‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

Course No.: B-PHR: 205

Course Name: Matrices and Numerical Analysis
Subsections:

i. Matrix Analysis
ii. Numerical Analysis
iii. Vector Space

Marks distribution: Theory 80; Practical 20; Class attendance, Tutorial, and Terminal 20

MATRICES
Syllabus: Matrix and sub-matrix; Basic operations of matrices; Some special types of matrices
and their properties; Trace of matrices; Determinants and their properties and Cramer’s rule;
Three types of elementary transformations of matrices; Echelon, canonical and normal forms of
matrices; Rank of matrices and their properties; Adjoint and Inverse of matrices; Inverse by
partitioning; Block matrices and their multiplication; Generalized inverse; Equivalent matrices;
Solution of systems of linear equations; Characteristics equations, Characteristics polynomial,
latent roots, and vectors; Cayley-Hamilton theorem; Diagonalization of a matrix.

Referred Books of Matrix Analysis:

1. Matrices by Frank Ayres, JR
2. Matrices by PN Chatterjee
3. Matrices by ML Khanna
4. Linear Algebra by S Lipschutz

Matrix Operations

Questions: Define with examples of: i. Matrix, ii. Rectangular matrix, iii. Square matrix, iv.
Horizontal matrix, v. Vertical matrix, vi. Row matrix, vii. Column matrix, viii. Null or zero
matrix, ix. Unit matrix or Identity matrix, x. Equal matrix, xi. Diagonal matrix or both upper and
lower triangular matrix, xii. Sub-matrix, xiii. Scalar multiplication of a matrix, xiv. Addition and
subtraction of matrices, xv. Multiplication of matrices, xvi. Upper triangular matrix, xvii. Lower
triangular matrix, xviii. Singular matrix, xix. Commutative matrices, xx. Scalar matrix, xxi.
Periodic matrix, xxii. Idempotent matrix, xxiii. Symmetric matrix, xxiv. Skew-symmetric matrix,

1
xxv. Symmetric idempotent matrix, xxvi. Nilpotent matrix, xxvii. Involutory matrix, xxviii.
Transposed of a matrix, xxix. Real matrix, xxx. Imaginary matrix, xxxi. Conjugate of a matrix,
xxxii. Hermitian matrix, xxxiii. Skew-Hermitian matrix, xxxiv. Trace of a matrix, xxxv. Inverse
of a matrix, xxxvi. Orthogonal matrix, xxxvii. Unitary matrix, xxxviii. Adjoint of a matrix,
xxxix. Augmented matrix, xxxx. Tranjugate of a matrix, xxxxi. Invertible matrix, xxxxii.
Coefficient matrix, xxxxiii. Elements of a matrix, xxxxiv.

Matrix: A system of any mn numbers arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and n columns
is called a matrix of order m ×n∨mn (m by n ).

Shortly: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers.

The horizontal lines of numbers form rows and the vertical lines of numbers form columns.

Suppose that A=[ aij ]mn is a matrix whose order is mn, row number is m, column number is n, and
a ijrepresents the elements of the matrix A .

Examples: A= [ ]
1 23
032
is matrix of order2 ×3, i.e., the number of rows is 2, and number of
columns is 3. Also 1, 2, 3,… are the elements of the matrix A.

[ ]
1 2−1
A= −1 12 is a 3 ×3 matrix.
2−1 1

Column matrix or column vector: The m ×1 matrix is called a column vector.

[]
1
Example: 2 is a column vector.
3
Row matrix or row vector: A 1 ×n matrix is called a row vector.

Example: [ 12 3 ] is a row vector.

Matrix operations:

i. Two matrices of the same order are said to be conformable for addition or
subtraction
ii. Matrices can be added or subtracted if these are same orders (types);

2
 Examples: Let A=
1 23
032 [ ] and [ ]
B= 4 2 1 , now A+ B and A−B are possible.
0 35

[ ]
12−1
Again, let A=
032[ ]
1 23
and B= −11 2 , now A+ B∨ A−B is not possible.
2−1 1

iii. Matrices can be multiplied. Suppose A and B are two matrices of orders mn and pq,
respectively. Now ABis possible if the number of columns of A and the number of
rows of B are same, i.e.,n=p . In this case A is conformable to B for multiplication.

[ ]
12−1
Examples: Let A=
1 23
032 [ ]
and B= −11 2 , now AB is possible; but BA is not possible.
2−1 1

iv. Scalar multiplication or division (except 0) is permissible. Let k is scalar and

A=[ aij ]mn then kA= [ k aij ]mn.

[ ]
1 3
1
Example: Let A=
1 23
032 [ ]
, then 2 A=
2 4
064
6 ,
1
2
A=
[ ]
2
3
0 1
2 , etc .

Question: Verify that if A , B ,C are the matrices then ( AB)C= A(BC).

A=¿ [ a b¿] ¿¿¿

¿
a≠0,1 n≥0
n
[(an−1)
n
]
A =¿ a b ( a−1) ¿ ¿ ¿¿
¿
Question: Let , where . Show that for , .

A=¿[0 1 0¿][0 0 1¿]¿¿¿

¿ A3 = pI +qA+rA 2 .
Question: If and I is the unit matrix of order 3, show that

Nilpotent matrix: A square matrix A is called Nilpotent matrix of index p, provided it satisfies
the relation A p =O∧ A p −1 ≠O where p is a positive integer and O is the null matrix.

3
 [ ]
11 3
Example: Let A= 5 2 6 . Now A3 =O, where O is a null matrix. So, A is nilpotent of order
−2−1−3
3.

Periodic matrix: A square matrix A is called periodic with period k, if A k+1= A , where k is least
positive integer.

[ ]
1−2−6
Example: Let A= −3 29 . Now A3 =A . So, matrix A is a periodic matrix of period 2.
2 0−3

Idempotent matrix: A matrix A is said to be idempotent if A2= A .

Note: The period of idempotent matrix is 1.

[ ]
2−2−4
Example: Let A= −13 4 , now A2= A . So, A is an idempotent matrix.
1−2−3

Transposed matrix: The matrix of order n × m obtained by interchanging the rows and columns
of a matrix A of order m ×n is called the transposed matrix of A and dented by At ∨ A ' .

[]
12
Example: Let A= 135
246[ ]
, then A
t
= 34 .
56

Qu. Verify that ( AB )' =B ' A' for the matrices A and B.

Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A is called an orthogonal matrix if A A' =I , where I is the
identity matrix and A' is transposed matrix of A .

A=¿ [ cosα sinα ¿ ] ¿ ¿¿

¿ [
A ' = cosα−sinα
sinα cosα ] '
A A =I
Example: Let , then . Now , so A is an orthogonal
matrix.

1 [−1 2 2¿ ] [ 2 −1 2¿ ] ¿
A= ¿ ¿
3 ¿
Question: Show that the matrix is orthogonal.

4
Definition of a unitary matrix: A square matrix A is called a unitary matrix if A ɵ A=I ,where I
is an identity matrix and A ɵ is the transposed conjugate of A .
1
A= ¿ [ 1 1¿ ] ¿ ¿
√2 ¿
'
A=
√2[ ]
1 1i
1−i
∧ A '=
[ ]
1 1−i
√2 1 i
'
A A =I A
Example: Let, , then . Now , so is a
unitary matrix.

Question: Show that every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of symmetric
and skew-symmetric matrices.

Question: If A and B are both skew-symmetric matrices of the same order such that AB=BA ,
i.e., A and B are commutative, then show that AB is symmetric.

Question: If A is a symmetric matrix then show that A A' and A+ A ' are symmetric, but A−A '
skew-symmetric matrices.

Question: If A is a skew-symmetric matrix then show that A A' = A ' A and A2 are symmetric.

Question: If A and B are idempotent matrices, then show that AB is idempotent if A and B are
commutative.
Question: If A and B are two matrices of order n × nsuch that AB= A and BA=B , then show that
A and B are idempotent matrices.
Question: If A is an idempotent matrix, then the matrix B=I − A is idempotent, and
AB=0=BA .
Question: The transpose of the product of two matrices is the product is the reverse order of
their transpose, i.e., ( AB )' =B ' A' .

APPLICATIONS

Qu. A manufacturer produces three products A , B ,C and sells in two markets (New Market,
RDA Market). Annual sale volumes are indicated as follows:

Markets New Market RDA Market

Products
A 8000 10000
B 10000 2000
C 15000 20000

5
 i. If unit prices of A, B, C are Tk. 2.25, Tk. 1.5, Tk. 1.25, respectively; find the total
revenue in each market with the help of matrices;
ii. If the unit costs of the above three products are Tk. 1.6, Tk. 1.2 and tk. 0.9,
respectively; find the gross profit with the help of matrices.

Ans. i. The total revenue in each market is given by the products matrix,

[ ]
8000 10000
X =[ 2.251.50 1.25 ] 10000 2000 =[ 5175050500 ]
15000 20000

∴ total revenue from New Market = Tk. 51,750; and total revenue from RDA Market=Tk.
50,500.

ii. Similarly, the total cost of products with the manufacturer sells in the markets are: in each

[ ]
8000 10000
Y = [ 1.60 1.20 0.90 ] 10000 2000 =[ 38300 36400 ]
15000 20000

∴ total cost of products which the manufacturer sells in the new market = Tk. 38300, and in
the RDA market=Tk. 36,400.

Total gross profit = total revenue received from both the market-total costs of product which
the manufacture sold in both the markets

¿(Tk . 51,750+Tk .50,500)−(Tk . 38,300+Tk .36,400)=Tk . 27,550.

Hermitian Matrix

Hermitian matrix: A square matrix A=[ aij ] such that A' =A is called Hermitian.

6
 A=¿ [1 1−i 2¿] [1+i 3 i¿ ]¿ ¿¿
¿
Example: is Hermitian.

Skew-Hermitian matrix: A square matrix A=[ aij ] such that A' =− A is called skew-Hermitian.

A=¿[ 1 1−i 2¿] [−1−i 3i i¿]¿¿¿

¿
Example: is skew-Hermitian.

Notes:

i. The diagonal elements of a Hermitian matrix are real numbers.

ii. The diagonal elements of a skew-Hermitian matrix are either zeros or pure
imaginaries.

Singular matrix: Let A is an n-square matrix, then it is called singular matrix if | A|=0 .

Non-singular matrix: Let A is an n -non-square matrix, then it is called singular matrix if | A|≠ 0 .

Notes:

i. The product of two or more non-singular n-square matrices is non-singular.

ii. The product of two or more n-square matrices is singular if at least one of the
matrices is singular.

Exercises
Qu. Show that every square matrix with complex elements can be written as the sum of
Hermitian and skew-Hermitian matrices.

Qu. If A and B are Hermitian, then show that AB is Hermitian if A and B are commute.

7
Qu. If A is a Hermitian matrix, then show that iA is skew-Hermitian.

Qu. If A is a skew-Hermitian matrix, then show that iA is skew-Hermitian.

Qu. If A is any square matrix, then show that A A H and A H A are Hermitian.

Ā
A
Qu. Show that is Hermitian when is Hermitian.

A=¿[1 1−i 2¿] [1+i 3 i¿]¿¿¿

¿ Ā
Qu. Prove that the matrix is Hermitian. Is Hermitian?

Sub-matrix: A matrix obtained by striking off some of the rows and columns of another matrix
A is defined as a sub-matrix of A .

Example: Let A=
231
357 [ ]
, then [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] , [ ][ ]
23 , 3 1
35 57
, etc. are the sub-matrices of the matrix A .

Minor of a matrix: If any r rows and any r columns from A=[ aij ]mn are taken and remaining
(m−r)rows and (n−r )columns removed, then the determinant of the remaining r ×r submatrix
of A is called minor of A of order r.

[ ]
a11 a12 a13 a 14
Example: Let a matrix A= a 21 a22 a23 a24 .
a 31 a32 a33 a34

Now, the elementsa 11 , a12 , a13 , etc. are the minors of order 1;

| || | | |
a11 a12 a11 a13 a21 a 22 ,
, ,
a21 a 22 a21 a 23 a31 a 32
etc. are the minors of order 2;

8
| || | | |
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a14 a12 a 13 a14
a21 a 22 a23 , a21 a 22 a24 , a22 a 23 a24 , etc. are the minors of order 3.
a31 a 32 a33 a31 a 32 a34 a32 a 33 a34

Cofactor of a matrix: Let A=[ aij ]is an n -square matrix and M ij is an ( n – 1 )-square matrix

obtained by deleting the i-th row and j -th column of A . Then, c ij =(−1 ) | M ij| is the cofactor of
i+ j

the element a ij of the matrix A .

Example: Let A=
12 ,
34 [ ]
then

the cofactor of 1=c 11 =(−1 ) |4|=4 ,

1+1

1+2
the cofactor of 2=c 12=(−1 ) |3|=−3 ,
2+1
the cofactor of 3=c 21=(−1 ) |2|=−2 ,
2+ 2
the cofactor of 4=c 22=(−1 ) |1|=1.

Then the cofactor matrix, C=[ c ij ] = [−21

4−3
].
Adjoint of a matrix: Let A=[ aij ] is an n -square matrix and c ij be the cofactor of the element a ij
'
of the matrix A , then adjoint A=adj A=[ c ij ] .

Properties of an adjoint matrix:

i. The product of a matrix and its adjoint is commutative, i.e., A ( adjA ) =( adjA ) A .
ii. If A is an n-square matrix, then ( adj A ) A= A ( adjA )=| A| I n, where | A| is the
determinant of the matrix A and I n is the n-square identity matrix.
iii. If the matrix A is singular, then ( adj A ) A= A ( adjA )=O , where O is the null matrix.

Example: Let A=
12 ,
34 [ ]
then

the cofactor of 1=c 11 =(−1 ) |4|=4 ,

1+1

9
 1+2
the cofactor of 2=c 12=(−1 ) |3|=−3 ,
2+1
the cofactor of 3=c 21=(−1 ) |2|=−2 ,
2+ 2
the cofactor of 4=c 22=(−1 ) |1|=1.

Then the cofactor matrix, C=[ c ij ] = [−21

4−3
].
Hence, adj A=C =
'
[−3 1]
4−2 .

[ ]
−3−1 1
Qu. Find the adj A, where A= −15 6−5 .
5−2 2

[ ]
−3−1 1
Ans. We have A= −15 6−5 .
5−2 2

Let C=[ c ij ] be the cofactor matrix of A . Then,

the cofactor of −3=c 11=(−1 )

1 +1
|−22|
6−5 =2 ,

the cofactor of −1=c12=(−1 )

1 +2
|−15−5
52 |
=5 ,

the cofactor of 1=c13= (−1 )

1+3
|−15
5−2 |
6 =0 ,

the cofactor of −15=c 21=(−1 )

2+1
|−11
−2 2|
=0.

the cofactor of 6=c 22=(−1 )

2+2
|−35 21|=−11,
the cofactor of −5=c 23=(−1 )
2+3
|−3−1
5−2 |
=−11,

the cofactor of 5=c 31= (−1 )

3+1
|−1
6−5|
1 =−1 ,

10
the cofactor of −2=c 32= (−1 )
3+2
|−15−5 |
−3 1 =−30 ,

the cofactor of 2=c33= (−1 )

3+3
|−3−1
−156 |
=−33.

[ ]
250
Then the cofactor matrix, C=[ c ij ] = 0−11−11 .
−1−30−33

[ ]
'
2 0−1
Hence, adj A=C = 5−11−30 .
0−11−33

[ ] [ ]
−13 2 0 24 36
Qu. Find adj A , where A= 3−9 6 . Ans. adj A= 24 0 12 .
2 6−4 36 12 0

[ ] [ ]
123 15−6−15
Qu. Find adj A , where matrix A= 0 5 0 . Ans. adj A= 0−3 0 .
203 −10 4 5

Qu. Prove that (adjA )−1=adj ( A¿¿−1)¿ where A is a non-singular matrix.

A=[ aij ]nn |adjA|=|A|n−1 , if |A|≠0.

Qu. If , then show that

Qu. Show that adj ( AB )=( adjB ) . ( adjA ).

n −2
Qu. Show that adj ( adjA ) =| A| A , if | A|≠ 0.

Qu. Show that | A|.|adjA|=| A|n=|adj A|.| A|.

Ans. We know |adjA|=| A|n−1,

Or, |adjA| .| A|=| A|n−1 .| A| ; ∴|adjA|.| A|=| A|n .

Similarly, | A|.|adjA|=| A|n .

11
 −1 adj A
Qu. Show that A = , if A is non-singular.
|A|

Ans. We know that A . ( adj A )=( adj A ) . A=| A|. I .

( adj A ) ( adj A )
or, A . = . A=I ,
| A| | A|

( adj A )
∴ A−1= , since if AB=BA=I then A−1=B .
| A|

Note: For adj A , A must be non-singular.

Equivalence

Qu. Define with examples: a. elementary row operations of a matrix, b. Row equivalent matrix,
c. Elementary row matrix, d. elementary column operations of a matrix, e. Column equivalent
matrix, f. Elementary column matrix, g. Triangular matrix, h. Canonical or normal form of a
matrix.

Triangular matrix: A matrix [ a ij ]m × n is called a triangular matrix if a ij=0 for i> j.

[ ]
12−1 4
Example: 0 0 5−3
0 00 0

Notes:

i. A triangular matrix need not to be a square matrix. If it is square, then it is called an

upper triangular matrix.
ii. Every matrix can be reduced to a triangular form by elementary row operations.

Equivalent matrices: Two m ×n matrices A and B are called equivalent if one can be obtained
from the other by a finite number of row and column operations and written as A B .

12
 [ ]
12−1 4
Let A= 2 4 3 5 . Applying in turn the elementary transformations the following matrix
−1−2 6−7

[ ]
1 2−1 4
B= 0 05−3 is obtained from the matrix A . Hence B is an equivalence matrix of the A and thus
0000
we may write A B .

Elementary row operations of a matrix: Let Ai denotes the i-th row of the matrix A=[ aij ]mn,
then the elementary row operations on A are defined as:

i. The interchanging of any two rows Ai and Aj (i.e., i-th and j-th rows). The symbols Rij
Ri ↔ R j
or are generally employed for these operations.
ii. The multiplication of every element of Ai by a non-zero scalar c i.e., replacing the i-th
Ri ↔ cR j
row by cAi. The symbols Ri(c) or are employed for this operation.
iii. The addition to the elements of row Ai of c (a scalar) times the corresponding
Ai ↔ cA k .
Rik (c )
elements of the row Ak, i.e., replacing the row Ai by The symbols or
Ri ↔ R i +cR k
are usually used for this operation.

[ ]
314
Qu. Reduce A= 1 2−5 to triangular form.
0 12

[ ]
314
Ans. We have, A= 1 2−5
0 12

[ ]
1 2−5
31 4 , interchanging r 1∧r 2
012

13
 [ ]
1 2−5
0−5 19 , replacing r 2 by r 2−3 r 1
012

[ ]
1 2−5
0−5 19 , replacing r 3 by 5 r 3
0 5 10

[ ]
1 2−5
0−5 19 , replacing r 3 by r 3+ r 2.
0 0 29

[ ]
1 2−5
Therefore, the triangular form of the matrix A is 0−5 19 .
0 0 29

A=¿[5 3 14 4¿] [0 1 3 1¿] ¿¿¿

¿
Qu. Reduce to the triangular form.

Elementary row matrix: The matrix obtained by the application of one elementary row
operation to the identity matrix In, is called an elementary row matrix.

[ ]
10 0
001
0 10

Note: Every elementary matrix is non-singular.

Row equivalent matrix: If B=[ b ij ]mn can be obtained from A=[ aij ]mn by a finite number of
row
elementary row operations, then B is called the row equivalent to A and can be written as .
B A

14
Column equivalent matrix: If B=[ b ij ]mn can be obtained from A=[ aij ]mn by a finite number of
elementary column operations, then B is called the column equivalent to A and can be written as
column
.
B A

Canonical form (or Normal form) of a matrix: Every non-zero m ×nmatrix A can be reduced
by means of elementary row and column operations (together) into the equivalent matrix of one

of the following forms: i . [ ] []

Ir O
OO
I
, ii . r ,iii . [ I r O ] ,iv . [ I r ] ,
O

where I r is identity matrix of order r and O is null matrix of any order. These four forms are
called canonical form or normal form of the matrix A .

[ ]
12 3
Qu. Reduce A= 2 3 4 to the normal form.
4 56

[ ]
12 3
Ans. We have A= 234
4 56

[ ]
12 1
23 1 , replacing c 3 by c3 −c 2
451

[ ]
11 1
21 1 , replacing c 2 by c2−c1
4 11

[ ]
010
1 1 0 , replacing c 3 by c3 −c 2 and c 1 by c 1−c2
310

[ ]
010
1 1 0 , replacing r 2 by r 3−r 2
200

15
 [ ]
010
1 0 0 , replacing r 2 by r 2−r 1
200

[ ]
01 0
1 0 0 , replacing r 3 by r 3−2 r 2
000

[ ]
100
01 0 , interchanging r 1∧r 2
000

[ ]
I 20
00
.

A=¿[13 16 19¿][14 17 20¿]¿¿¿

¿
Qu. Reduce to the canonical form.

[ ]
2 13
Qu. Reduce 4 7 13 to the normal form.
4−3−1

Note: To reduce a matrix to normal form both row and column operations may be performed.

Echelon matrix: A matrix A=[ aij ]mn is an Echelon matrix, or is said to be Echelon form, if the
number of zeros preceding the first non-zero entry of a row increases row by row until only zero
rows remain.

( )
1 23
00 4
000
000

16
Row reduced echelon matrix: An Echelon matrix is called a row reduced Echelon matrix if the
distinguished elements are: i. the only nonzero entries in their respective columns; ii. each equal
to 1.

( )
0 13 0 0 4 0
0 0 0 1 0−30
0000120
0000001

[ ]
13 4 5
Qu. Reduce A= 3 9 12 9 to the Echelon form.
−1−3−4−3

[ ]
13 4 5
Ans. We have A= 3 9 12 9 ,
−1−3−4−3

[ ]
1345
or, 0 0 0−6 , replacing r 2 by r 2−3 r 1 and r 3 by r 3+ r 1
0002

[ ]
1345 r3
or, 0 0 0 0 , replacing r 2 by r 2 +3 r 1 and r 3 by
0 0 01 2

[ ]
1345
or, 0 0 01 , interchanging r 2 by r 3.
0000

[ ]
4302
Qu. Reduce the matrix 3 4−13 to the Echelon form.
−7−7 1 5

Note: To reduce a matrix to Echelon form only row operation is used.

Rank of the Matrices

17
Minor of a matrix: If any r rows and any r columns from A=[ aij ]m ×n are taken and remaining
(m−r)rows and (n−r )columns removed, then the determinant of the remaining r ×r submatrix
of A is called minor of A of order r.

Rank of a matrix: The rank of a matrix is the maximum number of its linearly independent
column vectors (or row vectors).

Processes to determine the rank of a matrix:

i. With the help of minors,

ii. Using the normal form of a matrix, and
iii. From Echelon form of a matrix.

Another definition: A non-zero matrix A is said to have rank r [denoted by ρ ( A ) ] if at least one
of its r-square minors is different from zero while every (r +1)- square minor, if any, is zero.

From the above definition we may conclude that:

i. If at least one minor of order r of the matrix A is not equal to zero, then ( A)≥r .
ii. If a matrix A does not possess any minor of order ( r +1 ) then ρ ( A ) ≤ r .

Full rank matrix: A square matrix is known as a full rank matrix only when its determinant is
non-zero. Clearly, a non-singular matrix is a full rank matrix.

Note:

iii. ρ ( O )=0 is a null matrix, O is a null matrix.

iv. ρ ( I n )=n , where I n is an n - square identity matrix.
v. Let A=[ aij ]nn, if ρ( A) ¿ n, then A is non-singular, otherwise A is singular.
vi. The rank of a matrix cannot exceed more than the number of its rows or columns.
vii. The matrices A and A−1 have the same rank.
viii. Equivalent matrices have the same order and the same rank.

[ ]
238
Qu. Find the rank of A= 5 0 6 with the help of minors.
8 9 10

| |
238
Ans. The minor of A of order 3 is 5 0 6 =246 ≠ 0.
8 9 10

18
Then ρ( A)≥ 3.

Also A does not possess any minor of order 4 and then ρ( A)≤ 3.

Hence ρ ( A )=3.

Alternative method:

[ ]
238
We have A= 506 .
8 9 10

Now the minors of order 1 are 2, 3, etc. are different from 0.

Again, the minors of order 2 are |25 30|=−15 ,|30 86|=18 , etc. are different from 0.

| |
238
The minor of order 3 is 5 0 6 =246 ≠ 0.
8 9 10

So, the rank of A is 3.

[ ]
0 12
Qu. Find the rank of the matrix 12 3 using minors of that matrix.
3 11

Canonical form/ Normal form of a matrix: Every non-zero m ×nmatrix A can be reduced by
means of both elementary row and column operations into the equivalent matrix of one of the

[ ] []
I O I
following forms: i . r , ii . r ,iii . [ I r O ] ,iv . [ I r ] ;
OO O

where I r is the r ×r identity matrix and O is null matrix of any order. These four forms are called
canonical form or normal form of A . In this case, the rank of A is r, i.e., ρ ( A )=r .

Note: We may use both row and column operations together to form a matrix A into the
canonical form.

[ ]
12 3
Example: Let A= 2 3 4
345

19
 [ ]
111
2 1 1 ,replacing c 3 by c3 −c 2∧c 2 by c 2−c1
311

[ ]
010
1 1 0 , replacing c 3 by c 3−c2∧c1 by c 1−c 2
210

[ ]
−1 1 0
0 1 0 , replacing c1 by c 1−c 2
110

[ ]
−1 1 0
1 0 0 , replacing r 2 by r 2−r 1 ∧r 3 by r 3 −r 1
200

[ ]
010 r2
1 0 0 , replacing r 1 by r 1 +r 2∧r 3 by
2
100

[ ]
01 0
0 0 0 ,replacing r 2 by r 2−r 3
100

[ ]
100
0 0 0 ,interchanging r 1∧r 3
01 0

[ ]
100
01 0 ,interchanging r 2∧r 3
000

[ ] I 20
00
. This is the canonical form of A .

Hence, ρ ( A )=2.

A=¿[13 16 19¿][14 17 20¿]¿¿¿

¿
Question: Reduce to the normal form and then find the rank.

20
 [ ]
2 13
Question: Find the rank of the matrix 4 7 13 using canonical form.
4−3−1

Echelon matrix: A matrix A=[ aij ]mnis an Echelon matrix, or is said to be Echelon form, if

i. All the non-zero rows, if any precede the zero rows,

ii. The number of zero preceding the first non-zero element in a row is less
than the number of such zero in the succeeding row,
iii. The first non-zero element in a row is unity.

Note:

i. For the reduced Echelon form of a matrix only row operations are used.
ii. The number of non-zero rows of the reduced Echelon form of the matrix is
the rank of that matrix.

[ ]
13 4 5 6
0 12 3 4
Example: is the reduced Echelon form of a matrix A .Hence ρ ( A )=3.
0 0 1 23
00000

[ ]
13 4 5
Qu. Reduce A= 3 9 12 9 to the Echelon form and then find the rank of A .
−1−3−4−3

[ ]
13 4 5
Ans. We have A= 3 9 12 9 ,
−1−3−4−3

[ ]
1345
or, 0 0 0−6 , replacing r 2 by r 2−3 r 1 and r 3 by r 3+ r 1
0002

[ ]
1345 r3
or, 0 0 0 0 , replacing r 2 by r 2 +3 r 1 and r 3 by
0 0 01 2

[ ]
1345
or, 0 0 01 , interchanging r 2 by r 3.
0000

21
 [ ]
13 4 5
Hence the reduced Echelon form of the matrix A is 0 0 0 1 , ∴ ρ ( A )=2.
0000

[ ]
4302
Qu. Find the rank of the matrix 3 4−13 using Echelon form.
−7−7 1 5

System of linear equations

Linear equation: A linear equation is an equation that can be written as

n
a 1 x 1+ a2 x2 +…+ an x n=c ; or, ∑ ai x i=c ,
i

where the x i are variables (the unknowns), the a i are coefficients, and c is a constant.
If c=0 , then the linear equation is homogeneous, and ifc ≠ 0then it is non-homogeneous.
2 x+3 y + z=6 is a non-homogeneous linear equation.
x +3 y−z=0 is a homogeneous linear equation.
System of linear equations and augmented matrix: A system of linear equations is a set of
linear equations those involve the same variables.

}
a 11 x 1 +a 12 x 2+ …+a1 n x n=c 1
a21 x 1 +a 22 x 2+ …+a 2n x n=c 2 . ( 1 )
………
am 1 x 1+ am 2 x 2 +…+ amn xn =c m

The above system (Eq. (1)) can be written as: AX=C , where

[ ] []
a 11 a12 … … a1 n x1
A= 21 a21 … .… a2 n is the coefficient ¿, X =
a x2 = x x … x '
[ 1 2 n ] is the matrix of unknowns,
….….… …
a m 1 a m 2 … a mn xn

[]
c1
¿ C= c2 =[ c 1 c2 … c m ] ' is the matrix of constant terms.
…
cm

[ ]
a11 a12 … … a 1 n c 1
¿ a a …. … a 2 n c 2
Then the augmented matrix, A =[ A C ]= 21 21 .
… .… . … …
am 1 am 2 … a mn c m

22
Homogeneous Linear System of Equations: A system of linear equations is homogeneous if
the constants in each equation are zero, i.e., C=O , O is a null matrix; and then it can be written
as AX=O .

Note:
i. When the system has a solution, it is said to be consistent; otherwise, the system is said
to be inconsistent.
ii. A consistent system has either just one solution or infinitely many solutions.

System of linear equations

Inconsistent Consistent

No solution
Unique solution More than one solution

Solution: A solution to a system of linear equations is a set of values for the variables x i such
that each equation in the system is satisfied.

[][]
x1 α1
x 2 = α2
Thus, a column vector X = satisfying AX=C , is called a solution to the system of linear equation
… …
xn αn
AX=C . Also we may write ( x 1 , x 2 , … , x n ) =( α 1 , α 2 , … , α n ) .
Trivial solution: A homogeneous system of linear equations has the solution X =O, that is
x 1=x 2=…=x n=0. It is called trivial solution. Thus, ( x 1 , x 2 , … , x n ) =( 0 , 0 ,… ,0 ) .
Solution forms of linear systems: Every linear system of equations has exactly i. no solution,
ii. one (unique) solution, or iii. infinite solutions.
Equivalent system of linear equations: Two linear systems which have same sets of solutions are called
equivalent.
Consistent and inconsistent linear systems: A system of linear equations AX=C is called
consistent if it has a solution.
A linear system is inconsistent if it does not has a solution.
Example: The following system −x + y=3 , x− y=1 is inconsistent.

Note:

i. A homogeneous system of linear equations is consistent.

23
 ii.
A consistent system of linear equations has either one solution or infinitely
many solutions.
iii. If m=n, and | A|≠ 0 , then AX=C is consistent. Here m is the number equations
and n is number of unknowns.
Fundamental theorem: The system AX=C is consistent iff ρ ( A )= ρ ( A ¿ ), that is the rank of A and the
rank of the augmented matrix is same.
Consistent solution types: A consistent system of linear equations will have exactly one
solution if there is a leading 1 for each variable in the system.
i. If a consistent linear system of equations has a free variable, it has infinite
solutions.
ii. A consistent linear system with more variables than equations will always have
infinite solutions.
iii. If a consistent linear system has more variables than leading 1s, then the system
will have infinite solutions.

Solutions of consistent systems: Let A X =C be a consistent system of linear equations.

i. If A X =O has exactly one solution (X =O), then A X =C has exactly one solution.
ii. If A X =O has infinite solutions, then A X =C has infinite solutions.

Solution by Cramer’s Rule:

Inconsistent Systems of Linear Equations: A system of linear equations is inconsistent if the

reduced row echelon form of its corresponding augmented matrix has a leading 1 in the last
column.

Particular Solution: Consider a linear system of equations with infinite solutions. A particular
solution is one solution out of the infinite set of possible solutions.

Parametric representation of a solution set: Let 2 x−3 y−4 z=2, then 2 x=2+3 y +4 z .

Here x is expressed in y and z , thus y and z are free variables. So, let y=s ,∧z=t ; s , t ∈ R .

{
3
x=1+ s +2 t
2
Then, solution is for s , t ∈ R .
y =s
z=t

Qu. Find the solution in parametric form of the system of linear equations:

5 x−2 y+ z=1 , x +2 y−2 z=−2.

24
Ans. We have the system

5 x−2 y+ z=1

x +2 y−2 z=−2.

][ ] [ ]
x
Above system can be written as [ 5−2 1
12−2
y =
z
1
−2

Let r '1=r 1+ r 2 ,∧r '2=r 2 +2 r 1, then we have

][ ] [ ]
x
[ 6 0−1
11−2 0
y=
z
−1
0

}
z=6 x +1
Thus,
6 x −z=−1
11 x−2 y=0 }
, or, 11
y= x
2

Here y and z are expressed in x , so x is the free variable. Let x=t , then the solution

x=t

11
y= t
2

z=6 t +1.

EXAMPLES

Qu. Express in matrix form the following system of linear equations:

9 x +7 y +3 z=6 ; 5 x+ y+ 4 z=1 ; 6 x +8 y +2 z =4.

Ans. We have the system of linear equations: 9 x +7 y +3 z=6 ; 5 x+ y+ 4 z=1 ; 6 x +8 y +2 z =4.

We may write the above system in the following matrix form: AX=C ,

25
 [ ] [] []
973 x 6
where, A= 5 1 4 , X = y ,∧C= 1 .
682 z 4

Qu. Solve the following system of linear equations by matrix method:

x + y + z=6 , x− y + z=2 , 2 x + y −z=1.

Ans. We have the system of linear equations x + y + z=6 , x− y + z=2 , 2 x + y −z=1.

We may write the above system to the matrix form as AX=C , where

[ ] []
11 1 6
A= 1−1 1 , X =c , and C= 2 .
2 1−1 1

[ ][ ] [ ]
11 1 x 6
Now 1−1 1 y = 2
21−1 z 1

by elementary row operations r '1=r 1−r 2 ,∧r '2=r 2+ r 3 we get

[ ][ ] [ ]
020 x 4
300 y = 3 .
21−1 z 1

Thus, 2 y=4 , 3 x =3 ,∧2 x+ y−z=1. ∴ x=1 , y=2 , z=3.

Hence the solution of the system is( x , y , z )=( 1 , 2, 3 ) .

Qu. Solve by the matrix method: x +2 y+ 3 z=14 , 3 x + y +2 z=11, 2 x +3 y + z=11.

Ans. ( x , y , z )=( 1 , 2, 3 ) .

Qu. Solve by the matrix method: x +2 y+ 3 z=4 , 2 x+3 y + 8 z=7 , x− y+ 9 z=1.

Hints. AX=C ,

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 23 x 4
A= 23 8 y = 7
1−1 9 z 1

26
 [ ][ ] [ ]
1 23 x 4
0−1 2 y = −1 , by replacing r 1=r 1+2 r 2
'

000 z 0

[ ][ ] [ ]
107 x 2
=
0−1 2 y −1
000 z 0

Thus,
x +7 z=2
− y +2 z=−1 }
, or,
x=2−7 z
y=1+2 z }
Therefore, both x and y are expressed in z .So, z is free variable and let z=t .

Hence the solution is ( x , y , z )=( 2−7 t ,1+ 2t ,t ).

Qu. Examine if the following equations are consistent? It yes, solve it:

x + y +4 z =6 , 3 x +2 y−2 z=9 , 5 x+ y+ 2 z=13.

OR: Apply rank test to examine if the following system of equations is consistent and if
consistent then find the complete solution: x + y +4 z =6 , 3 x +2 y−2 z=9 , 5 x+ y+ 2 z=13.

Ans. We have the system of linear equations:

}
x + y + 4 z=6
3 x+2 y−2 z=9 . (1)
5 x+ y+ 2 z=13

[ ] []
114 6
¿
Let, the coefficient matrix A= 3 2−2 ,∧C= 9 , then augmented matrix, A =[ A C ] .
5 12 13

[ ][ ]
¿
11 4 6 1146
or, A = 3 2−29
' '
0−1−14−9 , by replacing r 2=r 2−3 r 1 ,∧r 3=r 3−r 1 ;
5 1 213 4 0−27

[ ]
1146
'
0−1−14−9 , by replacing r 3=r 3−4 r 1 ;
0−4−18−17

27
 [ ]
11 4 6
'
0−1−14−9 , by replacing r 3=r 3−4 r 2 ;
0 0 38 19

[ ]
11 4 6
0−1−14−9 r
, by replacing r '3= 3 ;
1 38
0 01
2

[ ]
11 0 4
0−1 0−2
, by replacing r '1=r 1−4 r 3 ,∧r '2=r 2+14 r 3 ;
1
00 1
2

[ ]
1002
0−1 0−2
, by replacing r '1=r 1+ r 2 ;
1
00 1
2

[ ]
1 0 02
0 1 02
, by replacing r '2=−r 2 .
1
001
2

This is a reduced Echelon matrix.

Now ρ ( A )= ρ ( A ¿ )=3. Thus, the given system is consistent.

1
(
Now, x=2 ; y=2 ; z= , ∴ ( x , y , z ) = 2 , 2 ,
2
1
2 )

[ ]
2−1 3
Qu. If A= 1 11 , then find A−1 and hence solve the system of equations
1−1 1
2 x− y +3 z=9 , x+ y+ z=6 , x− y + z=2.
Ans. We have the system of linear equations

}
2 x − y +3 z =9
x+ y+ z=6 . (1)
x− y + z=2

28
 [ ] [] []
2−1 3 x 9
Above system can be written as AX=C , where A= 1 11 , X = y ,∧C= 6 .
1−1 1 z 2
−1 adjA
We know that, A = .
| A|

[ ]
2−2−4
Now | A|=−2 ,∧adjA= 0−11 .
−21 3

[ ]
−11 2

[ ]
2−2−4 1 1
−1 1 0 −
Hence A = = 2 2 .
−2 0−1 1
−2 13 1 3
1− −
2 2

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 2−2−4 9
−1
1
Now, X =A C= =
−2 0−1 1 6 2
−2 13 2 3

[][]
x 1
∴ y=2.
z 3

Qu. Investigate for what values of a and b , the system of linear equations: x + y + z=6 ,
x +2 y+ 3 z=10 and x +2 y+ az=b have i. no solution, ii. unique solution, iii. Infinite solution.

INVERSE OF A MATRIX

Invertible matrix: A square and non-singular matrix A is said to be invertible if there exists a
matrix B with the property that AB=BA=I where I is the identity matrix.

Inverse matrix: If A and B are non-singular square matrices such that AB=BA=I , then B is
called the inverse of A and we may write B= A−1 ( B equals A inverse). The matrix B also has A
as its inverse and we may write A=B−1 .

[ ] [ ]
123 6−2−3
Example: Let A= 1 3 3 ∧B= −1 1 0 , now AB=BA=I ; so, A−1=B , and B−1= A .
124 −1 0 1

29
Question: If A and B are two non-singular (invertible) matrices of the same order then AB is
also non-singular and ( AB )−1=B−1 A−1 .

Calculation: Following are the methods to find out the inverse of a matrix:

i. Using adjoint and determinant,

ii. Using Elementary row operations (Gauss-Jordan Method),
iii. Using a system of linear equations,
iv. Using the Cayley-Hamilton theorem.

Theorem: If a sequence of row operations applied to a square matrix A reduces it to the identity
matrix I , then the same sequence of row operations applied to I gives A−1.

[ ]
12−1
Question: Find the inverse of the matrix −11 2 using elementary row transformation (Gauss-
2−1 1
Jordan Method).

30