.87° = 41.59°
∴ I1 = I 02 + I1'2 + 2 I 0 I1' cos θ = 52 + 302 + 2 × 5 × 30 × cos 41.59° = 33.9 A
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 1.12. Note that for the sake of clarity, the phasors are not drawn to the scale. The angle
between I0 and I1 is given as
I1' sin θ 30sin 41.59°
α = tan −1 = tan −1 = 35.97°
I 0 + I1 cos θ
'
5 + 30 cos 41.59°
∴ angle φ1 = φ0 − α = 78.46° − 35.97° = 42.49°
Thus,
Primary power factor = cos φ1 = cos 42.49° = 0.737
10
1.7 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
We now consider the ideality conditions (iii) and (iv) stated on page 3. The effects of deviations from these conditions become
more prominent when a practical transformer is put on load.
Effect of Winding Resistance
The windings are made of copper wire, since copper has good conductivity. In actual practice, each winding has some resistance.
Current flow through the windings causes not only a voltage drop but also a power loss called I2R loss or copper loss. This effect
is accounted for by including a resistance R1 in the primary and resistance R2 in the secondary, as shown in Fig. 1.13.
11
Equation 1.14 states that the applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of the negative of induced emf E1 and the voltage drops in
primary resistance, R1, and leakage reactance, X1, due to the flow of current I1. The induced emf E2 forces a current I2 in the
secondary circuit. Hence, Eq. 1.15 states that the induced emf E2 is phasor sum of the load voltage V2 and the voltage drops in
secondary resistance, R2, and leakage reactance, X2, due to the flow of current I2.
12
Since the no-load current I0 of a transformer is only about 3-5 percent of the full-load primary current, not much error will be
introduced if the exciting circuit R0-X0 in Fig. 1.15 is shifted to the left of impedance R1-X1. This results in a circuit shown in Fig.
1.17a.
(b) The impedances transferred from secondary side to the primary side.
Using the impedance transformation, we can now transform the impedances from the secondary side to the primary side and
remove the ideal transformer from the circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.17b. This can further be simplified by combining the two
resistances together and the two leakage reactances together, as shown in Fig. 1.17c. Here, the total resistance and total leakage
reactance as referred to primary are given as
Re1 = R1 + ( R2 / K 2 ) and X e1 = X 1 + ( X 2 / K 2 )
...(1.16)
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
Compared to the full-load primary current, the no-load current of a transformer is very small (only 3-5 percent). Therefore, while
considering the behaviour of a transformer on full-load, we can omit the exciting circuit R0-X0 without introducing much error.
The resulting approximate equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.18a.
13
Example 1.10 A single-phase, 50-kVA, 4400-V/220-V, 50-Hz transformer has primary and secondary resistances R1 = 3.45 Ω
and R2 = 0.009 Ω, respectively. The values of the leakage reactances are X1 = 5.2 Ω and X2 = 0.015 Ω. Calculate for this
transformer (a) the equivalent resistance as referred to the primary, (b) the equivalent resistance as referred to the secondary, (c)
the equivalent reactance as referred to the primary, (d) the equivalent reactance as referred to the secondary, (e) the equivalent
impedance as referred to the primary, (f) the equivalent impedance as referred to the secondary, (g) the total copper loss first by
using the individual resistances of the two windings and then by using the equivalent resistances as referred to each side.
kVA 50 000
Solution: Full-load primary current, I1 = = = 11.36 A
V1 4400
kVA 50 000
Full-load secondary current, I 2 = = = 227.27 A
V2 220
V2 220 1
Transformation ratio, K = = = = 0.05
V1 4400 20
(a) Re1 = R1 + ( R2 / K ) = 3.45 + [0.009 /(0.05) ] = 7.05 Ω
2 2
14
BC represents the reactive voltage drop, I2Xe2
AC represents the total impedance voltage drop, I2Ze2
OC represents the no-load terminal voltage, V2(0)
(same as the input voltage referred to the secondary, KV1)
15
OC 2 = OF 2 + FC 2
or OC 2 − OF 2 = FC 2
or (OC − OF ) (OC + OF ) = FC 2
or (OG − OF ) (OC + OF ) = FC 2
or FG (2OC ) = FC 2 [Taking OF OC ]
FC 2
( DC − DF ) ( DC − BE )
2
( I X cos φ − I 2 Re 2 sin φ ) 2
2
∴ FG = = = = 2 e2
2OC 2OC 2OC 2V2(0)
Thus, for lagging power factor,
Exact voltage drop = AF + FG
( I 2 X e 2 cos φ − I 2 Re 2 sin φ ) 2
= ( I 2 Re 2 cos φ + I 2 X e 2 sin φ ) +
2V2(0)
For leading power factor,
( I 2 X e 2 cos φ + I 2 Re 2 sin φ ) 2
Exact voltage drop = ( I 2 Re 2 cos φ − I 2 X e 2 sin φ ) +
2V2(0)
Thus, in general, we have
( I 2 X e 2 cos φ m I 2 Re 2 sin φ ) 2
Exact voltage drop = ( I 2 Re 2 cos φ ± I 2 X e 2 sin φ ) +
2V2(0)
...(1.24)
( I R cos φ ± I 2 X e 2 sin φ ) ( I X cos φ m I 2 Re 2 sin φ ) 2
% Exact voltage drop = 2 e 2 × 100 + 2 e 2 × 100
V2(0) 2V2(0) × V2(0)
or
1
= (Vr cos φ ± Vx sin φ ) + (Vx cos φ m Vr sin φ ) 2
2V2(0)
...(1.25)
Keep in mind that upper signs are to be used for lagging power factor, and the lower signs for leading power factor.
Condition for Zero Regulation
It is possible to obtain zero regulation for a transformer. For this, the voltage drop (as given by Eq. 1.20) from no-load to full-
load should be zero. It is possible only if the sign in Eq. 1.20 is negative, i.e., only if the load has leading power factor. Thus, the
condition of zero regulation is given as
Re 2
I 2 Re 2 cos φ − I 2 X e 2 sin φ = 0 or tanφ =
X e2
...(1.26)
Also, note that for leading power factor, if the magnitude of the phase angle φ is high, the magnitude of I 2 X e 2 sin φ may
become greater than that of I 2 Re 2 cos φ . The regulation then becomes negative. It means that on increasing the load the
terminal voltage increases.
Condition for Maximum Regulation
We can derive the condition for maximum regulation (the worst case) using Eq. 1.20. The maximum value of regulation occurs
when the voltage drop is maximum (for which we use + sign). Therefore, the condition of maximum regulation can be obtained
by differentiating Eq. 1.20 with respect to the phase angle φ and equating it to zero,
d
( I 2 Re 2 cos φ + I 2 X e 2 sin φ ) = 0 ⇒ (− I 2 Re 2 sin φ + I 2 X e 2 cos φ ) = 0
dφ
X
or tan φ = e 2
Re 2
...(1.27)
16
Example 1.11 A single-phase, 40-kVA, 6600-V/250-V, transformer has primary and secondary resistances R1 = 10 Ω and R2 =
0.02 Ω, respectively. The equivalent leakage reactance as referred to the primary is 35 Ω. Find the full-load regulation for the
load power factor of (a) unity, (b) 0.8 lagging, and (c) 0.8 leading.
Solution: Given : R1 = 10 Ω; R2 = 0.02 Ω; Xe1 = 35 Ω
250
the turns-ratio, K = = 0.0379
6600
40 000
the full-load current, I 2 = = 160 A
250
∴ Re 2 = K 2 R1 + R2 = (0.0379) 2 × 10 + 0.02 = 0.0343 Ω
and X e 2 = K 2 X e1 = (0.0379) 2 × 35 = 0.0502 Ω
(a) For power factor, cos φ = 1; sin φ = 0. Hence,
I 2 Re 2 cos φ + I 2 X e 2 sin φ
∴ % Regulation = × 100
V2(0)
160 × 0.0343 ×1 + 0
= ×100 = 2.195 %
250
(b) For power factor, cos φ = 0.8 (lagging, φ positive); sin φ = 1 − cos φ = 0.6 .
2
Hence,
I 2 Re 2 cos φ + I 2 X e 2 sin φ
∴ % Regulation = × 100
V2(0)
160 × 0.0343 × 0.8 + 160 × 0.0502 × 0.6
= × 100 = 3.68 %
250
(c) For power factor, cos φ = 0.8 (leading, φ negative); sin φ = −0.6 . Hence,
I 2 Re 2 cos φ − I 2 X e 2 sin φ
∴ % Regulation = × 100
V2(0)
160 × 0.0343 × 0.8 − 160 × 0.0502 × 0.6
= ×100 = −0.172 %
250
17
1.13
(ii) Iron losses or core losses, due to hysteresis and eddy-currents, given by Eqs. 1.7 and 1.8, respectively. That is, Pi = Ph +
Pe. Since the maximum value of the flux Φm in a normal transformer does not vary more than about 2 % between no load
and full load, it is usual to assume the core losses constant at all loads.
The efficiency of a transformer can thus be written as
Po Po V2 I 2 cos φ2
η= = =
Po + Pl Po + Pc + Pi V2 I 2 cos φ2 + I 22 Re 2 + Pi
1.14
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Assuming that the transformer is operating at a constant terminal voltage and a constant power factor, we are interested to know
for what load (i.e., what value of I2) the efficiency becomes maximum. To determine this, we first divide the numerator and
denominator of Eq. 1.30 by I2, to get
V2 cos φ2
η=
V2 cos φ2 + I 2 Re 2 + Pi / I 2
Obviously, the efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of the above equation is minimum, for which we must have
d Pi
(V2 cos φ2 + I 2 Re 2 + Pi / I 2 ) = 0 or Re 2 − =0
dI 2 I 22
or I 22 Re 2 = Pi or Pc = Pi
1.15
Thus, the efficiency at a given terminal voltage and load power factor is maximum for such a load current I2 which makes the
variable losses (copper losses) equal to the constant losses (iron losses).
All-day Efficiency
The efficiency defined in Eq. 1.26 is called commercial efficiency. This efficiency is not of much use in case of a distribution
transformer. The primary of a distribution transformer remains energized all the time. But the load on the secondary is intermittent
and variable during the day. It means that the core losses occur throughout the day, but the copper losses occur only when the
transformer is loaded. Such transformers, therefore, are designed to have minimum core losses. This gives them better all-day
efficiency, defined below.
Output energy (in kW h) in a cycle of 24 hours
ηall-day =
Total input energy (in kW h)
1.16
Example 1.12 For a single-phase, 150-kVA transformer, the required no-load voltage ratio is 5000-V/250-V. Find (a) the
number of turns in each winding for a maximum core flux of 0.06 Wb, (b) the efficiency at half rated kVA, and unity power
factor, (c) the efficiency at full load, and 0.8 power factor lagging, and (d) the kVA load for maximum efficiency, if the full-load
copper losses are 1800 W and core losses are 1500 W.
Solution: (a) Using the emf equation, we have
E2 250
E2 = 4.44 fN 2 Φ m ⇒ N2 = = = 18.8(say, 19 turns)
4.44 f Φ m 4.44 × 50 × 0.06
E1 5000
and N1 = N2 = × 19 = 380 turns
E2 250
(b) At half rated-kVA, the current is half the full-load current, and hence the output power too reduces by 0.5. Thus,
Output power, Po = 0.5 × (kVA) × (power factor) = 0.5 × 150 × 1 = 75 kW
Since copper losses is proportional to the square of current, we have
Copper losses, Pc = (0.5) 2 × (full-load copper loss) = (0.5) 2 × 1800 W = 0.45 kW
Iron losses being fixed, we have
Iron losses, Pi = 1500 W = 1.5 kW
Po 75
∴ η= × 100 = × 100 = 97.47 %
Po + Pc + Pi 75 + 0.45 + 1.5
(c) At full load and 0.8 power factor,
Output power, Po = (kVA) × (power factor) = 150 × 0.8 = 120 kW
Copper losses, Pc = 1800 W = 1.8 kW
18
Iron losses, Pi = 1500 W = 1.5 kW
Po 120
∴ η= × 100 = × 100 = 97.3 %
Po + Pc + Pi 120 + 1.8 + 1.5
(d) Let x be the fraction of full-load kVA at which the efficiency becomes maximum (that is, when the variable copper losses are
equal to the fixed iron losses). Then
Pc = Pi or x 2 × 1800 = 1500 x = 1500 /1800 = 0.913
Therefore, the load kVA under the condition of maximum efficiency is
Load kVA = (Full-load kVA) × x = 150 × 0.913 = 137 kVA
Example 1.13 For a single-phase, 200-kVA, distribution transformer has full-load copper losses of 3.02 kW and iron losses of
1.6 kW. It has following load distribution over a 24-hour day:
(i) 80 kW at unity power factor, for 6 hours.
(ii) 160 kW at 0.8 power factor (lagging), for 8 hours.
(iii) No load, for the remaining 10 hours.
Determine its all-day efficiency.
Solution: (a) For 80 kW load at unity power factor (for 6 hours):
Output energy = 80 × 6 = 480 kW h
Po 80
kVA = = = 80 kVA
pf 1
Using Eq. 1.29, we have
2 2
⎛ kVA ⎞ ⎛ 80 ⎞
Copper losses, Pc = ⎜ ⎟ Pc (FL) = ⎜ ⎟ × (3.02) = 0.4832 kW
⎝ kVA FL ⎠ ⎝ 200 ⎠
Iron losses, Pi = 1.6 kW
Total losses, Pl = Pc + Pi = 0.4832 kW + 1.6 kW = 2.0832 kW
∴ Total energy losses in 6 hours = 2.0832 × 6 = 12.50 kW h
(b) For 160-kW load at 0.8 power factor (for 8 hours):
Output energy = 160 × 8 = 1280 kW h
Po 160
kVA = = = 200 kVA = kVA FL
pf 0.8
∴ Copper losses, Pc = Pc (FL) = 3.02 kW
Iron losses, Pi = 1.6 kW
Total losses, Pl = Pc + Pi = 3.02 kW + 1.6 kW = 4.62 kW
∴ Total energy losses in 8 hours = 4.62 × 8 = 36.96 kW h
(c) For the no-load period of 10 hours:
Output energy = 0
Copper losses, Pc = 0
Iron losses, Pi = 1.6 kW
Total losses, Pl = Pc + Pi = 0 + 1.6 = 1.6 kW
∴ Total energy losses in 10 hours = 1.6 × 10 = 16 kW h
For 24-hour period:
Total output energy, Wo = 480 + 1280 = 1760 kW h
Total energy losses, Wl = 12.50 + 36.96 +16 = 65.46 kW h
Wo 1760
∴ All-day efficiency, ηall-day = × 100 = × 100 = 96.41%
Wo + Wl 1760 + 65.46
1.11 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
An autotransformer is a special transformer-connection that is useful in power systems, motor starters, variable ac sources, and
other applications. Figure 1.20a shows the special connection with the primary and secondary drawn in the usual position. Figure
1.20b shows the autotransformer (in the step-down mode) drawn in a manner that clarifies its function.
19
(a) Special connection of a transformer (b) Redrawn in the standard way
Fig. 1.20 A two-winding transformer converted into an autotransformer.
Note that the primary and secondary windings are connected in series for the new primary; the secondary is the new
secondary. Also, the primary and secondary are not electrically isolated from each other. Obviously, the voltage V2 = Vo. From
Fig. 1.20b, it is obvious that
N1 N + N2
Vi = V1 + V2 = V2 + V2 = 1 Vo
N2 N2
N2
or Vo = Vi
N1 + N 2
1.17
Hence, the new turns-ratio becomes N 2 : ( N1 + N 2 ) . Thus, we find that an autotransformer works like a potential divider
circuit, except that numbers of turns are to be used instead of resistances.
The apparent power rating (kVA rating) of the transformer is increased by the special connection, as is illustrated in
Example 1.14, given below.
Example 1.14 A single phase, 12-kVA, 120-V/120-V transformer is connected as an autotransformer to make a 240-V/120-V
transformer. What is the apparent power rating of the autotransformer?
Solution: Figure 1.21 shows the transformer connection with rated voltage and current. The current rating on both primary and
secondary windings is
12 kVA
I1 = I 2 = =100 A
120 V
In the autotransformer mode, the input apparent power is 240 × 100 = 24 kVA , and the output apparent power
is 120 × 200 = 24 kVA . Thus, the apparent power capacity of the 12-kVA transformer is doubled by the autotransformer
connection. In effect, half the apparent power is transformed and half is conducted directly to the secondary side.
Fig. 1.21
Practical Autotransformers
In practice, an autotransformer is made by winding a single coil XZ of N1 turns on a magnetic core, as shown in Fig. 1.22a. This
winding is excited by a voltage V1, so that a flux is set up in the core and an emf E1 is induced in the winding. The winding is
tapped at point Y, such that there are N2 turns between Y and Z. An emf E2 exists between the terminals Y and Z such that the
ratio E2/E1 = N2/N1 = K becomes the turns-ratio of the autotransformer. For ideal conditions, the turns-ratio is given as
N 2 V2
K= =
N1 V1
20
If a load is connected across terminals Y and Z, a load-current I2 flows due to the emf E2. The mmf due to current I2 is
counterbalanced by the mmf due to current I1.
The portion YZ of the winding is common to both the primary and secondary sides. Hence, it is called common
winding. The portion XY is called series winding. In variacs (variable autotransformers), point Y is made a sliding contact so as
to give a variable output voltage.
(a) Step-down Autotransformer: In Fig. 1.22a, N 2 < N1 , hence V2 < V1. Hence, this arrangement is a step-down
autotransformer. The output current I2 is greater than the input current I1. The distribution of currents in the winding is shown in
the figure.
The apparent power (volt-amperes) on the two sides must be the same V1 I1 = V2 I 2 . We can write the volt-amperes
delivered to the load as
V2 I 2 = V2 I1 + V2 ( I 2 − I1 )
The part V2I1 represents the volt-amperes conductively transferred from ac source to the load through the winding portion XY.
Only the remaining part V2 ( I 2 − I1 ) of the total volt-amperes is inductively transferred from ac source to the load through the
winding portion YZ.
(b) Step-up Autotransformer: In Fig. 1.22b, N 2 > N1 , hence V2 > V1. Hence, this arrangement is a step-up
autotransformer. The output current I2 is less than the input current I1. The volt-amperes drawn from the ac source at the input of
the autotransformer can be written as
V1 I1 = V1 I 2 + V1 ( I1 − I 2 )
The part V1I2 represents the volt-amperes conductively transferred to the load through the winding portion XY. The remaining
part V1 ( I1 − I 2 ) is inductively transferred to the load through the winding portion YZ.
Saving in Copper
For the same voltage ratio and capacity (volt-ampere rating), an autotransformer needs much less copper (or aluminium) material
compared to a two-winding transformer. The cross-sectional area of a conductor is proportional to the current carried by it, and its
length is proportional to the number of turns. Therefore,
Weight of copper in a winding ∝ NI = kNI
For a two-winding transformer:
Weight of copper in primary = kN1 I1
Weight of copper in secondary = kN 2 I 2
Total weight of copper = k ( N1 I1 + N 2 I 2 )
For an autotransformer (see Fig. 1.22a):
The portion XY of the winding has N1 − N 2 turns and carries current I1. The portion YZ of the winding has N 2 turns and
carries current I2 - I1. Therefore,
Weight of copper in portion XY = k ( N1 − N 2 ) I1
Weight of copper in portion YZ = kN 2 ( I 2 − I1 )
Total weight of copper = k ( N1 − N 2 ) I1 + kN 2 ( I 2 − I1 ) = k[( N1 − 2 N 2 ) I1 + N 2 I 2 ]
Therefore, the ratio of copper- weights for the two cases is
21
⎡ ⎛ N 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ I1 ⎞ ⎛ N 2 ⎞
⎢1 − 2 ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
k[( N1 − 2 N 2 ) I1 + N 2 I 2 ] ⎣ ⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ I 2 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠ [1 − 2 K ]K + K
= = = 1− K
k ( N1 I1 + N 2 I 2 ) ⎛ I1 ⎞ ⎛ N 2 ⎞ K+K
⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟
⎝ I 2 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠
Evidently, the saving is large if K is close to unity. A unity transformation ratio means that no copper is needed at all for the
autotransformer. The winding can be removed all together. The volt-amperes are conductively transformed directly to the load !
Disadvantages: The use of autotransformer has following disadvantages:
1. No electrical isolation between the two sides.
2. Should an open-circuit occur between points Y and Z, full primary high voltage appears across the load.
3. The short-circuit current is larger than that in two-winding transformer.
Applications: The autotransformers find applications in following areas:
1. Boosting or buckling of supply voltage by a small amount.
2. Starting of ac machines, where the voltage is raised in two or more steps.
3. Continuously varying ac supply as in variacs.
72
Secondary phase voltage, Vph2 = 3300 × = 283 V
840
∴ Secondary line voltage,VL 2 = V ph 2 × 3 = 283 × 3 = 490 V
1.13 TRANSFORMER TESTING
There are two simple tests that may be conducted on a transformer to determine its efficiency and regulation. These are called
open-circuit test and short-circuit test. The power required to carry out these tests is very small compared with the full-load output
of the transformer.
22
(1) Open-Circuit Test
This test determines the no-load current and the parameters of the exciting circuit of the transformer. The transformer is connected
as shown in Fig. 1.24. Generally, the low voltage (LV) side is supplied rated voltage and frequency through an autotransformer
(also called a variac). The high voltage (HV) side is left open. The ratio of the voltmeter readings, V2/ V1, gives the
transformation ratio of the transformer. The reading of ammeter A, Io, gives the no-load current I0, and its reading is a check on
the magnetic quality of the ferromagnetic core and joints.
The primary current on no load is usually less than 5 per cent of the full-load current. Hence, the I2R loss on no load is less
than 1/400 of the primary I2R loss of full load and is therefore negligible compared with the core loss. Hence the wattmeter
reading, Wo, can be assumed to give the core loss of the transformer.
Example 1.16 A single-phase, 50-Hz, 12-kVA, 200-V/400-V transformer gives the following test results:
(i) Open-circuit test (with HV winding open) : 200 V, 1.3 A, 120 W
(ii) Short-circuit test (with LV winding short-circuited) : 22 V, 30 A, 200 W
Calculate (a) the magnetizing current and the core-loss current, and (b) the parameters of equivalent circuit as referred to the low
voltage winding.
Solution: (a) The wattmeter reading, 120 W, in the open-circuit test gives the core losses. Therefore, the core-loss current is given
as
Wo 120 W
Iw = = = 0.6 A
V1 200 V
Hence the magnetizing current is given as
23
The short-circuit test gives the equivalent resistance and reactance as referred to the primary side (high voltage winding).
From the given specification of the transformer,
V2 200 V 1
The transformation ratio, K = = =
V1 400 V 2
12 kVA
The rated full-load current in the high voltage side, I FL = = 30 A
400 V
This confirms that the short-circuit test has been done at the rated full-load. Thus,
Wsc 200 W Vsc 22 V
Re1 = = = 0.222 Ω and Z e1 = = = 0.733 Ω
I sc2 (30 A) 2 I sc 30 A
∴ X e1 = Z e21 − Re21 = (0.733) 2 − (0.222) 2 = 0.699 Ω
We can now determine the equivalent resistance and reactance as referred to the secondary side (low voltage winding), as
2 2
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
Re 2 = K 2 Re1 = ⎜ ⎟ × 0.222 = 0.055 Ω and X e 2 = K 2 X e1 = ⎜ ⎟ × 0.699 = 0.175 Ω
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
Example 1.17 A 25-kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40 turns on the secondary winding. The primary
winding is connected to a 3-kV, 50-Hz ac source. Calculate (a) the secondary emf, (b) the primary and secondary currents on full
load, and (c) the maximum flux in the core.
Solution: (a) The transformation ratio is given as
N2 40
K= = = 0.08
N1 500
∴ Secondary emf, E2 = KE1 ≈ KV1 = 0.08 × 3000 = 240 V
(b) The primary and secondary full-load currents are given as
kVA 25 kVA I1 8.33 A
I1 = = = 8.33 A and I2 = = = 104.125 A
V1 3 kV K 0.08
(c) The maximum flux in the core is given by emf equation,
E1 3000
Φm = = = 0.027 Wb
4.44 fN1 4.44 × 50 × 500
Example 1.18 A 230-V, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer has 50 turns on its primary. It is required to operate with a maximum
flux density of 1 T. Calculate the active cross-sectional area of the core. Find suitable dimensions for a square core.
Solution: From the emf equation, we have
E1 230
Φm = = = 0.02072 Wb
4.44 fN1 4.44 × 50 × 50
Φ m 0.02072
∴ Active core area, A = = = 0.02072 m 2 = 207.2 cm 2
Bm 1
Due to the insulation of laminations from each other, the gross area is about 10 % greater than the active area. Thus,
Gross area = 207.2 ×1.1 = 227.92 cm 2
If the core has square cross-section, the side of the square is
a = 227.92 = 15.09 ≈ 15 cm
Example 1.19 A single-phase transformer has a core whose cross-sectional area is 150 cm2, operates at a maximum flux density
of 1.1 Wb/m2 from a 50-Hz supply. If the secondary winding has 66 turns, determine the output in kVA when connected to a load
of 4-Ω impedance. Neglect any voltage drop in the transformer.
Solution: Φ m = Bm A = 1.1× 0.015 = 0.0165 Wb .
24
E2 = 4.44Φm fN 2 = 4.44 × 0.0165 × 50 × 66 = 242 V = V2
(Neglecting the voltage drops)
V2 242
Secondary current, I 2 = = = 60.5 A
ZL 4
V2 I 2 242 × 60.5
∴ output in kVA = = = 14.6 kVA
1000 1000
Example 1.20 A 11-kV/400-V distribution transformer takes a no-load primary current of 1 A at a power factor of 0.24 lagging.
Find (a) the core-loss current, (b) the magnetizing current, and (c) the iron loss.
Solution: (a) The core-loss current, I w = I 0 cos φ0 = 1.0 × 0.24 = 0.24 A
25
Therefore, ignoring I0, we have I1 = I1' = 3.648 A
Thus, the current in the LV winding, I 2 = I1' / K = 3.648 /(0.25) = 14.592 A
(b) The copper loss in transformer = I1 Re1 = (3.648) × 2.36 = 31.4 W
2 2
P 31.4
(c) The power factor = cos φ1 = = = 0.3586
V1 I1 24 × 3.648
Example 1.23 The results of tests conducted on a single-phase, 20-kVA, 2200-V/220-V, 50-Hz transformer are given as under:
OC test (HV winding open) : 220 V, 4.2 A, 148 W.
SC test (LV winding short-circuited) : 86 V, 10.5 A, 360 W.
Determine (a) the regulation and efficiency at 0.8 pf lagging at full load, and (b) the power factor on short-circuit.
Solution: (a) From the short-circuit test, we have VSC = 86 V, ISC = 10.5 A, PSC = 360 W. Then,
VSC 86 V PSC 360 W
Z e1 = = = 8.19 Ω; Re1 = 2
= = 3.265 Ω
I SC 10.5 A I SC (10.5 A) 2
∴ X e1 = Z e21 − Re21 = (8.19) 2 − (3.265)2 = 7.51 Ω
VA 20 000
The full-load primary current, I1 = = = 9.09 A
V1 2200
Since power factor is 0.8, we have cos φ = 0.8, and sin φ = sin[cos −1 0.8] = 0.6
Using Eq. 1.18, we can determine regulation in terms of quantities referred to the primary side,
I1 ( Re1 cos φ + X e1 sin φ )
% Regulation = × 100
V1
9.09(3.265 × 0.8 + 7.51× 0.6)
= × 100 = 2.94 %
2200
The short-circuit test has been conducted for a short-circuit primary current of 10.5 A, whereas full-load primary current is
only 9.09 A. Therefore, the full-load copper loss is given as
2
⎛ 9.09 ⎞
Full-load copper loss = ⎜ ⎟ × 360 = 269.58 W
⎝ 10.5 ⎠
The open-circuit test gives the core loss. Hence, Pi = 148 W.
The full-load output power, Po = VA × pf = 20 000 × 0.8 = 16 000 W
Po 16 000
∴ % Efficiency, η = × 100 = × 100 = 97.45 %
Po + Pc + Pi 16 000 + 269.8 + 148
(b) The power factor on short-circuit is given as
Re1 3.265
pf = cos φSC = = = 0.399 (lagging)
Z e1 8.19
Example 1.24 A single-phase, 200-kVA transformer has an efficiency of 98 % at full-load. If the maximum efficiency occurs at
three-quarter of full-load, calculate the efficiency at half of full-load current, assuming the power factor to be 0.8 lagging.
Solution: At a power factor of 0.8, the full-load output power,
Po = (kVA) × (pf ) = (200 kVA)×0.8 = 160 kW
Po 160 kW
Since the efficiency is only 98 %, the input power, Pin = = = 163.26 kW
η 0.98
Therefore, total losses (copper loss and iron loss) on full load is
Pc + Pi = Pin − Po = 163.26 − 160 = 3.26 kW …(i)
We know that maximum efficiency occurs when the variable loss (copper loss) equals the fixed loss (iron loss). Hence, we must
have
2
⎛3⎞
⎜ ⎟ Pc = Pi …(ii)
⎝4⎠
26
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get Pc = 2.09 kW and Pi = 1.17 kW
Now, at half load, the total loss is given as
2 2
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
Total losses, Pl = ⎜ ⎟ Pc + Pi = ⎜ ⎟ × 2.09 + 1.17 = 1.69 kW
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
Po (160 / 2)
∴ % Efficiency,η half-load = × 100 = = 97.93 %
Po + Pl (160 / 2) + 1.69
Example 1.25 A single-phase, 150-kVA, 5000-V/250-V, 50-Hz transformer has the full-load copper losses of 1.8 kW and core
losses of 1.5 kW. Find (a) the number of turns in each winding for a maximum core flux of 60 mWb, (b) the efficiency at full
rated kVA, with power factor of 0.8 lagging, (c) the efficiency at half the rated kVA, with unity power factor, and (d) the kVA
load for maximum efficiency.
Solution: (a) Since E = 4.44 fN Φ m , the number of turns on the secondary winding,
E2 250
N2 = = = 19 turns
4.44 f Φ m 4.44 × 50 × 0.06
E1 5000
∴ N1 = N 2 = 19 × = 380 turns
E2 250
(b) At full rated kVA, the current is also full-load. Therefore,
Power output, Po = V2 I 2 × cos φ = (150 kVA) × 0.8 = 120 kW
Copper losses, Pc = 1.8 kW and the iron losses, Pi = 1.5 kW
Po 120
∴ % Efficiency,η = × 100 = × 100 = 97.32 %
Po + Pc + Pi 120 + 1.8 + 1.5
(c) At half the rated kVA, the current is half the full-load current. Thus,
Power output, Po = 0.5 × V2 I 2 × cos φ = 0.5 × (150 kVA) × 1 = 75 kW
27
The load impedance referred to the primary side,
Z eq = Z L / K 2 = 1.152 /(0.1)2 = 115.2 Ω
(c) The current referred to the high voltage side,
I1' = KI 2 = 0.1× 208.33 = 20.833 A
Example 1.27 A single-phase, 10-kVA, 2300-V/230-V, 50-Hz transformer is connected as an autotransformer with LT winding
in series with the HT winding as shown in Fig. 1.26. The autotransformer is excited from a 2530-V source, and it is fully loaded
such that the rated currents of the windings are not exceeded. Determine (a) the current distribution in the windings, (b) the kVA
output, (c) the volt-amperes transferred conductively and inductively from the input to the output, and (d) the saving in copper as
compared to the two-winding transformer for the same output.
28
SUMMARY
1. A transformer operates on the principle of mutual induction between two coils called primary and secondary.
2. The emf equation of a transformer: E = 4.44Φ m fN
3. A transformer is said to be ideal, if it has (i) infinite permeability, (ii) no core losses, (iii) no copper loss, and (iv) no leakage
flux.
V2 E2 N 2 I 2 N1 1
Transformation ratio, K = = = = = and Z eq1 = Z L 2 / K
2
4. ;
V1 E1 N1 I1 N 2 K
5. The exciting current or no-load current, I0 has two components: (i) magnetizing current, Im, and (ii) core-loss current, Iw.
6. The exciting circuit in the equivalent circuit of a transformer has a resistance R0 (which accounts for the core losses) and
reactance X0 (which accounts for the required magnetic flux in the core) in parallel.
7. The hysteresis loss varies directly with the frequency, and is given as
Ph = K h Bmn f V
8. The eddy-current loss varies directly with the square of the frequency, and is given as
Pe = K e Bm2 f 2t 2V
9. In core-type transformer, the windings surround a considerable part of the core, whereas in the shell-type transformer, the
core surrounds a considerable part of the windings.
10. On loading a transformer, the flux remains the same but the load current I2 gets reflected in the primary side as primary
balancing current or load component of primary current, I1’.
11. To account for the copper loss, resistances R1 and R2 are included in the primary and secondary of the equivalent circuit.
12. To account for the leakage flux, reactances X1 and X2 are included in the primary and secondary of the equivalent circuit.
13. Total resistance and leakage reactance referred to primary are
Re1 = R1 + ( R2 / K 2 ) and X e1 = X 1 + ( X 2 / K 2 )
14. Total resistance and leakage reactance referred to secondary are
Re 2 = K 2 R1 + R2 and X e 2 = K 2 X 1 + X 2
V2(0) − V2
15. Per unit regulation down =
V2(0)
V2(0) − V2
16. Per unit regulation up =
V2
17. Approximate voltage drop = I 2 Re 2 cos φ ± I 2 X e 2 sin φ (+ for lagging, −for leading pf).
Re 2
18. Condition for zero regulation: tanφ = (occurs only for leading pf).
X e2
X e2
19. Condition for maximum regulation: tan φ =
Re 2
Power output Po
20. Efficiency,η = =
Power output +Power loss Po + Pl
21. Condition for maximum efficiency: Variable losses = Fixed losses, or Pc = Pi
22. An autotransformer has only one winding, a part of which is common to primary and secondary.
23. The OC test determines the following:
W V V
Pi = Wo ; I 0 = I o ; I w = o ; I m = I 02 − I w2 ; R0 = 1 ; X 0 = 1
V1 Iw Im
24. The SC test determines the following:
W V
Re1 = 2sc ; Z e1 = sc ; X e1 = Z e21 − Re21
I sc I sc
29
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Before you proceed to the next Chapter, take this Test. Give yourself two marks for each correct answer and minus one for each
wrong answer. If your score is 12 or more, go to the next Chapter; otherwise study this Chapter again.
Answers
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the principle of working of a transformer. What is meant by step-up and step-down transformers? Which quantity
is being stepped up or stepped down?
2. Deduce the emf equation of a transformer.
3. State the conditions to be satisfied by a transformer to be ‘ideal’. How is the concept of an ‘ideal transformer’ useful in
understanding the behaviour of an actual transformer?
4. How do you justify that the voltage per turn is constant for a given transformer.
5. What do you understand by ‘transformation ratio’? A resistive load is connected across the secondary. What will be its
equivalent resistance as referred to the primary?
6. What is meant by ‘resistance referred to the primary’ and ‘resistance referred to the secondary’?
7. Draw the no-load phasor diagram of a transformer. Express the magnetizing current and the core-loss current in terms of the
no-load current and the power factor.
8. Explain why the hysteresis loss and the eddy-current loss occur in the core of a transformer.
9. Explain how the hysteresis loss and the eddy-current loss are related to the frequency of the ac supply. Also state how these
losses can be reduced.
10. Give the constructional differences between a core-type and a shell-type transformer.
11. Assuming that the windings of a practical transformer have no resistance and there is no leakage of flux, draw complete
phasor diagram for (a) a resistive load, (b) an inductive load, and (c) a capacitive load.
12. Explain what you understand by leakage flux and leakage reactance in reference to a transformer.
13. Explain how the effects of winding resistance and flux leakage represented in the equivalent circuit of a transformer.
14. Draw the complete equivalent circuit of a practical transformer. Show how this equivalent circuit can further be simplified
without introducing much error.
30
15. Draw the equivalent circuit of a transformer with (a) the primary quantities referred to the secondary side, and (b) the
secondary quantities referred to the primary side.
16. Define voltage regulation of a transformer. Explain what is meant by (a) inherent regulation, (b) percentage regulation up,
and (c) percentage regulation down.
17. Assuming that the impedance voltage drop is quite small compared to the full-load voltage, derive an expression for the
voltage drop from the no-load condition to the full-load condition in a transformer for both the lagging and leading power
factors.
18. Show that one can achieve zero voltage-regulation in a transformer only if the load has a leading power factor. Also, derive
the condition for zero regulation.
19. Derive the condition for maximum regulation of a transformer.
20. Explain what you understand by the efficiency of a transformer. Deduce the condition for the maximum efficiency.
21. Explain how the all-day efficiency differs from the commercial efficiency in case of a transformer. For what application of a
transformer, the all-day efficiency assumes more importance?
22. Explain how a two-winding transformer can be converted into an autotransformer.
23. Deduce an expression for the amount of copper saved in an autotransformer.
24. State the advantages, disadvantages and applications of an autotransformer.
25. Explain how you can determine the efficiency and regulation of a transformer by conducting ‘open-circuit test’ and ‘short-
circuit test’ on it.
31
(a) about 0.95 lagging (b) about 0.95 leading
(c) about 0.8 lagging (d) unity
11. When the secondary winding of a transformer is shorts-circuited, the power factor of the input is
(a) unity (b) about 0.8 leading (c) about 0.8 lagging (d) about 0.2 lagging
12. Under no-load condition, the power factor of a transformer is
(a) unity (b) zero (c) about 0.4 lagging (d) about 0.4 leading
13. If the full-load copper loss of a transformer is 100 W, its copper loss at half load will be
(a) 200 W (b) 100 W (c) 50 W (d) 25 W
14. If the full-load core loss of a transformer is 100 W, its core loss at half load will be
(a) 200 W (b) 100 W (c) 50 W (d) 25 W
15. A single-phase transformer is supplying power to a load at a terminal voltage of 11 kV. When the load is disconnected, the
terminal voltage becomes 11.5 kV. The voltage regulation of this transformer for this load is
(a) 55 % (b) 11.55 % (c) 5 % (d) 2.5 %
16. A transformer operates at maximum efficiency, when
(a) its hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss are minimum
(b) the sum of its hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss is equal to its copper loss
(c) the power factor of the load is leading
(d) its hysteresis loss is equal to its eddy-current loss
17. A distribution transformer should be selected on the basis of its
(a) all-day efficiency (b) regulation
(c) commercial efficiency (d) all the above
18. In a transformer, the iron losses do not vary with load current because
(a) the core area is constant
(b) the core flux remains constant
(c) the iron losses are equal to the copper losses
(d) the iron losses are very small
19. It is economical to use an autotransformer when the turns-ratio is
(a) low (b) high (c) more than 10 (d) none of the above
20. An auto-transformer steps down voltage V1 to V2. If an open-circuit develops in the common winding, the voltage across the
load may become
(a) V1 (b) V1 – V2 (c) V1 +V2 (d) V2
Answers
1. b 2. c 3. a 4. d 5. c 6. d 7. b 8. b 9. a 10. a
11. d 12. c 13. d 14. b 15. c 16. b 17. a 18. a 19. a 20. a
PROBLEMS
(A) Simple Problems
1. A single-phase, 250-kVA, 11-kV/415-V, 50-Hz transformer has 80 turns on the secondary. Calculate (a) the approximate
values of the primary and secondary currents, (b) the approximate number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of
the flux. [Ans.: (a) 22.7 A, 602 A; (b) 2121; (c) 23.4 mWb]
2. The primary winding of a 50-Hz transformer has 480 turns and is fed from a 6400-V supply. Determine (a) the peak value of
the flux in the core, and (b) the secondary voltage if the secondary winding has 20 turns. [Ans.: (a) 0.06 Wb; (b) 266.4 V]
3. A single phase, 50-Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on the secondary winding. The net
cross-sectional area of the core is 200 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to 240-V, 50-Hz supply, determine (a) the
emf induced in the secondary winding, and (b) the maximum flux density in the core. [Ans.: (a) 1200 V; (b) 0.675 T]
4. A 10-kVA, single-phase transformer has its primary connected to a 2000-V supply. It has 60 turns on the secondary winding
and the voltage across it is found to be 240 V. Assuming the transformer to be ideal, calculate (a) the number of turns on its
primary winding; (b) the full-load primary and secondary currents. [Ans.: (a) 500; (b) 5 A, 41.67 A]
5. A 200-kVA, 3300-V/240-V, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer has 80 turns on the secondary winding. Assuming an ideal
transformer, calculate (a) primary and secondary currents on full load, (b) the maximum value of flux, and (c) the number of
primary turns. [Ans.: (a) 60.6 A, 833.33 A; (b) 0.0135 Wb; (c) 1100]
6. A single-phase transformer with 10:1 turns-ratio and rated at 50 kVA, 2400-V/240-V, 50 Hz is used to step down the voltage
of a distribution system. The low tension (LT) voltage is to be kept constant at 240 V. Find the value of the load impedance
of the LT side so that the transformer is loaded fully. Find also the value of the maximum flux inside the core if the LT side
has 23 turns. [Ans.: 1.152 Ω, 0.047 Wb]
32
7. The primary of a single-phase transformer takes 1 A at power factor of 0.4 when connected to a 240-V, 50-Hz supply and the
secondary is on open circuit. The number of turns on the primary is twice that on the secondary. A load taking 50 A at a
lagging power factor of 0.8 is now connected across the secondary. What is now the value of the primary current?
(Neglect the voltage drops in the transformer.) [Ans.: 25.9 A]
8. A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has 100 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on the secondary winding. The net
cross-sectional area of the core is 250 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 50-Hz, 230-V supply, calculate (a) the
emf induced in the secondary winding, and (b) the maximum value of the flux density in the core.
[Ans.: (a) 920 V; (b) 0.414 T]
9. The no-load current of a single-phase transformer is 5.0 A at 0.3 power factor when supplied from a 240-V, 50-Hz source.
The number of turns on the primary is 200. Calculate (a) the maximum value of the flux in the core, (b) the core losses, and
(c) the magnetizing current. [Ans.: (a) 5.4 mWb; (b) 360 W; (c) 4.77 A]
10. A transformer on no-load takes 1.5 A at a power factor of 0.2 lagging when its primary is connected to a 50-Hz, 230-V
supply. Its transformation ratio (N2/N1) is 1/3. Determine the primary current when the secondary is supplying a current of
300 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Neglect the voltage drops in the windings. [Ans.: 14.5 A]
11. The no-load current of a 50-Hz, 230-V transformer is 4.5 A at a power factor of 0.25 lagging. The number of turns on the
primary winding is 250. Calculate (a) the magnetizing current, (b) the core loss, and (c) the maximum value of the flux in
the core. [Ans.: (a) 4.35 A; (b) 258.75 W; (c) 4.14 mWb]
12. A 100-kVA transformer has 400 turns on the primary and 80 turns on the secondary winding. The primary and secondary
resistances are 0.3 Ω and 0.1 Ω, respectively. The primary and secondary leakage reactances are 1.1 Ω and 0.035 Ω,
respectively. Calculate the equivalent impedance referred to the primary side. [Ans.: 3.426 Ω]
13. A single-phase, 100-kVA, 1100-V/220-V transformer has following parameters: R1 = 0.1 Ω, X1 = 0.3 Ω, R2 = 0.004 Ω and
X2 = 0.012 Ω. Determine (a) the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance as referred to the high voltage winding, and (b)
the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance as referred to the low voltage winding.
[Ans.: (a) 0.2 Ω, 0.6 Ω; (b) 0.008 Ω, 0.024 Ω]
14. In a 50-kVA, 11-kV/400-V, single-phase transformer, the iron and copper losses are 500 W and 600 W, respectively under
rated conditions. Calculate (a) the efficiency at unity power factor at full load, (b) the load for maximum efficiency, and (c)
the iron and copper losses for this load. [Ans.: (a) 97.85 %; (b) 45.64 kVA; (c) 500 W, 500 W]
15. A 10-kVA, 200-V/400-V, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer gave the following test-results:
OC test (HV winding open) : 200 V, 1.3 A, 120 W.
SC test (LV winding shorted) : 22 V, 30 A, 200 W.
Calculate (a) the magnetizing current, and (b) the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance as referred to the low voltage
side. [Ans.: (a) 1.15 A; (b) 0.0555 Ω, 0.1745 Ω]
(B) Tricky Problems
16. A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has 30 turns on primary and 350 turns on secondary. The net cross-sectional area of the
core is 250 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 230-V, 50-Hz supply, calculate (a) peak value of the flux density in
the core, (b) the voltage induced in the secondary winding, and (c) the primary current when the secondary current is 100 A.
Neglect the losses. [Ans.: (a) 1.3814 T; (b) 2683.33 V; (c) 1166.67 A]
17. A single-phase, 50-Hz, 100-kVA, 2400-V/240-V transformer has no-load current of 0.64 A and core loss of 700 W, when its
high voltage (HV) side is energized at rated voltage and frequency. Calculate the two components of the no-load current. If
this transformer supplies a load current of 40 A at 0.8 lagging pf on its low voltage side, determine the primary current and
its power factor. Ignore the resistance and leakage reactance drops. [Ans.: 0.5697 A, 0.2917 A; 4.584 A, 0.762 lagging]
18. An ideal 50-Hz, core-type transformer has 100 primary-turns and 200 secondary-turns. The primary rated voltage is 220 V.
If the maximum permissible flux density is 1.2 T, what should be the cross-sectional area? Also, find (a) the secondary
voltage, and (b) the primary current in complex form with reference to the secondary voltage vector when secondary delivers
−3
a current of 8 A at a lagging power factor of 0.8. [Ans.: 8.26 × 10 m ;(a) 440 V; (b) 16∠143.1° A ]
2
19. A 500-kVA, 11000-V/400-V, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer has 100 turns on the secondary winding. Calculate (a) the
approximate number of turns on the primary winding, (b) the approximate values of the primary and secondary current, and
(c) the maximum value of the flux in the core. [Ans.: (a) 2750; (b) 45.45 A, 1250 A; (c) 0.018 Wb]
20. A single-phase transformer has a turns-ratio of 144/432 and operates at a maximum flux of 7.5 mWb at 50 Hz. When
working on no load, it takes 0.24 kVA at a power factor of 0.26 lagging from the supply. If it supplies a load of 1.2 kVA at a
power factor of 0.8 lagging, determine (a) the magnetizing current, (b) the primary current, and (c) the primary power
factor. [Ans.: (a) 0.97 A; (b) 5.8 A; (c) 0.731 (lagging)]
21. The primary and secondary windings of a 30-kVA, 6000-V/230-V, single-phase transformer have resistances of 10 Ω and
0.0016 Ω, respectively. The total reactance of the transformer as referred to the primary side is 23 Ω. Calculate the
percentage regulation of the transformer when supplying full-load current at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. [Ans.: 2.54 %]
22. A transformer with turns-ratio 8: 1, has the resistances of the primary and secondary windings as 0.85 Ω and 0.012 Ω,
respectively, and the leakage reactances as 4.8 Ω and 0.07 Ω, respectively. Determine the voltage to be applied to the
33
primary to obtain a current of 150 A in the secondary when the secondary terminals are short-circuited. Ignore the
magnetizing current. [Ans.: 176.6 V]
23. A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a turns ratio 6:1. The primary and secondary winding resistances are 0.90 Ω and
0.03 Ω, respectively, and leakage reactances are 5 Ω and 0.13 Ω, respectively. Find (a) the voltage to be applied to the high
voltage side to get a current of 100 A in the low voltage winding on short-circuit, and (b) the primary power factor on short-
circuit. Neglect the no-load current. [Ans.: (a) 164.67 V; (b) 0.2 lagging]
(C) Challenging Prolems
24. A single-phase transformer has Z1 = (1.4 + j 5.2) Ω and Z 2 = (0.0117 + j 0.0465) Ω . The input voltage is 6600 V
and turns-ratio is 10.6:1. The secondary feeds a load which draws 300 A at 0.8 power factor lagging. Neglecting no-load
current I0, determine the secondary voltage and the output in kW. [Ans.: 600 V, 144 kW]
25. A single-phase, 10-kVA, 4000-V/400-V transformer has following parameters: R1 = 13 Ω, X1 = 20 Ω, R2 = 0.15 Ω, X2 = 0.25
Ω, R0 = 12000 Ω and X0 = 6000 Ω. Determine (a) the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance as referred to the primary
winding, (b) the input current with secondary terminals open-circuited, and (c) the input current when the secondary
supplies a load current of 25 A at a power of 0.8 lagging.
[Ans.: (a) 28 Ω, 45 Ω; (b) 0.745∠ − 63.5° A ; (c) 3.18∠ − 42.9° A ]
26. A single-phase, 200-V/2000-V transformer is fed from a 200-V supply. The equivalent winding resistance and leakage
reactance as referred to the low voltage side are 0.16 Ω and 0.7 Ω, respectively. The resistance representing core losses is
400 Ω and the magnetizing reactance is 231 Ω. A load impedance of ZL = (596 + j444) Ω is connected across the secondary
terminals. Calculate (a) the input current, (b) the secondary terminal voltage, and (c) the primary power factor.
[Ans.: (a) 25.96∠ − 40.78° A ; (b) 1859 V; (c) 0.757 lagging]
27. A single-phase, 100-kVA, 2000-V/200-V, 50-Hz transformer has impedance drop of 10 % and resistance drop of 5 %. (a)
What is the regulation at full-load 0.8 power factor lagging? (b) At what power factor is the regulation zero?
[Ans.: (a) 9.196 %; (b) 0.866 leading]
28. The primary and secondary windings of a 500-kVA, 11-kV/415-V, single-phase transformer have resistances of 0.42 Ω and
0.0019 Ω, respectively. Its core losses are 2.9 kW. Assuming the power factor to be 0.8, calculate its efficiency on (a) full
load, and (b) half load. [Ans.: (a) 98.39 %; (b) 98.13 %]
29. For the transformer in Prob. 28, assuming the power factor to be 0.8, find the output at which the efficiency is maximum and
calculate its value. [Ans.: 447 kVA, 98.4 %]
30. A single phase transformer has percentage regulations of 4 and 4.4 for lagging power factors of 0.8 and 0.6, respectively.
The full-load copper loss is equal to the iron loss. Calculate (a) the lagging power factor at which the full-load regulation is
maximum, and (b) the full-load efficiency at unity power factor. [Ans.: (a) 0.4472 lagging; (b) 96.15 %]
31. A 250-kVA, single-phase transformer has an efficiency of 96 % on full load at 0.8 power factor lagging and on half load 0.8
power factor lagging. Find iron loss and full-load copper loss. [Ans.: 2.78 kW, 5.56 kW]
34
(b) Circuit for determining the efficiency and the voltage regulation.
Fig. 1.27 Circuit diagrams for load test on a single-phase transformer.
BRIEF THEORY: (i) When a transformer is used, a terminal of primary (as well as of secondary) winding is alternately positive
and negative with respect to other terminal. It becomes important to know the relative polarities of the primary and secondary
terminals in situations such as follows:
(1) When two single-phase transformers are connected in parallel so as to share the total load on the system.
(2) When three single-phase transformers are connected to make a three-phase transformer.
The relative polarities can be determined by shorting one of the terminals of the primary and secondary windings (say, P2 and
S2 in Fig. 1.27a), and then measuring the voltage across the other terminals of the primary and secondary windings (say, P1 and S1
in Fig. 1.27a).
If P1 and S1 have same polarity (say, positive at an instant), the situation is as shown in Fig. 1.28a. Obviously, in such a case,
the voltage V3 = V1 – V2. On the other hand, if P1 and S1 have opposite polarity (say, positive and negative, respectively, at an
instant), the situation becomes as shown in Fig. 1.28b. Obviously, in such a case, the voltage V3 = V1 + V2.
35
V2(0) − V2(FL)
% Regulation = ×100 %
V2(FL)
PROCEDURE:
(i) For Polarity and Turns-Ratio Test:
1. Make connections as given in Fig. 1.27a.
2. Switch on the ac supply and adjust the variac so that voltmeter V1 reads about 100 V.
3. Record the reading of voltmeter V3.
4. If V3 < V1, the terminals P1 and S1 have same polarity.
5. If V3 > V1, the terminals P1 and S1 have opposite polarity.
6. Using variac, vary the input voltage.
7. For various values of the input voltage V1, note down the readings of the output voltage V2.
8. Calculate the ratio V2/V1.
9. Switch off the supply.
(ii) For Efficiency and Regulation Test:
1. Make connections as given in Fig. 1.27b.
2. Disconnect the load.
3. Switch on the ac supply and adjust the variac so that voltmeter V1 reads 220 V, the rated value for the given transformer.
4. Note down the reading of the ammeter A1. This gives no-load primary current.
5. Note down the reading of the voltmeter V2. This gives no-load output voltage V(0).
6. Note down the reading of the wattmeter W. This gives the iron loss Pi in the transformer.
7. Switch on the load in parts till the full-load current [ I 2(FL) = (2 kVA/110 V)=18.18 A ] is reached. For each load,
note down the readings of wattmeter W, voltmeter V2 and ammeter A2.
8. Calculate the efficiency for each value of load and then plot the curve of efficiency versus the load current.
9. Calculate the percentage regulation.
10. Switch off the supply.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
(i) Polarity Test:
Reading of the voltmeter V1 =
Reading of the voltmeter V2 =
Reading of the voltmeter V3 =
If V3 < V1, the terminals P1 and S1 have same polarity, and if V3 > V1, the terminals P1 and S1 have opposite polarity.
(ii) Table for Turns-Ratio Test:
Sr. No. V1 V2 Turns-Ratio = V 2/V 1
1
2
3
(iii) Table for Efficiency Test:
Sr. No. W V1 V2 Output = V 2 I 2 Efficiency = V 2I 1/W
Plot the graph of efficiency versus load current (as in Fig. 1.29a).
(iv) Regulation Test:
Secondary voltage on no-load, V2(0) =
Secondary voltage on full-load, V2(FL) =
V2(0) − V2( FL )
∴ % Regulation = ×100 % =
V2( FL )
RESULTS:
36
1. The polarities of the primary and secondary windings have been marked.
2. The turns-ratio has been found almost same as the specified value.
3. The efficiency versus load-current curve has been plotted. The maximum efficiency occurs at a load current of _____
amperes.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before switching on the supply, the zero reading of the wattmeter, voltmeters and ammeters should be checked.
2. The meters of proper range should be selected.
3. While determining efficiency, use an ammeter in series with the wattmeter so as to keep a check that the current through
the wattmeter does not exceed its rating.
VIVA-VOCE:
1. Can you name some applications of transformers?
Ans.: To step-up generated voltage before transmission and to step-down at consumer end. Current and voltage
transformers are used in instrumentation. Small size transformers are used in electronics and communication circuits,
e.g., radio, TV, etc.
2. Can you name the material normally used for making the core of transformers?
Ans.: Cold rolled grain oriented (CRGO) silicon steel.
3. What is the purpose of adding silicon to steel?
Ans.: By adding silicon (about 4 %) to the steel, its resistance increase. Hence the eddy-current loss is reduced.
4. Any harm if you add more than 4 % silicon?
Ans.: By adding more silicon, the resistance increases further. But, the steel become very brittle.
5. Why do we use laminations for making the core of a transformer?
Ans.: To decrease the eddy-current loss.
6. Usually, how much is the thickness of laminations used.
Ans.: It is about 0.35 mm.
7. A transformer is rated as 0.5 kVA, 220 V/110 V, 50 Hz. Which winding, primary or secondary, is made of thinner wire?
Ans.: Since the primary carries less current, it is made of thinner wire.
8. If I apply 220 V at 40 Hz, how much voltage will you get across the secondary?
Ans.: Since voltage transformation ratio does not depend on the frequency of the supply, we will still get 110 V across
the secondary.
9. If I apply 220 V at 0 Hz, will I still get 110 V across the secondary?
Ans.: No, we will get 0 V, as the flux is not varying at all for zero frequency (it is a dc source). Moreover, the
transformer will get burnt due to flow of large current, as there will be no back emf induced in the primary.
10. There are 780 turns on the primary and 240 turns on the secondary winding of a transformer. The primary winding is
connected to an ac supply and secondary is connected to a load such that the primary current is 10 A. Now, suppose 100
turns of the secondary winding suddenly get short-circuited. Will the primary current increase or decrease?
Ans.: The short-circuited 100 turns of the secondary will draw a large current. Hence the primary current will increase
by large amount.
OBJECTIVES:
1. To determine the parameters Iw, Im, R0 and X0 of the transformer by conducting open-circuit test on it.
2. To determine the equivalent resistance Req, the equivalent reactance Xeq and the equivalent impedance Zeq of the
transformer by conducting short-circuit test on it.
APPARATUS: Single-phase ac power supply 220 V; One single-phase transformer 2 kVA, 220-V/110-V; One variac 0-270 V, 20
A; One wattmeter 20 A, 250 V; One voltmeter (MI type) 0-50 V; One voltmeter (MI type) 0-250 V; One ammeter (MI type) 0-2
A; One ammeter (MI type) 0-20 A.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS: The circuit diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.30.
37
(b) Circuit for short-circuit test.
Fig. 1.30 Circuit diagrams for testing a transformer.
BRIEF THEORY: (i) In open-circuit test, one winding is left open and the other winding is applied rated voltage (see Fig. 1.30a).
The readings of the wattmeter (Wo), the voltmeter (Vo) and the ammeter (Io) are noted. Since the no-load current is very small, the
copper loss can be ignored. Therefore, the wattmeter indicates the iron losses, i.e.,
Iron losses, Pi = Wo
The parameters Iw, Im, R0 and X0 can be calculated as follows:
Wo Vo Vo
Iw = ; I m = I 02 − I w2 ; R0 = ; and X0 =
Vo Iw Im
(ii) In short-circuit test, one winding (preferably, low voltage) is short-circuited and the other winding is applied a low voltage
such that full-load current flows in the windings. The readings of the wattmeter (Wsc), the voltmeter (Vsc) and the ammeter (Isc) are
noted. Since the applied voltage is low, the iron losses are negligibly small compared to the copper loss. Therefore, the wattmeter
indicates the full-load copper loss, i.e.,
Copper loss, Pc = Wsc
The equivalent resistance Req, the equivalent reactance Xeq and the equivalent impedance Zeq, as referred to the winding on which
the measurements are made, can be calculated as follows:
Wsc Vsc
Re1 = ; Z e1 = ; and X e1 = Z e21 − Re21
I sc2 I sc
PROCEDURE:
(i) For Open-Circuit Test:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.30a.
2. Put the variac at low voltage output.
3. Switch on the ac supply.
4. Adjust the variac to the rated voltage of the transformer.
5. Record the ammeter, wattmeter and voltmeter readings.
6. Switch off the supply.
(ii) For Short-Circuit Test:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.30b.
2. Put the variac at lowest voltage output.
3. Slowly increase the applied voltage till the ammeter reading equals the rated value.
4. Record the ammeter, wattmeter and voltmeter readings.
5. Switch off the supply.
OBSERVATIONS:
(i) Open-Circuit Test:
Reading of the ammeter, Io =
Reading of the wattmeter, Wo =
Reading of the voltmeter, Vo =
(ii) Short-Circuit Test:
Reading of the ammeter, Isc =
Reading of the wattmeter, Wsc =
Reading of the voltmeter, Vsc =
CALCULATIONS:
Wo
( ) −( )
2 2
(i) Iw = = = A; I m = I 02 − I w2 = = A;
Vo
38
Vo Vo
R0 = = = Ω; X0 = = = Ω.
Iw Im
Wsc Vsc
(ii) Re1 = = = Ω; Z e1 = = = Ω;
I sc2 I sc
( ) −( )
2 2
X e1 = Z e21 − Re21 = = Ω.
RESULTS:
1. The values of the equivalent circuit parameters are as follows:
R0 = Ω; X0 = Ω; Re1 = Ω; X e1 = Ω; Z e1 = Ω.
2. The magnetizing current, Im = A; The iron-loss current, Iw = A.
3. The no-load current, I0 = A.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before switching on the supply, the zero reading of the wattmeter, voltmeters and ammeter should be checked.
2. The meters of proper range should be selected.
3. While conducting the short-circuit test, the voltage applied should be initially set at zero. It should then be increased
slowly. If, by mistake, higher voltage than needed is applied there is every possibility that the transformer may be
damaged.
VIVA-VOCE:
1. What is the importance of open-circuit and short-circuit tests on a transformer?
Ans.: The purpose of these tests is to find the iron loss, copper loss and hence the efficiency of the transformer at
different loads. This is an indirect method of testing, since the transformer is not actually loaded during the testing.
Especially, for large size transformers this type of indirect testing is important as the arrangement for actual loading just
cannot be done.
2. How do you justify that the reading of the wattmeter in open-circuit test indicates the iron losses?
Ans.: The iron losses (hysteresis and eddy-current) depend upon the magnetization level of the core, which in turn
depends upon the voltage applied. In open-circuit test, full rated voltage is applied to the transformer. Hence, the iron
losses occur at full rated value. Furthermore, as the secondary winding is open, the secondary current is zero. Hence
there is no copper loss in the secondary winding. However, in the primary winding, there is small no-load current
flowing. The copper loss in the primary due to this small current is negligible. Hence, the wattmeter reading gives the
iron losses.
3. What does the reading of wattmeter indicate in the short-circuit test? Justify your answer.
Ans.: It indicates the full-load copper losses of the transformer. In short-circuit test, full rated current is made to flow
through both the secondary and primary windings, by applying very low voltage to the primary. Because of low voltage
the magnetization level of the core is very low. Hence the iron losses are negligibly small. Thus, the wattmeter indicates
only the full-rated copper losses of the transformer.
4. Suppose that the full rated voltage is applied in the short-circuit test. What do you expect to happen?
Ans.: Since the secondary winding is shorted, a heavy current will be drawn by the transformer. As a result, the circuit
breaker should trip off. If it does not, the transformer will get excessively overheated resulting in burning of the
insulation.
5. How do the iron losses vary with the load on the transformer?
Ans.: Iron losses do not depend on the load. These losses depend only on the magnetization level of the core, which in
turn depend upon the voltage applied.
6. How do the copper losses vary with the load on the transformer?
Ans.: Copper losses or I2R losses depend on the square of the currents flowing in the windings.
7. What is the phasor relationship between Iw, Im and I0?
Ans.: The current I0 is the phasor sum of Iw and Im. I 0 = I w2 + I m2 . The iron-loss component Iw is in phase with the
applied voltage. The magnetizing component Im lags behind the applied voltage by 90°.
8. What is the magnitude of no-load current as compared to the full-load current?
Ans.: The no-load current is about 3 – 5 % of the full-load current.
9. Of what order is the power factor of a transformer under no-load condition?
Ans.: It is about 0.2 lagging.
**********
39
TRANSFOMER
TRANSFOMER is a device that:
a. Transfer electrical energy from one electric circuit to another
b. Does so without a change in frequency
c. Does so by the principle of electromagnetic induction
d. Has electric circuit that are linked by a common magnetic circuit
From the formula:
P=VI
Transformer transfer electrical energy from one circuit (Primary side) to another (Secondary side) without a change in power and extremely efficient because the only losses are
those that occur in the copper windings (𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 (ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡; there are also no losses resulting from rotation, such as are present in rotating
machines. If the input (Primary Side) to a transformer is assumed to equal the output (Output Side) of a transformer and voltage drops are negligible, then
Thus, 𝑃𝑝 = 𝑃𝑠
𝐸𝑝 𝑥𝐼𝑝 = 𝐸𝑠 𝑥𝐼𝑠
𝐸𝑝 𝐼 𝑁𝑝
𝑎= 𝐸𝑠
= 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠
𝑝
Where:
Ep-primary voltage, volts
Es-secondary voltage, volts
Is-secondary current, ampere
Ip-primary current, ampere Ratio of Transformation indicates how much the primary voltage is lowered or raised
Np-primary winding
Step down transformer- When the primary impressed voltage Ep is reduced to a lower secondary voltage Es thus a>1
Ns-secondary winding
Step up transformer- When the primary impressed voltage Ep is increased to a higher secondary voltage Es thus a<1
a-ratio of transformation
Recall:
∅ ∅𝑥𝑍 ∅𝑥𝑁 ∅𝑥𝑁
𝐸𝑎𝑣 = = = = 1 V
𝑡 𝑥 108 𝑡 𝑥 108 𝑡 𝑥 108 𝑥 108
4𝑓
4f∅ 𝑁
Eav= 108 V
Solution:
𝐸𝑝 𝑥 108 2300 𝑥108
a. 𝟇m= 4.44 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑁 = 4.44 𝑥 60 𝑥 4800 = 1.8 𝑥 105 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝑝
2. The maximum flux in the core of a 60 cycle transformer that has 1,320 primary turns and 46 secondary turns is 3.76 x 10^6 maxwells. Calculate the primary and secondary induced
voltages.
Given:
f=60 cps
Np=1,320 turns
Ns=46 turns
𝟇m=3.76 x 10^6 maxwells
Solution:
Ep= 4.44f∅𝑁𝑝 𝑥10−8 𝑉 = 4.44 𝑥 60 𝑥 3.76 𝑥 106 𝑥 1320 𝑥 10−8 = 13,200 𝑉
Es= 4.44f∅𝑁𝑠 𝑥10−8 𝑉 = 4.44 𝑥 60 𝑥 3.76 𝑥 106 𝑥 46 𝑥 10−8 = 460 𝑉
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
3. The secondary winding of a 4600/230 V transformer has 36 turns. How many turns are there in the primary winding?
Given:
Ep= 4,600 V
Es=230 V
Ns=36 turns
Solution:
𝐸𝑝 𝑁𝑝
=
𝐸𝑠 𝑁𝑠
𝐸𝑝 4600
𝑁𝑝 = 𝑥𝑁𝑠 = 𝑥36 = 720 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝐸𝑠 230
4. The volts per turn in a 25 cycle 2400/230 volt transformer is 8. Calculate (a) the primary and secondary turns (b) maximum flux in the core.
Given:
E/N=8 volt/turn
Ep=2,400 volts
Es=230 volts
Solution:
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
a. 𝑁𝑝 = 2400 𝑉 𝑥 = 300 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
8𝑉
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝑁𝑠 = 230 𝑉 𝑥 = 29 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
8𝑉
𝐸𝑝 𝑥 108 2400 𝑥108
b. 𝟇m= 4.44 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑁 = 4.44 𝑥 60 𝑥 300 = 7.21 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝑝
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
5. The secondary load current of a 2300/115 V transformer is 46 A. Calculate the primary current.
Given:
Ep= 2300 volts
Es= 115 volts
Is= 46 A
Solution:
𝐸 115
𝐼𝑝 = 𝐸𝑠 𝑥𝐼𝑠 = 2300 𝑥46 = 2.3 𝐴
𝑝
6. The primary and secondary of a transformer were measured and found to be 3.8 A and 152 A, respectively. If
the secondary load voltage is 116 volts, what is the primary emf?
Given:
Ip= 3.8 A
Is= 152 A
Es= 116 V
Solution:
𝐼 152
𝐸𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑥𝐸𝑠 = 𝑥116 = 4640 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑝 3.8
Since the voltage drops are all directly proportional to the load current, Is in the secondary and Ip in the
primary, it should be clear that at no load there will be no voltage drop in either winding. Therefore, if a
transformer delivers rated load at secondary terminal voltage, that voltage will change if the load is removed.
Thus,
𝐸𝑁𝐿 −𝐸𝐹𝐿
Percent Regulation= 𝑥 100
𝐸𝐹𝐿
Where:
Enl=No Load Voltage, volts
Efl= Full Load Voltage, volts
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
7. Calculate the percent regulation of a 2300/115 volt transformer whose no load voltage was measured and found to be 118 V
Given:
Ep=2300 volt
𝐸𝑠𝐹𝐿 = 115 volts
𝐸𝑠𝑁𝐿 = 118 volts
Solution:
118−115
Percent regulation= 𝑥100 = 2.61 %
115
8. The percent regulation of a 4800/240 volt distribution transformer is 3.33 percent. Calculate the voltage to which the secondary voltage will
rise when full load is removed.
Given:
Percent regulation=3.33%
Ep=4800 volts
𝐸𝑠𝐹𝐿 = 240 volts
Solution:
𝐸𝑠𝑁𝐿 −240
Percent regulation= 3.33 = 𝑥100
240
Thus,
𝐸𝑠𝑁𝐿 = 248 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Equivalent Resistance, Reactance and Impedance
When regulation calculations are made for transformers, it is convenient to combine the resistance and reactance
drops that actually occur on the primary and secondary sides into a single value of IR and a single value of IX. One
method of simplifying the calculations is to make use of idea that a transformer having a ratio of transformation a can be
converted into an equivalent transformer having a ratio of 1:1
𝐼
Converting primary value to secondary value through the transformation ratio (𝐼𝑝 = 𝑎𝑠 ),
𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 𝐼 𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑝
𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑎
= 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 + ( 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎
)=𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑎2
𝐼𝑠 𝑋𝑠 𝐼 𝑋𝑝 𝑋𝑝
𝐼𝑠 𝑋𝑠 + 𝑎
= 𝐼𝑠 𝑋𝑠 + ( 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎
)=𝐼𝑠 𝑋𝑠 + 𝑎2
𝑅𝑝 𝑋𝑝
Thus,𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑒 = 𝑋𝑠 + 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑎2 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑒 = 𝑋𝑠 𝑎2 + 𝑋𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋𝑒2
Where,
𝑅𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑋𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑋𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑍𝑒 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
9. A 25 kva 2300/230 volt distribution transformer has the following resistance and leakage reactance values; Rp=0.8 ohm; Xp=3.2 ohm ohm;Rs= 0.009 ohm; Xs=0.03 ohm. Calculate the
equivalent values of resistance ,reactance and impedance. (a) in secondary terms (b) in primary terms.
Given:
Ep=2300 volt
Es= 230 volts
Rp=0.8 ohm
Xp=3.2 ohm
2300
𝑎= 230
= 10
Solution:
0.8 3.2
a. 𝑅𝑒 = 0.009 + 102 = 0.017 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑋𝑒 = 0.03 + 102 = 0.062 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑍𝑒 = 0.0172 + 0.0622 = 0.0642 𝑜ℎ𝑚
10. For the transformer of last example, calculate the equivalent resistance and reactance voltage drops for a secondary load current of 109 A in (a) secondary terms (b) primary
terms.
Given:
Is=109 A
109
Ip= 10 = 10.9 𝐴
Solution:
a. Vr=IsRe=109 x 0.017=1.85 V Vx=IsXe=109 x 0.062=6.75 V
b. Vr=IsRe=10.9 x 1.7=18.5 V Vx=IsXe=10.9 x 6.2=67.5 V
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Note that the transformer, as an electric circuit, merely acts like an impedance voltage drop. Thus, it is also
possible to represent a transformer as an ordinary series electric circuit that has three elements, equivalent
resistance (𝑅𝑒 ), equivalent leakage reactance (𝑋𝑒 ) and the load.
The Short Circuit Test
In order to determine experimentally the value of the equivalent resistance, impedance and reactance and it
is an attempt to make the windings carry rated currents without requiring that the transformer deliver a load thus
the power input to the transformer will be extremely low. It is also use to determine the copper loss of the
transformer.
𝑃𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑒 = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝐸𝑠𝑐
𝑍𝑒 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝑋𝑒 = 𝑍𝑒2 − 𝑅𝑒2
Where,
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑍𝑒 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑋𝑒 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 , 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐸𝑠𝑐 = 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
The Open Circuit Test
When one side of a transformer is left open circuited and the other side is connected to a source of
alternating current whose voltage is rated value, the current will be extremely low- about 2 to 10 percent of the
rated load current. Two components of power loss are developed in the iron and depends on the magnetic
properties of the materials used to construct the core of transformer and its design.
a. Hysteresis Loss- which is purely magnetic, and results because the tiny magnetic particles produce a kind of
molecular friction as they tend to change alignment with the rapid reversals of alternating current
1.6
𝑃ℎ = 𝑘ℎ 𝑓𝐵𝑚
b. Eddy current loss- which is electromagnetic in character and is caused by the flow of currents in the iron in
exactly the same way as in transformer windings.
Recall:
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚
2
V= 4.44f∅𝑁𝑥10−8 ; ∅= 𝐵𝑚 x A
𝐸 𝑥 108 108 𝐸 𝐸
∅ = 𝐵𝑚 𝑥 𝐴 = ; 𝐵𝑚 = =𝑘
4.44𝑓𝑁 4.44𝑁𝐴 𝑓 𝑓
thus,
𝐸 2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚
2
= 𝑘𝑒 𝑓 2 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑥𝑘 2 𝐸 2 = 𝑘2 (𝐸 2 )
𝑓
𝐸 1.6
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (𝐸 2 )
𝑓0.6
Where,
𝑃ℎ = ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Solution:
𝐸 1.6 46001.6
a. 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑘1 𝑓0.6 + 𝑘2 𝐸2 = 9.673𝑥10−3 + 1.446 𝑥10−5 46002 = 907.262 watts
600.6
44001.6
b. 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝑒 = 9.673𝑥10−3 + 1.446 𝑥10−5 44002 = 904.692 watts
500.6
46001.6
c. 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝑒 = 9.673𝑥10−3 500.6
+ 1.446 𝑥10−5 46002 = 976.772 watts
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
12. The following data were obtained when a short circuit test was performed upon a 100 kva 2400/240 volt
distribution transformer: 𝐸𝑠𝑐 = 72 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠; 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 41.6 𝑎𝑚𝑝; 𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 1,180 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠. All instrument were placed on the high side,
and the low side was short circuited. Calculate (a) the equivalent resistance, impedance and reactance (b) voltage
drop IR and IX at primary and secondary side.
Given:
𝑃 = 100 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 100,000 𝑉𝐴
𝐸𝑝 = 2400 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 ; 𝐸𝑠 = 240 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐸𝑠𝑐 = 72 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠; 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 41.6 𝑎𝑚𝑝; 𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 1,180 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Solution:
𝑃𝑠𝑐 1180 𝐸𝑠𝑐 72
a. 𝑅𝑒 = 2 = = 0.682 𝑜ℎ𝑚 ; 𝑍𝑒 = = = 1.707 𝑜ℎ𝑚; 𝑋𝑒 = 𝑍𝑒2 − 𝑅𝑒2 = 1.7072 − 0.6822 = 1.565 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝐼𝑠𝑐 41.62 𝐼𝑠𝑐 41.6
𝑃 100,000 𝑃 100,000
b. 𝐼𝑝 = = = 41.667 𝐴; 𝐼𝑠 = = = 416.667 𝐴
𝐸𝑝 2400 𝐸𝑠 240
IpRe=(41.667)(0.682)=28.417 V
IpXe=(41.667)(1.565)=65.209 V
IsRe=(416.667)(0.682)=284.167 V
IsXe=(416.667)(1.565)=652.084 V
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
13. For the transformer of the previous example , calculate the copper losses when the load is (a) 125 kva (b) 75
kva (c) 85 kw at a power factor of 0.772.
Given:
𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
Thus, 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝑘 𝑆 2
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 1180 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Solution:
𝑃𝑐𝑢2 𝑆2 2 𝑆2 2 125 2
a. = ; 𝑃𝑐𝑢2 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢1 𝑆 = 1180 = 1843.75 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑐𝑢1 𝑆1 1 100
𝑆2 2 75 2
b. 𝑃𝑐𝑢2 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢1 = 1180 = 663.75 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑆1 100
𝑆2 2 85/.772 2
c. 𝑃𝑐𝑢2 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢1 𝑆 = 1180 = 1430.491 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
1 100
Equivalent Calculations Using Short Circuit and Open Circuit Data
When the secondary of a transformer delivers power to a load, an equivalent amount of power is supplied to
the primary by the AC source; the power output is generally delivered at a voltage that is different from that of a
source. As previous discussions have shown, there are only two kinds of losses in a static transformer:
a. Copper losses in the primary and secondary windings which measured by wattmeter when the short circuit
test is performed.
b. Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the laminated core which where Core loss is made up and is measured
when open circuit test is performed.
the efficiency of a transformer is given by,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 % = 𝑥100
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐸𝐼
𝑠 𝐹𝐿 𝑃𝑐 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝐹𝐿 𝑃𝑐
1000
= 1000𝑥𝐼 𝑅𝑒
= 1000 2 𝑥𝑅
𝐼𝐹𝐿
𝐹𝐿 𝑒
𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑓𝑙
where, = 𝑘𝑣𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦; = 𝑘𝑣𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
1000 1000
𝑃𝑐
𝑘𝑣𝑎max 𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑘𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑠
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
14. A 5 kva 2300/230 volt 60 cycle standard distribution transformer was tested, with the following results; short
circuit input= 112 watts, open circuit input= 40 watts. Calculate the efficiencies of the transformer for a power factor
of 0.8 for the following fractions of rated kilovolt ampere. (a) ¼ (b) ½ (c) 1 ¼
Given:
𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5 𝑘𝑣𝑎 𝐸𝑝 = 2300 𝑉 𝐸𝑠 = 230 𝑉 𝑓 = 60 𝑐𝑝𝑠
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 112 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜 = 40 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Solution:
𝑃𝑐𝑢2 𝑆2 2 2; 𝑆2 2 112 2
a. = = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑃𝑐𝑢2 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢1 = 0.25 = 0.007 𝑘𝑤 𝑃𝑐𝑜1 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜2 = 0.04 𝑘𝑤
𝑃𝑐𝑢1 𝑆1 𝑆1 1000
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5 𝑘𝑣𝑎 𝑥0.8𝑥0.25 = 1 𝑘𝑤 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 % = 𝑃 x 100 = 1+(0.007+0.04) 𝑥100 = 95.51%
𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑆2 2 112
b. 𝑃𝑐𝑢2 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢1 = 0.5 2 = 0.028 𝑘𝑤 𝑃𝑐𝑜1 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜2 = 0.04 𝑘𝑤
𝑆1 1000
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5 𝑘𝑣𝑎 𝑥0.8𝑥0.5 = 2 𝑘𝑤 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 % = 𝑃 x 100 = 2+(0.028+0.04) 𝑥100 = 96.712 %
𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑆2 2 112
c. 𝑃𝑐𝑢2 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢1 𝑆 = 1000
1.25 2
= 0.175 𝑘𝑤 𝑃𝑐𝑜1 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜2 = 0.04 𝑘𝑤
1
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 5
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5 𝑘𝑣𝑎 𝑥0.8𝑥1.25 = 5 𝑘𝑤 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 % = 𝑃 x 100 = 5+(0.175+0.04) 𝑥100 = 98.877 %
𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
15. Using the data of the previous example , calculate the kva load (at a power factor of 0.8) when the
efficiency is a maximum and the maximum.
Given:
𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5 𝑘𝑣𝑎
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 112 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜 = 40 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Solution:
𝑃𝑐 40
a. 𝑘𝑣𝑎max 𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑘𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 =5 = 2.988 𝑘𝑣𝑎
𝑃𝑠 112
Several important conditions must be fulfilled if two or more transformers are to operate successfully in
parallel to deliver a common load. Theses important conditions are:
a. The voltage rating of both primaries and secondaries must be identical. This obviously implies that the
transformation ratios are the same.
b. The transformers must be properly connected with regard to polarity.
c. The equivalent impedances should be inversely proportional to the respective kilovolt ampere ratings.
d. The ratio of the equivalent resistance to the equivalent reactance of all transformers should be the same.
No load operation- When the secondary load is removed, the primaries will still be energized and the secondaries will
remain connected in parallel.
(𝑎1 −𝑎2 )𝐸𝑠
𝐼𝑐 = 𝑎
1 𝑍𝑒1 +𝑎2 𝑍𝑒2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝐼𝑐 = 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑎𝑚𝑝
𝑎1 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑎2 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑍𝑒1 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑍𝑒2 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
Load operation –Equal Ratios of Transformation- When two transformers having equal ratios of transformation ratios are connected in parallel, the total
load current will divide between them inversely as their equivalent impedances.
𝐸𝑝
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼1 𝑍𝑒1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 𝑍𝑒2 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑠 , 𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡,
𝑎
𝐼1 𝑍𝑒1 = 𝐼2 𝑍𝑒2
𝐼1 𝑍𝑒1
Thus, 𝐼2
=
𝑍𝑒2
It implies that when two transformer of different kVA ratings are connected in parallel, they divide the total load in proportion to their respective kVA
ratings only when their equivalent impedances are inversely proportional to their respective ratings.
Where,
𝐼1 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐼2 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍𝑒1 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑍𝑒2 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
Load operation –Unequal Ratios of Transformation- When two transformers having unequal ratios of transformation ratios are connected in parallel, the
total load current will divide in accordance with the following equations.
Where,
𝐼𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
16. The following information is given in connection with two transformer that are connected in parallel. Determine the circulating current.
Transformer 1 Transformer 2
25 kva 35 kva
2360/230 volts 2300/230 volts
Ze=0.08 ohm, in secondary terms Ze=0.06 ohm, in secondary terms
Solution:
2360 2300
𝑎1 = = 10.26 𝑎2 = = 10
230 230
(𝑎1 −𝑎2 )𝐸𝑠 10.26−10 230
𝐼𝑐 = = = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑
𝑎1 𝑍𝑒1 +𝑎2 𝑍𝑒2 10.26 0.08 +(10)(0.06)
17. The following information is given for two transformers connected in parallel and delivering a total load of 300 kva. Calculate the load current and kilovolt amperes delivered by each transformer.
Transformer 1 Transformer 2
Transformer 1 Transformer 2
25 kva 35 kva
2360/230 volts 2300/230 volts