INJBARA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPITATIONAL SCEINCE

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

MSc IN BIOLOGY (ECOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY)

ADVANCED SYSTEMATICS AND EVOLUTION COURCE (Biol. 6022)
FROM 15%

TITLE: DISCUSSION, COMPER AND CONTREST THE TERM

CLADOGENESIS VS ANAGENESIS AND CLADOGRAM VS
PHYLOEGRAM

BY

MOHAMMED TADESSE 0364 /15

ADINA SEWALE 0354 /15
WOYNITU AMSALU 0370 /15

SUBMITTED TO: AEMRO MEKONEN (PhD)

MAY, 2023

IU, INJIBARA, ETHIOPIA

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENT...................................................................................................................I
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................II
LIST OF FIGURE.........................................................................................................................III
1. The Concepts of Anagenesis....................................................................................................1
2. The Concept of Cladogenesis...................................................................................................2
2.1 The Similarities between Anagenesis and Cladogenesis.......................................................3
2.2 The Difference Between Anagenesis and Cladogenesis........................................................3
2.3 Summery of Anagenesis Vs Cladogenesis................................................................................5
3. Definition of Cladogram..............................................................................................................5
3.1 Features of a cladogram.............................................................................................................5
3.1.1 Root.....................................................................................................................................7
3.1.2 Nodes..................................................................................................................................7
3.1.3 Clades..................................................................................................................................7
3.1.4 Taxon / Outgroup................................................................................................................7
3.1.5 Branches..............................................................................................................................7
3.2 Constructing Cladograms..........................................................................................................7
3.2.1 Using Morphological/ Structural Characters......................................................................8
3.2.2 Using Molecular Characters..............................................................................................10
4. Interpreting Cladograms.........................................................................................................10
5. Different Styles of Cladograms..............................................................................................12
6. The Concepts of Phylogenetic Tree of Life..........................................................................15
6.1 Similarities of Cladogram vs Phylogenetic tree (Phylogram).............................................16
6.2 Summary – Cladogram vs Phylogenetic Tree......................................................................17
Summary........................................................................................................................................18
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................20

II
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The Difference Between Anagenesis and Cladogenesis...................................................4

Table 2, Group, Organisms by their Characters..............................................................................8

III
 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1: Anagenesis.......................................................................................................................1
Figure 2: Speciation.........................................................................................................................2
Figure 3, Parts of a Cladogram........................................................................................................6
Figure 4 Source: BioNinja...............................................................................................................6
Figure 6 Source: http://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf.......................................................9
Figure 7 Source: http://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf.....................................................11
Figure 9: Cladogram of primates. Image Source: Biology Dictionary..........................................13
Figure 10: Cladogram of vertebrates.............................................................................................14
Figure 11: A phylogenetic tree of animals....................................................................................15

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 1. The Concepts of Anagenesis
What is Anagenesis?

Anagenesis is a process by which evolutionary change occurs in a single lineage of organisms

where one taxon is replaced by another taxon without branching. In other words, it is a
progressive evolution or phyletic evolution. This occurs when individuals or a particular species
specializes in responding to an external environmental stimulus. This promotes the species to a
higher level through continuous increment in complexity and the perfection of the adaptations.
During anagenesis, a single gene pool converts to another gene pool.

Figure 1: Anagenesis

Characteristics of anagenesis include the division of labor in body parts, increased complexity of
the central nervous system and related organs, increased complexity of organs to improve the
function and rationalization, and increased resistance to the changes in the external
environmental stimuli. There are three main types of anagenesis based on the speed of the
process. They are tachytely, horotely, and bradytely. Tachytely is a rapid type of anagenesis
where the replacement of taxon occurs within a short period. Bradytely is a slow type of
anagenesis, while horotely anagenesis proceeds at a moderate speed.

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 2. The Concept of Cladogenesis
What is Cladogenesis ?

Cladogenesis is a process by which evolutionary change of a species occurs where the new
species are branched off from a common ancestral species. This is the common type of mode of
speciation with response to external environmental stimuli. During cladogenesis, more than one
species is developed from a single species. Hence, during cladogenesis, a single gene pool
converts into different gene pools. This process brings biological diversity to the environment,
and it is an active evolutionary process. Branching evolution is another term to describe the
cladogenesis process.

Figure 2: Speciation

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With reference to speed, we can classify cladogenesis into three types. They are tachyschizia,
horoschizia, and bradyschizia. During tachyschizia, lineages split rapidly due to the extinction of
competitors or invasion of new habitats. In such instances, rapid diversification occurs to adapt
to the new environment with favorable opportunities by increasing their number. During
horoschizia and bradyschizia, cladogenesis occurs at a moderate rate and slow rate, respectively.

2.1 The Similarities between Anagenesis and Cladogenesis

 Anagenesis and cladogenesis are types of evolutionary mechanisms.

 Both occur in response to external environmental stimuli.
 Moreover, these mechanisms lead to speciation.
 They are categorized into subtypes by the speed of occurrence.

2.2 The Difference Between Anagenesis and Cladogenesis

The key difference between anagenesis and cladogenesis is that anagenesis is a process that
undergoes phyletic evolution within a single species of organisms, while cladogenesis is a type
of branching evolution that splits the ancestral species into several new species. During
anagenesis, a single gene pool converts into another gene pool, but during cladogenesis, a single
gene pool splits into different gene pools. Moreover, based on the speed of the process, there are
three types of anagenesis and cladogenesis. Anagenesis types are tachytely, horotely, and
bradytely. Cladogenesis types are tachyschizia, horoschizia, and bradyschizia.

The below infographic presents the differences between anagenesis and cladogenesis in tabular
form for side by side comparison.

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Table 1. The Difference Between Anagenesis and Cladogenesis

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 2.3 Summery of Anagenesis Vs Cladogenesis
Evolution is a process in which change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations
occurs over successive generations. Anagenesis and cladogenesis are two types of such
mechanisms. The key difference between anagenesis and cladogenesis is that anagenesis is a
process that undergoes phyletic evolution within a single species of organism. Cladogenesis is a
type of branching evolution that splits the ancestral species into several new species. In
anagenesis, a single gene pool transforms into another gene pool. However, in cladogenesis, a
single gene pool splits into different gene pools.

3. Definition of Cladogram

A cladogram is the graphical representation of the hypothetical relationship (phylogenetic

relationship) between different groups of organisms. It is used in the phylogenetic analysis of
organisms to determine the evolutionary relationship between them.

The cladogram is derived from Greek words clados and gramma where ‘clados’ means branch
and ‘gramma’ means characters. It is an unscaled representation of a phylogenetic analysis where
only the topography of the diagram matters. However, it doesn’t have any time axis and is
instead a simple diagram that summarises a pattern of characters among different organisms.
Although a cladogram includes hypothetical ancestors to derive a relationship, it is the starting
point for further analysis.
3.1 Features of a cladogram

 The trees that result from the cladistic analysis are relative statements of relationship and do
not indicate ancestors or descendants. E.g., it hypothesizes that Birds and Mammals are related
but not that Mammals evolved from Birds or that Birds evolved from Mammals.
 In a cladogram, branch lengths are not proportional to the number of evolutionary changes and
thus have no phylogenetic meaning.
 The external taxa of a cladogram line up neatly in a row or a column.
 Cladograms are generated by the analysis of morphological characters of the organisms and
DNA or RNA sequencing data. Recently, however, computational phylogenetics is also used in
the combination of the existing characters for the generation of cladograms.
 Cladograms are the assumptions for the preparation of phylogenetic trees.

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 Even though cladograms are of different shapes, they all consist of lines that branch off of
other lines representing the hypothetical ancestors of different organisms.

Figure 3, Parts of a Cladogram

A cladogram is a diagram consisting of the following parts:

Figure 4 Source: BioNinja

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 3.1.1 Root
 A root is the initial common ancestors of all the organisms in a cladogram.
 A root is the starting point for any given cladogram. However, the root might also indicate that
it comes from some other larger clades.
3.1.2 Nodes

 Each node is a hypothetical ancestor that gives rise to two or more daughter taxa.
 Nodes indicate the bifurcating branch point of divergence in all cladograms.
 Thus, a node exists in each point where a group of organisms divides or separate into further
different groups.
3.1.3 Clades

 Clades are groups of organisms or genes that include the most recent common ancestor of all
of its members and all of the descendants of that most recent common ancestor.
 A clade is made up of an ancestor and all its descendants.
 It includes a particular node and all of its connected branches.
3.1.4 Taxon / Outgroup

 A taxon or an outgroup is the most distantly related group of animals that isn’t necessarily a
clade. This functions as a point of reference or comparison for the rest of the cladogram.
3.1.5 Branches

 A branch in a cladogram is a line that connects all the other parts of the cladogram.
 The branch length in some cases represents the extent of divergence or the extent of the
relationship among different taxa.
3.2 Constructing Cladograms
How to make a cladogram?
Cladograms can be constructed based on either a comparison of morphological (structural)
features or molecular evidence. Historically, structural features were used to construct
cladograms, but molecular evidence is now more commonly used.
 As discussed, cladograms can be generated either based on the morphological characteristics or
molecular evidence like DNA, RNA or protein sequencing.
 Therefore, on the basis of the characters used in the cladograms, these can be made in two
different ways:
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 3.2.1 Using Morphological/ Structural Characters

Step 1: Determine the defined characters to be used

 The first step in phylogenetic analysis is to determine whether a character is derived or

primitive (innate).

 In this case, the characters that are not influenced by environmental factors are to be selected.
 The out group comparison method is the primary method in use for the construction of
cladograms or other trees.
 In the out group method, a character of an organism is selected where the organisms is not a
member of the group of animals to be classified, but the selected character is the same as some
of the organisms in the group, then such a character can be used as a defined character.
 Here, the outside organism is called the out group, and the organisms being classified are the in
group.
 Now, within the group, other characters are selected to separate the organisms in the in group
further.
Characters Shark Bullfrog Kangaroo Human
Vertebrae X X X X

Two pairs of limbs X X X

Mammary glands X X

Placenta X

Table 2, Group Organisms by their Characters

 Here, the organism with the least common characters represents the out group. In this table
above, Shark is the out group.
Step 2: Classify the organisms according to the shared characteristics

 For the grouping of the organisms, a Venn diagram can be constructed prior to developing a
cladogram.
 In the Venn diagram, begin with the character that is common in all groups and place it on the
outside.

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Figure 5 Source: http://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf

• Now, convert the Venn diagram into a cladogram.

Figure 6 Source: http://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf

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 3.2.2 Using Molecular Characters

Step 1: Selection of the molecular evidence common among the selected organisms

 The first step in phylogenetic construction using molecular evidence is to decide whether to
use DNA sequences or protein sequences.

 Protein sequences are preferable in most cases.

 However, for studying very recent evolution, DNA is the marker of choice.
 Some examples of proteins that are common in many organisms are hemoglobin and
cytochrome c.

Step 2: Collect and run the multiple sequence alignment to compare the molecular
sequences (DNA or amino acid) for each of the organisms selected

 Multiple sequence alignment software like Clustal Omega can be used to align multiple DNA
or amino acid sequences to determine similarities and dissimilarities.

 The closely related organisms will have a higher degree of similarity in the sequences
compared to the organisms that are distantly related.
Step 3: Generate a cladogram from the obtained data of the multiple sequence alignment

 The next step is to select a proper substitution model that provides estimates of the relationship
between the organisms by taking into account the results of multiple sequence alignment.
 The commonly used nucleotide substitution models are the Jukes-Cantor and Kimura models.
 The commonly used amino acid substitution models are the PAM and JTT models.

4. Interpreting Cladograms
How to read a cladogram

 Even if a cladogram doesn’t provide a complete explanation of the relationship between

different organisms, it does, however, give a basic plot in establishing a relationship.

 For the interpretation of a cladogram, let us consider the following example of a cladogram.

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 Figure 7 Source: http://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf

 In the cladogram above, four phylogenetic characters are studied.

 This represents that humans and kangaroo are more closely related than humans and bullfrogs.
 The extent of the relationship cannot be determined by this cladogram as it is an unscaled
diagram.
 The orientation of the lines and the order of the animals also don’t matter.
 Similarly, in the cladogram, as we move towards the right of the diagram, the organisms
become less related to each other. Sharks and humans are more distantly related than bulldog
and humans.
 Characteristic to all cladograms, the ancestors of the organisms are hypothetical and thus are
not indicated.
 In the above diagram, the shark is the outgroup, whereas human and kangaroo form a clade.

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 5. Different Styles of Cladograms

 There are different styles of cladograms based on the shapes of the branches and the
orientation of the branches.

 However, because a cladogram is an unscaled representation of phylogenetic analysis, the

shape, length, and orientation of the branches don’t matter.

Figu
re 8. Diagrams of cladograms:
 In both of the given diagrams, two phylogenetic characters are studied and represent the same
relationship between the three organisms.
Cladogram examples
 Cladograms can be used to differentiate different organisms based on some specific shared
characteristics.
 The following are some examples of cladogram that can be used to distinguish organisms into
further different groups based on their morphological characters:

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 Figure 9: Cladogram of primates. Image Source: Biology Dictionary.

 Primates can be distinguished into separate taxa based on some specific characters.
 In the cladogram above, the branch towards lemurs and lorises is considered the outgroup
while the rest are in the ingroup.
 Lemurs and Lorises also form a separate clade with a common node.
 The internal nodes present within the cladogram present hypothetical ancestors between
different groups.
 Similarly, the closer the groups are to each other, the more closely related to each other they
are.

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 Figure 10: Cladogram of vertebrates.

 Vertebrates can also be further divided into groups based on various characteristics.
 Among the characters, the above cladogram represents the differentiation of vertebrates based
on the ventrolateral muscle layers.
 In the given cladogram, all the groups share a common of at least two muscle layers.
 As we move further up towards the top, the taxa are separated based on the presence of four
layers on the ventrolateral body wall.
 Here, the bony fish form the outgroup while the rest of the taxa are resent in the ingroup.
 Similarly, crocodiles and birds form a clade with the commonest ancestor.
 As in all other cladograms, the closer the organisms in the cladogram, the more closely related
they are based on their morphological characteristics.


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 6. The Concepts of Phylogenetic Tree of Life

What is a Phylogenetic Tree?

Phylogenetic studies are useful for finding answers to different problems in evolutionary biology
such as the relationship between species and their origin, spread of viral infections, migration
patterns of species, etc. Advanced molecular biological techniques have helped biologists to
evaluate phylogenetic relationships between organisms in relation to the evolutionary changes of
the organisms. A phylogenetic tree is a diagram which shows the relationship between organisms
based on their characteristics, genetic background, and evolutionary relationships. Compared to a
cladogram, phylogenetic tree has more value when discussing the relationships of organisms in a
meaningful way with respect to their ancestors and evolution. Phylogenetic tree is drawn like a
branching tree diagram in which branch length is proportional to the evolutionary distance,
unlike a cladogram.

Biologists analyze different characteristics of organisms using different analytical tools such as
parsimony, distance, likelihood and bayesian methods, etc. They consider many characteristics
of organisms including morphological, anatomical, behavioral, biochemical, molecular and fossil
characteristics to construct phylogenetic trees.

Figure 11: A phylogenetic tree of animals

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 6.1 Similarities of Cladogram vs Phylogenetic tree (Phylogram)
 Both the cladogram and phylogenetic tree are the diagrammatic representation of phylogenetic
analysis and these provide a relationship between different groups of organisms. The
characters used in both cladogram and phylogenetic tree are the same and involve a similar
process of construction. However, the cladogram is often considered an initial step towards the
construction of a phylogenetic tree
Table 2. Differences between a cladogram and phylogenetic tree (phylogram)

Characteristics Cladogram Phylogenetic tree (phylogram)

Phylogenetic trees are more complex

Cladograms are mostly simple and
Nature can be used for the general
classification of organisms.
and are mostly used to determine the
evolutionary relationship between
different groups of organisms.

Cladograms do not represent the phylogenetic tree is an evolutionary

evolutionary relationships between tree that shows the evolutionary
Representation
different groups of the organism and relationships between different
thus is not an evolutionary tree. groups of ani

Cladograms give a hypothetical Phylogenetic trees give an actual

Use picture of the actual evolutionary representation of the evolutionary
history of the organisms. history of the organisms.

All the branches in a cladogram are The branches in a phylogenetic tree

Length of the of equal length as they do not usually are of different lengths as
branches represent any evolutionary distance they represent the evolutionary
between different groups. distance between the groups.

The separation of the organism in a A phylogenetic tree indicates the

cladogram is solely based on the
Evolutionary
defined characters. Thus, the
time
distance doesn’t indicate the
evolutionary time of the groups.
duration of evolution and the
relative divergence time of the
branches based on the distance
between the groups.

The external taxa of a phylogenetic

Position of The external taxa of a cladogram
tree might or might not line up in a
external taxa line up neatly in a row or a column.
row or a column.

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6.2 Summary – Cladogram vs Phylogenetic Tree

A cladogram is a diagram which shows the relationship between different organisms based on
their different similarities. A phylogenetic tree is a diagram which shows the phylogenetic
history of organisms with respect to the geological time scale. It represents possible relationships
among organisms and the evolutionary history. This is the difference between a cladogram and a
phylogenetic tree.

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Summary
Evolution is a process that involves changes in the heritable characteristics of biological
populations that occurs over successive generations. In other words, it is the process of biological
change along with time. Evolution happens through different mechanisms. Anagenesis and
cladogenesis are two types of such mechanisms. During anagenesis, a single gene pool
transforms into another gene pool, while during cladogenesis, a single gene pool is split into
different gene pools.

 Anagenesis is a process by which evolutionary change occurs in a single lineage of

organisms where one taxon is replaced by another taxon without branching.
 Cladogenesis is a process by which evolutionary change of a species occurs where the
new species are branched off from a common ancestral species.
 The Similarities between Anagenesis and Cladogenesis are types of evolutionary
mechanisms, both occur in response to external environmental stimuli, Moreover, these
mechanisms lead to speciation and they are categorized into subtypes by the speed of
occurrence.
 The key difference between anagenesis and cladogenesis is that anagenesis is a process
that undergoes phyletic evolution within a single species of organism. Cladogenesis is a
type of branching evolution that splits the ancestral species into several new species.
Evolution and phylogeny are closely related two words which help to describe relationships and
characteristics of different organisms. Evolution explains how a particular group of organism has
been evolved, developed and selected through the timeline. Phylogeny explains the historical
development of an organism. There are different diagrams constructed by the biologists to show
the relationships between organisms

A cladogran is a diagrammatic representation which shows the relationship of the closely

related organisms.
A cladogram is the graphical representation of the hypothetical relationship (phylogenetic
relationship) between different groups of organisms.
A phylogenetic tree is a diagram which shows the relationship between organisms based
on their characteristics, genetic background, and evolutionary relationships

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Similarities of Cladogram vs Phylogenetic tree (Phylogram) Both the cladogram and
phylogenetic tree are the diagrammatic representation of phylogenetic analysis, Both of
these provide a relationship between different groups of organisms, The characters used
in both cladogram and phylogenetic tree are the same and involve a similar process of
construction.
The key difference between cladogram and phylogenetic tree is that cladogram shows
only the relationship between different organisms with respective to a common ancestor
while phylogenetic tree shows the relationship between different organisms with respect
to the evolutionary time and the amount of change with time.

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 REFERENCES

“Cladogenesis.”An Overview Science Direct Topics.

“Anagenesis.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc

Hall, Margaret & Rodriguez-Sosa, Jose & Plochocki, Jeffrey. (2017). Reorganization of
mammalian body wall patterning with cloacal septation. Scientific Reports. 7.
10.1038/s41598-017-09359-y.https://biologydictionary.net/cladogram/
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-5-evolution-and-biodi/54-
cladistics/cladograms.html
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-cladogram-and-vs-phylogenetic-
tree/
Verma HN et al. (2013). Bioinformatics. First Edition. Universal Training Solutions, Pvt.
Ltd..

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