Page |1

Technical English

[an e-book for I Year students as per the Institute Syllabi]

Prepared by
Department of Humanities,
Madhav Institute of Technology & Science, Gwalior
 Page |2

Contents

1. Technical English -100016 Syllabi 3

2. Technical English – 100016 Lecture Plan [Tentative] 4
3. Chapter 1 7
4. Chapter 2 20
5. Chapter 3 47
6. Chapter 4 69
7. Chapter 5 112
 Page |3

Bachelor of Technology Grading Scheme 2020 onwards

(Flexible Curriculum) [Applicable to B. Tech.]
S. Subject Code Subject Name L T P C
No.
1 100016/100103 Technical English/Communication 3 0 0 3

S. Subject Subject Maximum Marks Allotted Total Contacts / Total Mode Mod
No. Code Name Theory Block Practical Block Marks week Credi of e of
End Proficie Mid Quiz/ End Lab Skill L T P ts Exam Teac
Sem ncy in Sem Assign Sem Work Based hing
subject/ ment /Sessio Mini
course nal Project
1 100016 Technical 50 10 20 20 - - 100 3 0 0 3 PP Online
English

Mode of teaching: Blended (The papers 100016 and 100017 will be taught in blended mode)
Mode of Exam: Paper pen

Course Objectives:
 The course intends to build the required communication skills of the students so as to communicate effectively in real-
life situations like starting a talk and be comfortable using English language.
 It aims at teaching students to appreciate English language through the study of scientific, creative, and academic text.
 The course is designed to acquaint students with structure of English language used in literature, functional varieties,
figurative language, and verbal concomitance.
 The students are expected to enrich their knowledge of language, culture, and ethics through this course.
Unit I: Introduction to Language & Linguistics [CO1, CO2,]
An Introduction to Language and Linguistics, IPA, English Phonetic Symbols/Sign & Sounds.

Unit II: Communication [CO1, CO2]

Communication: Approaches, Elements, Types, Process, Models; Management Communication (Levels of
Communication) and Grapevine Communication, Verbal and Nonverbal Communication; Barriers to Communication;
Johari Communication Window.

Unit III: Application of Linguistic Ability [CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5]

1. Listening: Factors Affecting Listening and Improving Listening.
2. Speaking: Making Speeches, Presentation, Group Discussion, Meeting, Interview, Debate.

Unit IV: Report Writing: [CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5]

Reading Comprehension: Stories, Passages, Poetry and Scientific Text
Writing: Essentials of good writing, Technical Descriptions of Simple Engineering Objects; Formal (Application, Email,
CV, Résumé, Memo, Report writing)

Unit V: Grammar & Vocabulary: [CO3, CO5]

Grammar: Parts of Speech, Subject-verb Agreement, Active and Passive Voice, conditional sentences.
Vocabulary: Using the dictionary and thesaurus, word formation, prefix & suffix, idioms, phrasal verbs.

*Reading Material for story and poetry is to be selected by concerned teacher in class.

Reference Books: -
 Technical Communication — By Meenakshi Raman, OUP.
 Understanding Human Communication — By Ronald Alderman by OUP
 Communication Skills for Engineers — Pearson Education.
 Practical English Grammar by Thomson Martinet — Oxford University Press
 A Handbook of Language laboratory by P SreeKumar — Cambridge University Press.

Course Outcomes: After successful completion of the course the student will be able to:
CO1 → Speak clearly effectively and appropriately in a public forum to a variety of audiences and purposes. (LOT1)
CO2 → Prepare oral presentations and arguments within the Engineering Profession effectively. (LOT2)
CO3 → Demonstrate knowledge and comprehension of major text and traditions in language as well as its social,
cultural, and historical context. (LOT3)
CO4 → Read a variety of Text analytically so as to demonstrate in writing and/or speech the interpretation of texts.
(HOT4)
CO5 → Interpret text written in English assessing the results in written and oral arguments using appropriate material
for support. (LOT3)
 Page |4

Madhav Institute of Technology & Science, Gwalior

Bachelor of Technology Grading Scheme 2021-2022-2023 SESSION (Flexible Curriculum)

Subject Code: 100016 Subject Code: Technical English

Lecture Plan

S. Unit Lecture Description Date Duration

No.
1 Unit Introduction to Definitions and general history of English language 1 Hr
I Language
2 Introduction to Need of Phonetics for Engineering Students 1 Hr
Linguistics
3 Basics of Phonetics

4 Linguistics, Introduction to phonology, Morphology,

Etymology, Syntax, Pragmatics

5 IPA & Sound System of speech sound classification 1 Hr

System
6 English Phonetic Identification of speech sound symbols 2 Hr
Symbols
1 Unit Communication Definition & Features: Importance of communication in 1 Hr
II corporate world
2 Approaches Process approach, semiotic approach 1 Hr
3 Elements A brief overview of models
4 Types Formal, Informal, Organisational, Interpersonal, 1 Hr
Intrapersonal, Mass, Extra-personal communication
5 Management Corporate/Management Communication 1 Hr
Communication
6 Levels & Flow of Diagrammatic Analysis of the flow of Communication 1 Hr
Communication
7 Grapevine What is Grapevine? Rumours and Social interaction 1 Hr
Communication
8 Verbal Definition, types of verbal communication 1 Hr
Communication
9 Nonverbal Kinesics, Proxemics, Gestures & Postures, chronemics, 1 Hr
Communication Voice Modulation
10 Barriers to Linguistic Barriers, Psychological Barriers, Emotional 1 Hr
Communication Barriers, Physical Barriers ,Cultural Barriers,
Organisational Structure Barriers,
Attitude Barriers, Perception Barriers,
Technological Barriers & Socio-religious Barriers

11 Johari What is Johari window? Its constituents parts 1 Hr

Communication
Window
1 Unit Application of Importance of application of linguistic ability [LSRW] 1 Hr
III Linguistic Ability
2 Listening: What is listening? Types of listening 1 Hr
Factors
3 Affecting Factors that affects listening, traits of a good listener 1 Hr
Listening and
4 Improving Techniques to improve listening skills 1 Hr
Listening
 Page |5

5 Speaking: Making Elements of effective speeches 1 Hr

Speeches,

6 Presentation Importance of presentation, Stages of presentation, 1 Hr

audience behaviour
7 Group Discussion Types, techniques and etiquettes 1 Hr
8 Meeting, Types , process and techniques for effective meeting 1 Hr
conduction
9 Debate Types, techniques and etiquettes 1 Hr
10 Interview Types , process and techniques for effective interview
1 Unit Grammar Parts of Speech 1 Hr
2 IV Subject-verb Agreement & Introduction to Tenses 2 Hr
3 Active and Passive Voice 1 Hr
4 Conditional sentences, phrasal verbs 1 Hr
5 Vocabulary Using the dictionary and thesaurus, idioms 1 Hr
6 prefix & suffix 1 Hr
1 Unit Writing Skills Essentials of good writing 1 Hr
2 V Types of Writing: Creative Writing vs Technical Writing 1 Hr
3 Report writing Essentials and format of Report Writing 1 Hr
4 Description Technical Descriptions 1 Hr
writing Descriptions of Simple Engineering Objects
5 Application, CV, Résumé, Memo 1 Hr
6 Email Writing 1 Hr
7 Reading What is Reading Skills? Importance of reading skills in 1 Hr
Comprehension academic growth
8 Skimming & Scanning with reference to comprehension 1 Hr
9 Reading Stories, poetry, Scientific Text, Literary passages 2 Hr
Summary:
Total Lectures: 42-45
Total Time: 42-45 Hours
 Page |6

Unit-1

Introduction to Language & Linguistics


Linguistics and Phonetics
In this chapter we will learn
 The origin and nature of language.
 Sounds in English
 The difference between
monophthongs and diphthongs.
 The different branches of linguistics
and their roles in studying language.
 Vowel and consonant charts.
Page |7
Chapter 1
 What is linguistics?
 What is phonetics?
 How many types of vowel sounds are in
English?
 How many types of consonant sounds are
in English?
 What are the organs of speech?
 How to read a dictionary?

Linguistics
Linguistics is defined as the science of
language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of
language. By a scientific study of language we mean an
enquiry into why, what, And of course how. Thereby
this scientific study encompasses a number of sub-
fields:
the study of language structure (Grammar),
the study of sound system including discrete and
abstract units (Phonology),
the study of internal structures of words and how
sounds lead to the formation of words
(Morphology)
the study of actual properties of speech sounds
(phones), non-speech sounds, and how they are
produced and perceived (Phonetics),
the study of meanings of words (Lexical Semantics),
fixed words combinations (Phraseology),
how these words combine to frame sentences
(Syntax),
the study of communicative acts analysing the way
utterances are used to suggest literal or figurative
meanings (Pragmatics), and
the analysis of language used in text, whether
spoken or written (Discourse Analysis).
General linguistics concerns itself with three
major problems:
how do we come to know languages,
how can languages vary, and
what is universal to language.
All humans achieve competence in whatever language
is spoken around them while growing up, with a little
need for conscious instruction, which non-humans do
not. Therefore, linguists assume the ability to acquire
and use language as an innate, biologically-based
potential of human beings, similar to the ability to walk.
The study of linguistics is divided into four branches,
each playing a unique part in the acquisition of
language.
Developmental Linguistics
A child acquires the ability to speak
recognizable words by the time he is twelve months old
(example: if a child wants something he will call out a
word, like water, apple, and so on). By the time he is
eighteen months old he starts framing elementary
phrases and sentences (example at this stage the child
has learnt to put together some words to express
meaning, like drink water, want water, and so on). From
this point onwards he rapidly increases his ability to
speak and developing a consistency over speech and
starts speaking grammatical correct sentences by the
Page |8
time he is three years old. This shows the
developmental aspect of his linguistic ability.
Noam Chomsky maintains that this course of
language acquisition is determined by a biologically
endowed innate language faculty within the human
brain. Chomsky explains this acquisition of language
(which he even calls Language Acquisition Program
often referred to as Minimalist Program) in terms of
three grammars:
Universal Grammar: it is based on the assumption
that language is universal and we develop language
to meet our daily needs.
Transformational Grammar: In Chomskyan terms it
is generative grammar of a neutral language. It is
based on the assumption that language has a deep
structure (semantic) and a surface structure
(phonological).
Generative Grammar: language generates itself
following a fixed set of principles and rules.
Children observe how people around them use
language, which in the course of acquisition of language
constitutes child’s experience of the language. This
experience helps him in formulating a method of
arriving at a meaning leading to the formation of
grammar of the language.
Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics or the psychology of
language is a study of neurobiological aspects of
language. It attempts to answer how the mentally
represented grammar is employed in the production
and comprehension of speech. (Radford: 10)
Psycholinguistics explains our ability to understand and
produce meanings on basis of cognitive process that
generates meanings out of vocabulary items, sentences
and structures. It explains the phonological, lexical,
syntactic, and semantic processes and processing of
language by [human] brain.
Neurolinguistics
Neurolinguistics is aimed at answering how
our brain organises linguistic knowledge. It explains the
acquisition, production, and comprehension of
language. It is an interdisciplinary field, closely related
to psycholinguistics, studied as a part of other
disciplines; especially, psychology, neuroscience, and
biology.
Human brain is an extremely complex organ
and the complete knowledge of the working of brain is
still not known to us. Our knowledge of the same is very
poor and experimentation on human brain very limited
due to ethical reasons. Still, we know that human brain

is divided into two hemispheres enclosed in a cerebral
cortex containing cerebral lobes that are also called the
grey matter—this is the place where several of the
complex processes of the working of brain, including
language, are located. Further, language is in the left
hemisphere of human brain.
Sociolinguistics
A study of linguistics aimed at studying the
relationship between human use of language and
society is called sociolinguistics. It accounts for the
different linguistic variations caused in speech as a fact
of demographic variations. Sociolinguistics analyses the
effects over a language on basis of cultural, regional,
and other variables. It also studies how different
languages are similar and get separated by social
variables, like religion, status (social, power, or
financial), gender, education, ethnic origin, age et
cetera. The pioneers in this field were William Labov
and Basil Bernstein. Sociolinguistics includes a study of
grammar, phonetics, dialectology, and syntax.
Phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies
characteristics of speech sounds. It may be sub divided
into:
Articulatory phonetics deals with the production of
sounds by the organs of speech.
Acoustic phonetics deals with sound waves and
their transmission.
Auditory phonetics deals with reception and
reception of sounds and hearing. (Verma: 31-32)
Thus it can be concluded that phonetics is the
scientific study of speech sounds in a language. It deals
with production transmission and reception of speech.
Following are the objectives of learning phonetics in
English:
To acquire correct pronunciation.
To give a true description of sounds and how they
are produced in English.
To differentiate between sounds of English.
Sounds
A sound as studied in science is a series of
vibrations or oscillations of pressure moving through a
passage of air, water, or some other material. When
vibrations produced are passed through a passage
waveforms are produced, by bringing in certain
alterations (by means of obstructions) sound waves of
varying frequency, pitch, amplitude, and wavelength
are produced. Speech sounds are also produced in a
similar way—we produced different sounds by
obstructing the air pushed from our lungs out through
Page |9
our mouth by the use of vocal cord, vocal folds, larynx,
pharynx, tongue, teeth, lips, palate, nose, and certain
other organs that lie in the vocal tract (the passage
through food pipe to our lips).
Vowel and Consonant sounds
When we set our vocal cords vibrating and
maintain a steady effect without changing or altering
the position of organs in the vocal tract the sound
produced is a vowel sound. Example sound produced
while speaking, aaaah… ooooh… or eeeeh. When we
start obstructing the flow of this air by the aid of any of
the organs in the vocal tract—like we use lips to
produce plosive sounds (also called stops) ‘p’ and ‘b’—
the sounds produced are called consonant sounds.
English Vowel Sounds
A vowel sound is produced by an unobstructed
flow of air through the vocal tract causing enough
constriction so as to cause audible friction. English
vowels are voiced.
The basic difference between the vowel and
consonant sounds is that in the articulation of
consonant sounds there is some kind of obstruction
somewhere along the vocal tract, involving friction.
But, in the production of vowel sounds the air passes
freely through the vocal tract without any obstruction.
Though there is some kind of constriction in the vocal
tract that produces the vowel sound, yet the air is
allowed to pass freely and continuously though the
vocal tract. Whereas, the consonants cause some
obstruction that distinguishes the quality of sound as
well production of sounds that we call consonants. The
word approximants used with some consonant sounds
denote that these consonant sounds are produced
much the same way—allowing the air to pass freely in
the end.
If you speak the word meat, you will notice
while producing the sound represented by letters ea
the air flows freely through the mouth. Similar is the
case with other vowels, but you will observe that the
sound in all the cases is different from one another. This
is because the tongue takes up different positions in
the mouth while producing these sounds and the cavity
in the mouth through which air is allowed to flow is
different in each case. Thus, we find that different
tongue positions are required to produce these sounds.
When we differentiate between vowel sounds tongue
position helps us in classifying them.
The vowel sounds in English can be divided
into two categories monophthongs and diphthongs.
The English monophthongs sounds can be
differentiated from the other the on basis of the
following points:
 P a g e | 10

1. length of sound,
2. height of tongue,
3. part of the tongue which is highest,
4. position of lips, and
5. the opening of the jaw.
These sounds have been represented through a
quadrilateral. The oblique and the vertical sides
indicate the height to which tongue is raised while
articulating a sound. The upper side indicates the
maximum side to which the tongue can be raised—
these are closed vowels. The lower side indicates the
lowest position of tongue—these are lower vowels.
When the tongue occupies a position exactly one-third
from close to open we have half-close vowels. When
the tongue occupies a position nearly two-third of the
distance from close to open we get half-open vowels.
Diphthongs are sounds in English are dual vowel
sounds. It can also be said that when the vowel sound
changes its quality while production it is said to be a
diphthong sound. These are vowel sounds that start
with one vowel and end in another. Even in writing
these can be represented by writing phonetic symbols
of two vowels representing a single sound. Diphthongs
are of two types closing and centring.
A diphthong is called a closing diphthong when
the tongue moves towards a closure position. Is the
movement of tongue is small it is called narrow; but, if
the tongue movement is large it is called wide.
A diphthong is called a centring diphthong
when the movement of tongue is towards the centre.
The same is reflected here in the position of tongue
through the quadrilateral.
The English diphthongs have been classified
divided into four aspects:
1. type of diphthong,
2. position of tongue,
3. position of lips, and
4. opening between the jaw.

Phonemic Spellings:
This table contains all the sounds (phonemes) used in the English language. For each sound, it gives:

 The symbol in the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet), as used in phonetic transcriptions in modern
dictionaries for English learners — that is, A. C. Gimson's phonemic system with a few additional symbols.
 The table represents British and American phonemes with one symbol. One symbol can mean two different
phonemes in American and British English.
 Two English words which use the sound. The underline shows where the sound is heard.
IPA words IPA words
cup, luck bad, lab
ʌ
arm, father did, lady
cat, black find, if
met, bed give, flag
away, cinema how, hello
turn, learn yes, yellow
hit, sitting cat, back
see, heat leg, little
hot, rock man, lemon
call, four no, ten
put, could sing, finger
blue, food pet, map
five, eye red, try
now, out sun, miss
go, home she, crash
 P a g e | 11

IPA words IPA words

where, air tea, getting
say, eight check, church
near, here think, both
boy, join this, mother
pure, tourist voice, five
wet, window
zoo, lazy
pleasure, vision
just, large

With phonetic transcriptions, dictionaries tell you about the pronunciation of words. Phonetic transcription is
necessary, because the spelling of a word does not tell you how you should pronounce it.

Phonetic transcriptions are usually written in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), in which each English sound
has a special symbol.

For example, the phonetic transcription of no is , and the transcription of do is . (In spelling, these words are
similar. They both end in the letter o. But their phonetic transcriptions are different, because they are pronounced
differently.)

Phonetic transcription is usually given in brackets, like this: / /, / /; or sometimes like this: [ ], [ ].

In a dictionary, it looks like this:

[Longman Active Study Dictionary of English]

English Consonant Sounds:

labio- post-
bilabial dental alveolar palatal velar glottal
dental alveolar

plosive p b t d k g

nasal m n ŋ 1

flap ɾ 2

fricative f v θ ð 3 s z ʃ ʒ 4 x 5 h

affricate tʃ dʒ 4

approximant ɹ 4 j
lateral
l
approximant
 P a g e | 12

English Vowel Sounds:

IPA Description word

Monothongs

i/iː Close front un rounded vowel b ead

ɪ Near-close near-front un rounded vowel b id

ɛ Open-mid front un rounded vowel b ed

æ Near-open front un rounded vowel b ad

ɒ Open back rounded vowel b od 1

ɔ Open-mid back rounded vowel p awed 2

ɑ/ɑː Open back un rounded vowel br a

ʊ Near-close near-back rounded vowel g ood

u/uː Close back rounded vowel b ooed

ʌ/ɐ Open-mid back un rounded vowel, Near-open central vowel b ud

ɝ/ɜː Open-mid central un rounded vowel b ird 3

ə Schwa Ros a's 4

ɨ Close central un rounded vowel ros es 5

Diphthongs

Close-mid front un rounded vowel

e(ɪ)/eɪ b ayed 6
Close front un rounded vowel

Close-mid back rounded vowel

o(ʊ)/əʊ b ode 6
Near-close near-back rounded vowel

Open front un rounded vowel

aɪ b uy
Near-close near-front un rounded vowel

Open front un rounded vowel

aʊ b ough
Near-close near-back rounded vowel

Open-mid back rounded vowel

ɔɪ b oy
Close front un rounded vowel

Phonetic Transcriptions:
English is not a phonetic language. That is,
sound of the word is not the combination of various
sounds of letters comprising a word. It has been well
said that spelling in English is not a true guide to
pronunciation. Thus, we need help of symbols to
indicate pronunciation.
With phonetic transcriptions we learn the
pronunciation of words. Phonetic transcription is
necessary, because the spelling of a word does not tell
you how you should pronounce it. Phonetic
transcriptions are usually written in the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), in which each English sound
has a special symbol.
The phonetic transcription is the phonemic
spelling of a word written using symbols which
represent sounds instead of alphabetical spellings
written between slanted or oblique lines; example, /i/.
For example, the phonetic transcription of no is /noƱ/,
and the transcription of do is /du:/ (In spelling, these
words are similar. They both end in the letter o. But
their phonetic transcriptions are different, because
they are pronounced differently.
Examine yourself
Write phonetic transcription of the following words
Face Feet Seat
Need Heat Beat
Receive Look Date
Bill Read Wait
Say But Waste
Age Luck Office
Kept Much Work
See Drunk Time
The Organs of Speech
As marked and shown in the figure following
are the organs of speech.
1. Back of the tongue: The middle of the tongue
towards the rear opening of the throat.
2. Blade of the tongue: The front part of the tongue.
3. Epiglottis: At the back of the tongue and projecting
into the pharynx is the epiglottis, a small flap which
serves to prevent food from falling into the larynx.
4. Front of the tongue: Usually the tip of the tongue.
5. Hard palate: It is the space in the roof of the mouth
towards the teeth and is hard like a bone.
6. Lips: Soft tissue like closing point of the mouth.
7. Pharynx: Just above the larynx is a space behind
the tongue and reaching up towards the nasal
cavity. This space is called the pharynx.
8. Root of the tongue: It is the rear part of the
tongue that is soft and can be twisted to bring
variations in the sounds.
P a g e | 13
9. Soft palate: It is the space in the roof of the mouth
above the tongue towards the inner side or the
rear of the tongue. It is soft so called soft palate
10. Teeth ridge: It is the hard space [containing roots
of the teeth used to produce sound of the letter t]
just rear of the front upper teeth.
11. Uvula: A small lobe of flesh hanging loosely from the
centre of the soft palate is called uvula. It is not used
in the production of any sound in English.
12. Vocal cords: It includes larynx and pharynx.
13. Windpipe: the food passage, the same passage
through which air is pushed out of mouth in the
process of production of sound.
The Vocal Cords
The air released by the lungs comes up
through the windpipe and arrives first at the larynx. The
larynx contains the vocal cords which are like small lips
projecting from the sides of the larynx and connected
with muscles so that they can be brought together and
placed edge to edge in the middle of the air passage or
be drawn apart leaving a wide opening between them.
This opening is called the glottis.
When the vocal cords are brought near
together and air is forced between them, they vibrate
producing a musical sound. The sounds produced with
the vocal cords vibrating are called voiced sounds and
those produced with the vocal cords not vibrating are
called voiceless sounds.
The Palate
The roof of the mouth is divided into three
parts: the alveolar or the teeth ridge just behind the
upper teeth; the hard palate and the soft palate [or the
velum]. The difference in texture between the hard and
the soft palate can be felt easily with a finger.
The soft palate can be lowered to let the air escape
through the nose. This is the normal position in
breathing. This position is used for making nasal
sounds, i.e. /m/, /n/, /ing/ in English.
The Teeth
They are bony structures where the moveable
and the fixed jaw meet. Though used for chewing food
the two upper front teeth are used in making /θ/ and
/ð/ sounds in English. If the lower front teeth are
missing, it will be difficult to make sounds such as /s/,
/z/.
The Tongue
The tongue is the most important of the
organs of speech. It has the greatest variety of
elements. It is useful to think of it as divided into three
parts. When the tongue is at rest, the part opposite the
teeth ridge is called the blade, its end being called the
tip. The part opposite the hard palate is called the front
and part opposite the soft palate is called the back. By
giving the tongue different shapes, bunching it up or
flattering it out, and raising or lowering different parts
of it, we can modify the space through which the air has
to pass, and thereby produce many different sounds.

The Lips
The lips are soft tissues and function in four
places:
The lips are spread as in the vowel sound in 'keen'.
They are neutral as in the vowel sound in 'pass'.
They are rounded (open) as in the vowel sound in
'god'.
They are rounded (closed) as in the vowel sound in
‘soon’.
The Consonants
A consonant may be defined as a sound in
which the movement of air from the lungs is obstructed
as a result of a narrowing or a complete closure of the
air passage. There are 24 consonants in English. The
consonant sounds can be studied in three ways:
whether the sound is voiceless or voiced
Voiceless consonants in English are /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/,
/θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, /h/, and /tʃ/. In the chart below
these sounds are written on the left hand
side of the box.
Voiced sounds in English are /b/, /d/, /dʒ/, /g/, /v/,
/ð/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /z/, /ʒ/, /r/, /l/, /j/, /w/.
These sounds are written towards the right
hand side of the box in the chart below.
Note: All vowel sounds are voiced.
depending upon its place of articulation
On basis of place of articulation consonant sounds
are divided into nine types: Bi-labial, Labio-dental,
Dental, Alveolar, Post-alveolar, Palato-alveolar,
Palatal, Velar, Glottal. The columns in the following
chart carry the division of consonants on basis of
place of articulation. Please note the following
conversions:
Nouns Adjectives
Lips Labial
Teeth Dental
Palate Palatal
Soft Palate Velar
Uvula Uvular
Glottis Glottal
depending upon the manner of articulation
Consonants on basis of manner of articulation are
divided into six categories. The rows in the chart
here carry the division of consonants on this basis.
Plosives or Stops
There are six plosive consonants in English.
These are the sounds formed by means of a complete
closure of the air passage, which is afterwards released
suddenly.
Bilabial Plosives /p, b/
These are the sounds used, for example, at the
beginning of pet and bet respectively.
P a g e | 14
1. The air passage in the mouth is closed by the two
lips, and the soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal
passage.
2. When the lips are opened, the air suddenly escapes
from the mouth making an explosive sound.
3. The vocal cords vibrate for /b/ but not for /p/.
Alveolar Plosives /t, d/
These are the sounds used, for example, at the
beginning of to and do.
1. The air passage is completely closed by raising the
tip of the tongue to touch the teeth ridge and by
raising the soft palate.
2. When the tongue is removed from the teeth ridge,
the air suddenly escapes through the mouth making
an explosive sound.
3. The vocal cords vibrate for /d/ but not for /t/
Velar Plosives /t, g/
These are the sounds used for example at the
beginning of kind and good.
1. The air passage is completely closed by pressing the
back of the tongue; against the Soft palate and by
raising the soft palate.
2. When the closure is released, the air suddenly
escapes through the mouth making an explosive
sound.
3. The vocal cords vibrate for /g/ but not for /t/
Fricatives
There are ten fricative consonants in English.
These are the sounds formed by narrowing the air
passage to such an extent that the air in escaping
produces audible friction.
Labio-dental fricatives /f, v/
These are the sounds used, for example, at
the beginning of fine and vine respectively.
1. The lower lip is placed lightly against the upper
teeth.
2. The soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal
passage.
3. When the air is forced out, there is a hissing noise
in the case of /f /, and a buzzing noise in the case
of /v/
4. The vocal cords vibrate for /v/ but not for /f/.
Dental Fricative / θ / and / ð /
These are the sounds used, for example, at
the beginning of thin and this respectively.
1. The tip of the tongue is placed behind the upper
teeth touching them only lightly.
2. The soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal
passage.
3. The air escapes through the narrow opening with a
hissing of buzzing noise.
4. The vocal cords vibrate for / ð / but not for / θ /.
Alveolar Fricatives /s, z/
These are the sounds used, for example, in
the beginning of so and zoo

1. The blade of the tongue is brought very near the
teeth, so that it leaves only a very narrow space for
the air to pass through.
2. The, soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal
passage.
3. The air escapes through the groove along the
middle of the tongue with audible friction.
4. The vocal cords vibrate for /z/ but not for /s/.
Palato-alveolar Fricatives / ʃ ʒ /
These are the sounds used, for example, in
the beginning of shop and middle of leisure
1. The blade of the tongue is raised towards the hard
palate with the tip usually about level with the teeth
ridge.
2. The soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal
passage.
3. The air escapes through the narrow passage with
audible friction,
4. The vocal cords vibrate for / ʒ / but not for / ʃ /
Alveolar Fricative /r/
This is the initial sound in rose.
1. The tip of the tongue is somewhat close to the teeth
ridge.
2. The soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal
passage.
3. The air escapes between the tip of the tongue and
the teeth ridge.
4. The vocal cords are made to vibrate.
Glottal Fricative /h/
This is the initial sound in hay.
1. The glottis is open and there is no obstruction in the
air passage.
2. The soft palate is raised to shut of the nasal passage.
3. The sound of the breath of it passes through the
open glottis and mouth is that of /h/.
4. The vocal cords do not vibrate
Nasals
There are three nasal sounds in English. These are the
sounds formed by a complete closure in the mouth
while the nasal passage is open.
Bilabial Nasal /m/
This is the initial sound in my.
1. The mouth passage is completely closed by the lips,
2. The soft palate is lowered to allow the air escape
through the nose.
3. The vocal cords vibrate.
Alveolar Nasal /n/
This is the initial sound in nose.
1. The soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal
passage.
2. The lips are spread.
3. The vocal cords vibrate.
Velar Nasal /ŋ/
This is the final sound in song
P a g e | 15
1. The mouth passage is completely closed while
pressing the back of the tongue against the soft
palate.
2. The soft palate is lowered to allow the air escape
through the nose.
3. The vocal cords vibrate.
Affricates
There are two affricate sounds in English.
These are the sounds formed by the complete closure
of the air passage which is afterwards released slowly.
Palato-alveolar Affricates /tʃ/ /dʒ/
These are the sounds at the beginning of the
word child and jam.
1. The air passage is completely closed by raising the
front of the tongue towards the hard palate and by
raising the soft palate.
2. The sound is produced by releasing the closure
slowly.
3. The vocal cords vibrate for /dʒ/ but not for /tʃ/
Lateral
Alveolar lateral /l/
There are two varieties of /l/ sounds, a clear
/l/ which is used in initial position and before vowels
and /j/ as in life and silly; a dark /l/ occurs in final
position or when /l/ is followed by a consonant as in
mill, and mild.
1. For both types the tip of the tongue I pressed
against the teeth ridge. But there is a difference
between the main body of the tongue. For clear /l/
the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard
palate. For dark /l/ the back of the tongue is raised
towards the soft palate
2. The soft palate is raised to shut of the nasal passage.
3. The tongue is contracted and the air escapes from
the side of the tongue.
4. The vocal cords vibrate.
Semi-vowels
Bi-labial Vowel /w/
This is the initial sound in wine.
1. The back of the tongue is raised towards the soft
palate as in vowel /u:/.
2. The soft palate is raised to shut of the nasal passage.
3. The lips are rounded.
4. The vocal cords vibrate.
Palatal Semi-vowel
This is the initial sound in young
1. The front of the tongue is raised towards the hard
palate as in vowel /i:/
2. The soft palate is raised to shut of the nasal passage.
3. The lips are rounded.
4. The vocal cords vibrate.
Stress

Stress is the degree of force with which a
syllable or word is uttered.
Word Stress: Word stress shows what syllable or
syllables in a word are stressed, example useful is
stressed, on the first syllable, mis'take is stressed on
the second, advan’tageous has primary stress on the
third syllable and a secondary stress on the first
syllable.
(The primary stress is indicated by placing a vertical
stroke above the syllable, and the secondary stress by
placing a vertical stroke below the syllable.)
Sentence Stress: Sentence stress indicates what words
in a sentence are stressed. Look at the following
paragraph:
'John is my 'friend. He 'lives in 'Delhi. His 'father is a
'teacher in a 'school 'John 'visits me 'every 'month.
In this paragraph we find that certain words
are stressed whereas others are not. Generally nouns,
demonstrative and interrogative pronouns, main verbs,
adjectives and adverbs are stressed, where as
pronouns, prepositions, helping verbs, conjunctions are
not stressed.
Intonation
We do not speak with the same tone all the
time. While speaking we bring in a variation in tone by
either raising or by lowering our voice. This is due to
The Consonant Chart
Labio-
Bilabial Dental
dental
Plosive p b
Nasal m n
Fricative f v θ ð
Affricate
Lateral
approximant
w j
Lateral
P a g e | 16
change in pitch. Further, nobody has the same sound
for the same word; there always is a slight variation
which is due to the change in the pattern of pitch.
Intonation shows speaker’s mental attitude.
The change of pitch in a syllable or in a word marked
with different signs.
High Fall, example, He’s/ always late.
Low fall, example, I should /hope so.
High Rise, Example You’ll /what?
Low Rise, example, Are ou /sure?
Fall Rise, Example, You can ˅try.
Rise fall, example, That’ll be ˄marvellous.
There are two types of intonations: falling
tone and rising tone. The falling tone begins with a high
level pitch on the first stressed syllable followed by a
slightly lower level on the next, and so on the pitch
going down on a descending scale till the last stressed
syllable on which the pitch of the sound falls to its
normal lower tone. Example speaking the following
sentences in rising tone:
My name is Hari, I am twenty years old.
What a beautiful picture.
The rising tone is a series of descending order
of stressed syllable. In a sequence just reverse in the
falling tone, the only difference being rise on the last
stressed syllable. Example:
Are you leaving tomorrow?
You are not very healthy, aren’t you
Post- Palato-
Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
alveolar alveolar
t d kg
ŋ
s z ʃ ʒ h
tʃ dʒ
r
l

Chapter Summary
There are 26 alphabets in English out of which 44
(the number may be between 44 to 50 depending
on dictionaries used or referred to) sounds are
produced.
These in turn are divided into vowels and
consonants.
Vowels are of two types: mono thongs which are 12
in number and diphthongs which are 24 in Number.
The consonants sounds may further be subdivided
into 5 broad categories, namely, Plosives(6),
Fricatives(9), Affricates(2), Lateral(1) and Nasal(3),
and Lateral Approximants(3).
Linguistics
Linguistics is defined as the science of language or,
alternatively, as the scientific study of language. By a
scientific study of language we mean an enquiry into
why, what, And of course how. Thereby this scientific
study encompasses a number of sub-fields:
the study of language structure (Grammar),
the study of sound system including discrete and
abstract units (Phonology),
the study of internal structures of words and how
sounds lead to the formation of words
(Morphology)
the study of actual properties of speech sounds
(phones), non-speech sounds, and how they are
produced and perceived (Phonetics),
the study of meanings of words (Lexical Semantics),
fixed words combinations (Phraseology),
how these words combine to frame sentences
(Syntax),
the study of communicative acts analysing the way
utterances are used to suggest literal or figurative
meanings (Pragmatics), and
the analysis of language used in text, whether
spoken or written (Discourse Analysis).
Phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies
characteristics of speech sounds. It may be sub divided
into: Articulatory, Acoustic, Auditory.
Sounds
A sound as studied in science is a series of vibrations or
oscillations of pressure moving through a passage of
air, water, or some other material. When vibrations
produced are passed through a passage waveforms are
produced, by bringing in certain alterations (by means
of obstructions) sound waves of varying frequency,
pitch, amplitude, and wavelength are produced.
Speech sounds are also produced in a similar way.
Phonetic Transcriptions: With phonetic transcriptions
we learn the pronunciation of words. Phonetic
transcription is necessary, because the spelling of a
word does not tell you how you should pronounce it.
P a g e | 17
Phonetic transcriptions are usually written in the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), in which each
English sound has a special symbol.
The Organs of Speech
1. Back of the tongue: The middle of the tongue
towards the rear opening of the throat.
2. Blade of the tongue: The front part of the tongue.
3. Epiglottis: At the back of the tongue and projecting
into the pharynx is the epiglottis, a small flap which
serves to prevent food from falling into the larynx.
4. Front of the tongue: Usually the tip of the tongue.
5. Hard palate: It is the space in the roof of the mouth
towards the teeth and is hard like a bone.
6. Lips: Soft tissue like closing point of the mouth.
7. Pharynx: Just above the larynx is a space behind the
tongue and reaching up towards the nasal cavity.
This space is called the pharynx.
8. Root of the tongue: It is the rear part of the tongue
that is soft and can be twisted to bring variations in
the sounds.
9. Soft palate: It is the space in the roof of the mouth
above the tongue towards the inner side or the rear
of the tongue. It is soft so called soft palate
10. Teeth ridge: It is the hard space [containing roots of
the teeth used to produce sound of the letter t] just
rear of the front upper teeth.
11. Uvula: A small lobe of flesh hanging loosely from the
centre of the soft palate is called uvula. It is not used
in the production of any sound in English.
12. Vocal cords: It includes larynx and pharynx.
13. Windpipe: the food passage, the same passage
through which air is pushed out of mouth in the
process of production of sound.
Stress: Stress is the degree of force with which a
syllable or word is uttered.
Intonation: We do not speak with the same tone all the
time. While speaking we bring in a variation in tone by
either raising or by lowering our voice. This is due to
change in pitch. Further, nobody has the same sound
for the same word; there always is a slight variation
which is due to the change in the pattern of pitch.
 P a g e | 18

Questions: 12. Differentiate between language and linguistics.

1. Write a short note on Phonetics. 13. What is the difference between linguistics and
2. What are vowel sounds explain with examples? semiotics?
3. What are consonant sounds explain with 14. Is linguistics a science? Justify your answer.
examples? 15. Write short notes on:
4. Different between Plosives and fricatives? a. Stress
5. Into how many types consonant sounds can be b. Intonation
divided? c. Articulation
6. Differentiate between Monophthongs and 16. What is phonetics and why shall we study
diphthongs. phonetics?
7. What are the different organs of speech? Discuss 17. Define vowel sounds.
the part played by each. 18. Differentiate between the vowel sounds and
8. Define a consonant. Give a brief description of consonant sounds.
each consonant sound. 19. What is the difference between word stress and
9. What is stress? What is the difference between sentence stress? What are their uses?
word stress and sentence stress? 20. What is the use of intonation explain with some
10. Discuss the organs of speech. relevant examples.
11. Define linguistics. Attempt a definition of language.
 P a g e | 19

Unit-2

Communication
 P a g e | 20

Chapter 2

Communication

In this chapter we will learn

 How can communication be classified  What is Management Communication?

into types?
 What is oral communication?
 What is written communication?
 How body language plays an essential
role in the process of communication?
 Define the importance of
paralanguage in communication.
 Difference between formal & Informal
communication.
 How to improve the nonverbal aspect of
communication?
 Communication cycle
 Factors effecting communication
 Johari Window

Communication as a term is derived from the word

communicate whose origin can be traced to a Latin.
Word commūnicāre which means common.

The purpose of communication is to get your message
across to others clearly and unambiguously. In fact
communication doesn’t have anything to do with the
word common at first hand but largely means
information that is common to some people. Thus,
communication can be defined more precisely as an act
of making information common to all, i.e. transfer of
information from one person to other is
communication. Communication takes place all around
us and persistently. We spend most of our time in
receiving and sending information from one point to
the other.
Nature of Communication
Communication is a continuous process there may be
time gap but it never stops. By the word nature I mean
certain qualities that make communication what it is.
First of all communication is a process. It is not merely
a happening or incidence. As communication involves
at least two or more person it can be fairly well
explained as a process.
In the first instance communication can take place or it
takes place when a person sends some information to
some other person and can be well explained as a one
way process.
Whereas it isn’t a far off possibility to conclude that the
person receiving information can also send some
information back to the first person as response.
Thereby making communication a two way process.
Now let us discuss and answer a question.
Are persons minimum requirement for
communication to take place?
Definitely, yes as far as the two way factor is
considered. It is only person who can both send as well
as receive information and hence are minimum
requirements to both sending and receiving or say
exchanging information.
Then – Can objects communicate?
Of course they do and, amazingly objects communicate
more than men. Nearly all objects around us
communicate with only one restriction that they do not
receive information from us. For ex. A chair may on its
own invite us to sit, a table to work or to study on it,
similarly colours in our surrounding convey emotions
and likewise we communicate, say receive more
information from objects rather than persons.
In fact, communication is only successful when both the
sender and the receiver understand the same
information as a result of the communication.
To be an effective communicator and to get your point
across without misunderstanding and confusion, your
P a g e | 21
goal should be to lessen the frequency of these
problems at each stage of this process with clear,
concise, accurate, well-planned communications. We
follow the process through below:
Communication Cycle:
Communication can also be understood as a two way
process. We can also gloat on the possibility that a
communication in which both the person A and B sends
or say exchange information, communication can turn
to be a continuous process which in turn can be
concluded as communication cycle. This regular
exchange of information imparts continuity to the
process of communication. Hence, communication can
be one way process or two way process which is
continuous. Problems with communication can pop-up
at every stage of the communication process (which
consists of sender, message, channel, receiver,
feedback and context - see the diagram below) and
have the potential to create misunderstanding and
confusion.
Transmitter Destination
Sender Channel Receiver
Encoder Decoder
Medium used for
communication
Vitals of Communication:
As discussed above it can readily be concluded that
there are three essential elements without which
communication cannot take place. It is necessary that
these elements be present in all sorts of
communication whether one way, two way or say
continuous or cyclic processes. All other elements are
factors enhancing communication not essential
elements of communication.
1. Person: As they are those that exchange
information. Classified as sender and receiver.
2. Information: The very essential part as this is what
is exchanged. Written, oral and nonverbal
communications are affected by the sender’s tone,
method of organization, validity of the argument, what
is communicated and what is left out, as well as by the
individual style of communicating
3. Medium: Surely not discussed till now. All
information needs a medium to travel from one place
 P a g e | 22

to the other. Messages are conveyed through channels, Attitude is of two types:
with verbal including face-to-face meetings, telephone
Extrovert: People who talk more or like to talk more
and videoconferencing; and written including letters,
about themselves, that is, out spoken.
emails, memos and reports.
Introvert: People who talk less or do not like to talk
about themselves, that is, self-spoken.
Elements of Communication: What we need is large a balance between these two
Starting from the three vital essential elements there traits of our character so as to adjust better in a
can be several other components of communication society.
with varying degree of importance and certainly not
vital to communication:
Proxemics:
1. Sender: It can either be a person or an object
that initiates the transfer of information. The study of the communicative aspects of
personal space and territory is called Proxemics.
2. Message: Or information or data is the core of
Everyone is surrounded by an invisible zone of
communication process. Messages also have
psychological comfort. Proxemics gives a lot of
intellectual and emotional components, with intellect
nonverbal information to the other person regarding
allowing us the ability to reason and emotion allowing
the level of trust and intimacy that the person has for
us to present motivational appeals, ultimately changing
them. Our comfort zone varies depending on who we
minds and actions.
are talking to and the situation that we are in. The
3. Medium: Can be understanding as language. It amount of space that we use while interacting with
is largely of two types verbal and nonverbal. others can play a significant factor in the type of
interaction we have with that person. The way people
communicate with one another depends upon the
4. Media: Messages are conveyed through Proxemics of where the people are in relation to one
channels, along with verbal including face-to-face, another.
meetings, telephone and video-conferencing; and
Edward T Hall has described human relationship in
written including letters, emails, memos and reports.
four kinds of distance.
Different channels have different strengths and
weaknesses.
5. Feedback: The response of receiver that is sent Public
back to the source forms the feedback. It helps the
source know whether the message was received Social
correctly and initiates further replies from source as
Personal
well as receiver leading to communication cycle.
6. Knowledge: Knowledge is based on observation, Intimate
study and personal experience. It helps the speaker to
communicate effectively.
7. Interest: Interest largely encompasses
personal liking or disliking. It is life giving to
communication as the interest of source and the
receiver in one topic is likely to lead to a healthy
communication. Edward T. Hall 1963
8. Age: Sometimes overlooked as an element age 0-18 inches: Intimate distance. Reserved for
definitely is a decider. It decides inclination or even says deep personal relationships.
interest of source towards receiver and vice versa. 18 inches-4 feet. Personal distance. Reserved for
personal conversation with
9. Situation: The place or the settings in which
friends, family, or associates.
communication takes place.
4 feet-12 feet. Social distance. Reserved for
10. Attitude: The speaker and the listener, carry formal interactions such as
with them certain ideologies, world views, beliefs, likes, business meetings or
dislikes, aptitudes and reservations Influenced by interviews.
varying emotional and mental states these factor effect
12 feet or more. Public distance. Reserved for
the speaker and listener at the time of communication. such things as public speaking
and lectures.
 P a g e | 23

Chronemics: disclosure and be willing to get about yourself from

others. Thus, minimising the Unknown section.
Chronemics means Language of time. It can
also be called of Non-verbal communication. It involves
the meaning given to time dimensions.
The Johari Asking
Delaying in reply to a personal or business
letter or phone call, coming late for work or meeting Known to
are examples of Chronemics. Open
Feedback
Chronemic Communicates Blind

Telling

Disclosure
Self
Completing a task in a Sincerity, hard work,
given time frame loyalty, reliability
Exposure
Frequent late coming Unreliability, laziness.
absent from work.

Self Discovery
Hidden
Unknown Unkno
Media: to others
It can also be understood as Communication channels. Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham proposed this window.
Messages are conveyed through channels, with verbal Often called ‘Johari’ window. It explains
including face-to-face meetings, telephone and communication along with two dimensions. Exposure
videoconferencing; and written including letters, and feedback.
emails, memos and reports.

Medium: Open: The information you as well as others

Medium of Communication can be understood in many
ways. It largely refers to language. And by some is
understood at par with word media. I personally divide
medium in two parts
Verbal: Where we use a language of words. Say for ex.
English.
can see.
Blind: Encompass facts about you that
others can see but not you. Which
largely is the result of your defensive
behaviour that you adopt to prevent
telling others things about you?

Media: Newspaper books letters, etc. Hidden: Information known to you but
unknown to others facts about
Non Verbal: Where of course we use a language but not yourselves that you hide from others.
of works instead, signs symbols gestures etc.
Unknown: Factors that neither you nor others
Media: Pictures, Colours, Photograph etc. are aware of.

Communication Window:
Using the Johari model, each person is represented by
their own four-quadrant. Each of these contains and
represents personal information - feelings, motivation,
etc. - about the person, and shows whether the
information is known or not known by themselves or
other people.
The Johari Window is a communication model that can
be used to improve understanding between individuals
within a team or in a group setting. Based on disclosure,
self-disclosure and feedback, the Johari Window can
also be used to improve a group's relationship with
other groups.
This window that it is in the interest of individual to
increase the size of ‘open’ section, by increasing self-

Factors Effecting Communication:
It is a fact that every human being is unique in
some way or the other. Therefore, every mind is unique
and perhaps that is why there is always a possibility of
miss-match between the conception of the sender and
the interpretation of the receiver. Hence, there may
arise a difference in understanding between the
intended meaning from the message and the meaning
educed thus.
In the process of communication barriers are
nothing but a pause in communication. It can be best
understood as a time gap in a continuous process.
There are several factors in the environment, explained
as distracting force which breaks the concentration of
the sender or the receiver and forces either or both to
pay attention to these disturbing elements. They may
be socio-psychological, cultural, perceptual, emotional,
semantic, interpersonal, etc.
Air: It can be extended to mean ventilation, airy and
even humid. Imbalance of these factors creates unrest
leading to loss of interest or distraction of attention.
Physical factors need to be checked in all sorts of official
and industry work and directly effects output.
Weather & Temperature: In broader sense it is
expansion of terms like air, temperature etc. In fact,
climate and seasons shape our interest in
communication. These factors are regional and may
vary accordingly. Favourable environmental conditions
enable us to communicate freely whereas opposite of
the same leads to barriers in communication. A fine
example can be quoted that in India winters are best
season to study (in classrooms) thereby when British
implemented the educational system in India they
developed the concept of long summer vacations.
Surroundings: It refers to settings. Every type of
communication can be well received and replied best in
a typical set of conditions. These include, space, light,
furniture, temperature, humidity and similar other
inhibitors. For light white is supposedly best medium
for paint. Ideal furniture is made up of wood; it
maintains temperature within room temperature
range. India winters are best season to study (in
classrooms).
Time: If effects communication in all way one can think
of not merely time of year, season day but even length
of time effects communication process. Together with
other variants it leads to fatigue.
Noise: Clearly separating sound from noise can be a
better illustration of the most important physical factor
that effect communication. Noise simply leads to
distraction of attention.
What is noise?
A sound that is unpleasant to ears or a sound
that is undesirable with reference to a particular
P a g e | 24
occasion. It can be concluded that any sound whether
pleasant or not that hinders the process being pursued
is noise. Like music though always being pleasant will
turn to be a noise while studying in classroom or
listening to a lecture being delivered.
Activity or Noise
Occasion
Studying in Music, calls telephonic or doorbells
classroom etc.
Listening Ringing of phone call etc.
to music
Classroom Sound of chalk rubbing on
blackboard ceiling fans, etc.
Factory Noise of machines.
Attention: Our attention is easily distracted by slightest
of a stimulus received by either of our senses. This
distraction of attention largely is responsible for lack of
concentration in a particular task. The bell shaped
graph can also be understood as attention curve.
Where, a slight disturbance can lead to a sudden fall in
the output/attention.
Interest & Attitudes: Problem arises when interest and
attitude clash with those of the sender and the
receiver. Transmission and reception of message
depend upon the mental frame of the sender and the
receiver. Any variance therein is found to hinder and
hamper communication. For example, it is advisable to
collect a profile of participants while preparing for a
presentation so as to adjust our lecture keeping in mind
the diversity of the people.
Fatigue: All the physical factors discussed above are
studied in Industrial psychology as fatigue—a
feeling of being tired. More importantly
fatigue is a feeling rather than a state of being
tired. An imbalance of these physical factors
leads to this feeling of tiredness. Fatigue can
be easily understood plotting a bell shaped
graph. The horizontal line of which is time and
vertical interest or output. As the time
progresses during a day our work output is
directly affected by all the physical factors
combined with the social and psychological
factors.
Our output initially starts from zero gradually
rises to a peak value and again begins to decline
towards the end of the day. This decline is recorded
earlier than stipulated time as a result of imbalance
among physical factors. The relationship between time
and output can be explained using this graph. When we
start our day our interest in our job begins to increase,
it rises to its peak by noon time, and declines by
evening. Whereas fatigue causes this interest in
work/studies to decline earlier than it is supposed to.

Half Time
Interest or Output
X fool. Over-charged me for what I got. Gave me very poor service."
Y Time
Language: Language is our most important and
powerful tool of communication; and yet it is a tricky
tool which needs skill in handling. First of all, words
have multiple meanings. Just look into a good
dictionary and see how many meanings you can find for
some commonly used words like charge, Spring, Check,
suit, ring, words like minute and Wind, are pronounced
in two different ways to mean two entirely different
things. Some words like present, transfer, record are
used as verb and as noun with a difference in stress in
speaking, but no difference in spelling, similar sounding
words like access and excess, flour and flower, cite and
sight can cause misunderstanding in speech.
Socio-Psychological Barriers: Problems of
understandings, interpretation and response to
communication arise partly from our socially-learnt
attributes and partly from our personal attributes.
These are called socio-psychological barriers. To some
extent, these barriers may be overcome by an effort of
the will. Persons in responsible positions need to
overcome these barriers in order to be able to manage
their work.
Cultural Barriers: Communication can also break down
between subcultures and dominant cultures. When we
join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we
need to adopt the behaviour patterns of the group.
These are the behaviours that the group accept as signs
of belonging. The group rewards such behaviour
through acts of recognition, approval and inclusion. In
groups which are happy to accept you and where you
are happy to conform, there is a mutuality of interest
and a high level of win-win contact.
How culture effects the use of language can be
studied with reference to following example. Winters
are supposedly good in India whereas bad in Europe for
England summers are pleasant. Even the word warm in
English means good and the word cold bad. Whereas, it
is reverse in Indian context. In Indian culture warm/hot
means/stand for something unbearable and cold
means good. One cannot wish an Indian ‘warm sunny
days.’
P a g e | 25
Perceptual Barriers: The problem with communicating
with others is that we all see the world differently. If we
didn't, we would have no need to communicate:
something like extrasensory perception would take its
place. The following anecdote is a reminder of how our
thoughts, assumptions and perceptions shape our own
realities.
A traveller was walking down a road when he met a man from the
next town. "Excuse me," he said." I am hoping to stay in the next town
tonight. Can you tell me what the town’s people are like?"
"Well," said the townsman, "how did you find the people in the last
town you visited?"
"Oh, they were an irascible bunch. Kept to themselves. Took me for a
"Well, then," said the townsman, "you'll find them pretty much the
same here."
Emotional barriers: One of the chief barriers to open
and free communications is the emotional barrier. It is
comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion. The
roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our
childhood and infancy when we were taught to be
careful what we said to others.
As a result many people hold back from
communicating their thoughts and feelings to others.
While some caution may be wise in certain
relationships, excessive fear of what others might think
of us can stunt our development as effective
communicators and our ability to form meaningful
relationships.
Semantic Barriers: The word semantic is related to the
meaning of a word. It deals with the denotative
meaning as well as connotative meaning of a word.
Every word has a denotative as well as a
connotative meaning. For example, for a small child
‘class’ may merely mean the standard he/she is
studying in; whereas for an adult it may encompass a
wide variety of meanings depending upon the
interpretations he employs in to fix a meaning to a
word. Therefore, both the sender and the receiver
should be aware of the connotation in order to get the
correct meaning across.
Semantic barriers to communication involve a
poor choice or use of words and mixed messages. It
involves encoding and decoding errors, transmitting
and receiving words and symbols, which are fuelled by
the use of jargon and unnecessary words.
Interpersonal barriers: There are six levels at which
people distance themselves from one another:
Withdrawal is an absence of interpersonal
contact.
Customs are meaningless, repetitive routines.
Pastimes are spending time with others in
social but superficial activities.
 P a g e | 26

Working environment where we act out of To improve your communications you have to
sheer formal, social, and personal needs. change your thoughts, your feelings, and your physical
connections. This way, you can break down the barriers
Games evoke in us a strong feeling of winning
and step in a social state that is more friendly and
or losing.
acceptable.
Proximity is the state where we bring in trust
in our social relationship.
Examine yourself
Fill in the blank spaces:
1. What are physical barriers to communication?
a) Physical factors need to be_________________in all sorts of official and _____________ ____________ and
directly effects _____________
b) These factors are__________ and may _______ accordingly weather and temperature.
c) Surroundings refer to__________.
d) In every type of communication a typical set of conditions include space _________ __________ ___________
_____________ and similar other inhibitors.
e) Noise simply leads to __________ of ________.

2. How socio-psychological and cultural barriers effect communication?

a) Problems of ____________ interpretation and _________ to communication arise partly from our socially and
personal learnt attributes.
b) Socio-psychological barriers may be overcome by an effort of the _____________ communication also break
down between _________________ and ___________

3. Explain the term interpersonal communication and how it is a barrier to communication?

I. _______________ is the aim of interpersonal contact where there is a high level of ____________ and
____________ of yourself and others.
II. Games are subtle _________ _______________ which are about _______ and losing.
__________ is an absence of interpersonal contact.
State whether the statements are true or false:
1 Emotional barrier comprises mainly of trust and happiness.
2 A poor choice or use of words and mixed message does not involve semantic barriers.
3 To overcome with socio-psychological barriers, we must know dealing with a received message.
4 Transmission and reception of message depend upon the mental frame of sender and receiver.
5 Language is our most important and powerful tool in communication which need skill in handling first of all word
have not multiple meanings.
6 The distraction of attention largely is responsible For lack of concentration in a particular task.
7 Time is not effects communication in all way.
Match the following:
i. A feeling of being tired 1. Emotional
ii. A sound that is unpleasant to 2. Semantic
ears
iii. Encoding and decoding errors, 3. Noise
transmitting and receiving
words and symbols which are 4. Fatigue
full of the use of jargon.
iv. It is comprised mainly of fear
mistrust and suspicion

Communication Classification:
Verbal Communication
The word 'verbal' means "connected with
words and the use of words". Human beings are the
only species gifted with the use of words that makes
language. As has been stated previously, the process of
communication involved the use of a common set of
symbols between the sender and the recipient. Words
are the most accurate and powerful sets of symbols.
That is why it is observed that all serious or formal
communication is in words. And the words may be
spoken or written. Spoken communication or the
communication employing speech is known as oral
communication.
Oral Communication:
As speech comes before writing it is
worthwhile to take up oral communication before
written communication. Man learns to speak much
before writing. In the same way, in an organisation
people speak much more, before writing. There are a
number of occasions, both formal and informal when
the people speak before committing themselves in
writing. In fact speech, or oral use of language, acts as
the first binding factor between one person and
another. That is also the reason why communication
becomes conversational in nature.
Advantages of Oral Communication
a) The first and foremost advantage of oral
communication is that it provides immediate
feedback to the participants in the communication
event. While engaged in talk with somebody we
can ask for clarification or further elaboration,
justification etc.
b) Oral communication is time-saving.
c) By drawing the people together oral
communication builds up a healthy climate in the
organisation. It brings the superiors and the
subordinates nearer.
d) Oral communication, just by sounding personal
touch, becomes an effective tool of persuasion.
e) Everybody knows the importance of persuasion in
business.
f) Oral communication is not only time-saving, it is
also very economical. It saves the money spent on
stationery in an organisation.
g) Oral communication also provides the speaker an
opportunity to correct himself and make himself
clear by changing his voice, tone, pitch etc.
h) In oral communication the speaker enjoys the
advantage of understanding the groups he is
addressing. He can immediately understand the
group's reaction and arrive at a satisfactory
conclusion.
Limitations of Oral Communication
P a g e | 27
a) Oral communication may not always be time-
saving. Sometimes it happens that meetings go on
and on for a long time without arriving at any
satisfactory conclusion.
b) They are not open to everyone - established
researchers have access to good networks of
contacts, but these usually take time to cultivate.
c) They can lead to misconceptions because the
information is sometimes incomplete. (lack of
detail etc.)
d) They are difficult to maintain and therefore are
unstable.
Written Communication:
After discussing oral communication it is
worthwhile to discuss the nature and importance of
written communication. While oral communication
comes naturally and spontaneously to man, written
communication requires a lot of effort. By its very
nature writing is a result of fairly long practice and
patience in learning. It need not be repeated that
speech comes first and writing comes afterwards.
Writing appeared ages after speaking in all the
languages of the world. History of civilisation shows us
different stages through which the formation of letters
of the alphabet of any language has passed. But one
thing is clear, whatever has been written, unless
destroyed, has become permanent. Words spoken are,
however, likely to be forgotten. That is why written
communication is indispensable.
Characteristics of Written Communication
a) Written communication is a creative activity that
requires a 1010f imagination and effort to arrive at
the finished product. While oral communication is
spontaneous, written communication is based on
conscious effort. Let us take the example of a
report that we want to present. First of all we have
to collect all the necessary information, arrange it
in a logical order and then write out very carefully.
We have to be careful at every step. That is not
always the case with spoken messages or other
forms of oral communication. Letters and reports,
nicely produced, reflect the image of the
organisation. The more creative and imaginative
the writers the brighter the image of the company.
b) Another important characteristic of written
communication is the time factor involved in it.
Oral messages, in a face-to- face situation or
through telephone reach the receiver immediately
and the feedback almost always comes
immediately. This is not the case with written
communication. The sender has to plan out his
message, that is, a letter or report carefully and
encode it with great care. Then he sends it to the
person for whom it is meant. The receiver takes his
own time in decoding it. Then he gives it careful
thought or filters it through his mind and plans out
his reaction to it. Sending back the reply or his

comments on it will take some time. So it is to be
kept in mind that written communication is a time
consuming activity.
c) Thirdly it is to be noted that written
communication has fewer cycles than oral or face-
to-face communication. Oral communication is a
multiple cycle event. Oral messages get immediate
response that very often leads to further exchange
of words. This is not possible in written
communication. Mostly it is a one-cycle event.
Importance of Written Communication
Written communication is so important that it is not
possible to think of a business organisation without it.
The working of any organisation depends to a large
extent on the exchange of letters, reports, etc. There
are various reasons for it. And the most important
reason is that face-to-face communication is not always
possible because the workers of an organisation may be
spread over widespread geographical distances.
Therefore, we have to depend on exchange of letters.
Modern technological distances have not decreased
the importance of letters. Modes of transmission have
changed. But written communication remains as
important as ever.
Advantages of Written Communication
a) It provides us records, references etc. on which
important decisions rest.
b) It builds up the legal defences of the organisation
through records, letters, instructions etc.
c) It promotes uniformity of policy and procedure and
builds up proper guidelines for the working of the
organisation.
d) It builds up the image of the company.
e) It makes for accuracy and dependability (oral
communication may be changed or interpreted in
different ways, but in written communication the
message/information is stated very clearly or
unambiguously).
f) It is permanent.
g) Responsibility can be easily assigned. (one may go
back on the spoken words, but not on the
statement in black and white).
Limitations of Written Communication
a) It builds up unmanageable clutter of papers and
files. It costs a lot to the organisations.
b) It is time consuming. Immediate feedback is not
possible.
c) It is costly in terms of money and man-hours.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is a norm of human
communication, and that the nonverbal form of
communication is more complex than the term
denotes.
P a g e | 28
The nonverbal part of communication is that
aspect of the communication process that deals with
the transmission and reception of messages that are
not a part of the natural language systems.
Whether they are spoken or written, words
are considered part of verbal communication. Any
aspect of communication that does not include words
is considered part of the nonverbal code. This does not
mean that you do not combine verbal and nonverbal
codes to create a message; indeed, much of nonverbal
communication occurs in conjunction with verbal
communication. The aspects of nonverbal
communication that are perceived through the five
most commonly known human senses are: sight, touch,
hearing, smell, and taste.
Sign Language
As has been said in the very beginning
communication is a process in which people exchange
messages through mutually understood signs and
symbols. These signs and symbols are not always the
words of a language like English, French or Hindi. There
is a vast range visual and audio signs outside the gamut
of words. From time immemorial man has been using
visual and audio signs, or, in other words pictures,
drawings and sounds to convey messages. The practice
of drum beating in jungles has been observed since the
very beginning of history even earlier. Regarding the
use of visual elements a Chinese proverb says, “A
picture is worth a thousand words.” A drawing or a
picture makes a concrete impression.
Visual Signs:
An organisation can, and often does, make a very
profitable use of visual signs like posters drawings,
photographs, cartoons, caricatures, statues etc., to
convey messages bearing general information. Maps
and diagrams are indispensable in books of geography,
science, economics, history, and very often in
presentations. Tourism and hotel industry, motor
companies, et cetera, all over the world use nice-
looking colour photographs.
Many of these drawings and photographs have a
limited appeal or are understood amongst particular
sections of people. But a large number of visual, signs,
and symbols speak a universal language understood by
people all over the world. For example, anybody
anywhere can recognise the sign for a telephone booth
or gents/ladies toilet, no smoking, or a factory.
In the same way, traffic lights red, yellow, and
green on roads and the lights at railway stations and
airports convey relevant information/messages. Neon
hoardings, lights on top of VIP vehicles or an ambulance
serve their purpose. In offices, often lights are also used
to indicate whether somebody is in or out. In the same
way lights are used to mark celebrations, festive
occasions etc. The visual effect of flags, flowers,
banquette et cetera; all make an immediate impact on
the mind of the viewer.

Advantages of Visual Signals
(a) Visual signals like pictures, posters et cetera,
economise on verbal communication. They
very easily convey the message in visual terms.
(b) Colourful paintings, photographs et cetera,
make communication interesting and
motivate the Viewer.
(c) Pictures, posters et cetera, are a reflection of
the mental makeup of the communicator and
cultural background of the communication.
(d) Posters, paintings et cetera, have an
educational value, especially, useful for
illiterate workers. Posters are an effective way
of advertising.
Limitations of Sign Language
(a) Sign language, whether using visual signs or
sound signals can communicate only
elementary and simple ideas.
(b) It is not easy to draw effective pictures,
posters, cartoons etc. It requires great skill on
the part of the artist.
(c) Sign language can be effective in combination
with verbal communication. It cannot be a
substitute for verbal communication.
(d) Sign language is quite likely to be
misunderstood.
(e) In verbal communication spot correction can
be made easily. It is not possible in sign
language.
Body Language
Body language is a term for communication
using body movements or gestures instead of, or in
addition to, sounds, verbal language or other
communication. It forms part of the category of
paralanguage, which describes all forms of human
communication that are not verbal language. This
includes the most subtle of movements that many
people are not aware of, including winking and slight
movement of the eyebrows. In addition body language
can also incorporate the use of facial expressions.
This branch of study is also known as 'Kinesics'
which means body movements: It stands for the way
the body communicates without words, and through
the movements of its parts.
Expression of Our Feelings and Status: It must be
noted, though it is known to almost all, that all
our body movements, gestures, postures etc.,
are guided by our feelings and thought
processes. The nodding of our head, blinking
of our eyes, waving of our hands, shrugging of
our shoulders etc., are expressions of our
thought and feelings. All these movements are
the signals that our body sends out to
communicate. Just as language uses sets of
symbols to convey meaning, our body,
consciously as well as unconsciously, conveys
P a g e | 29
messages, attitudes, moods, status
relationships etc. Any intelligent observer can
understand this 'language'.
On careful observation, in a meeting,
we can look around and see who occupies the
highest position. Generally, those who are in
control try to appear large, strong and
fearless. A classic example of status
consciousness expressed through body
language is that of a senior army officer and a
soldier standing before him. The soldier
invariably stands at attention while the officer
looks relaxed, at ease, with his arms and legs
comfortably spread out. The soldier's body is
tense and in perfect symmetry while that of
the officer is relaxed, 'speaking' about his
status. A tense, stiff body is a sign of
subservience. The same situation prevails in
any other organisation when a junior worker
has to appear in the presence of a senior
executive. In this way their body language
shows their status and role relationship. Let us
see how different parts of the body send out
signals.
Head: In any face-to-face communication or meeting or
interview the way we hold our head is very
important. There is an old saying 'Hold your
head high'. It is a sign of honour and self
respect, confidence and our interest in the
person before us. A head bent low shows
modesty, politeness or diffidence. On the
other hand a head drawn too far backwards or
stiffly held straight up indicates pride or
haughtiness. Head jerks indicate rejection or
agreement, depending upon the context and
the personality of the person concerned.
Nodding the head is very important while
listening to a speaker.
Face: It has been said that "the face is the index of the
mind". Whatever we feel deep inside is
reflected on our face. Every facial muscle is an
instrument of communication and plays an
important role in face-to-face communication.
The lines of our forehead, the eyebrows, the
muscles of our cheeks, our lips-in a smile or in
surprise all these speak louder than words.
That is why it is very important for us to
exercise restraint, control our feelings,
especially negative feelings and adopt a
positive attitude in all situations; it is not
always easy to do so. But, then, constant
practice does have positive results. Much
depends on how motivated we are, and what
constructive efforts we make to stay calm and
relaxed.
Eye Contact: Eye contact is of paramount importance
in face-to-face communication. When we look
at somebody's face we focus primarily on his
eyes and try to understand what he means to
 P a g e | 30

convey. The eyes, along with the eyebrows,
eyelids and the size of pupils communicate our
deepest feelings. In different situations our
eyes adopt different positions and shapes.
That is how we come to have fixed eyes,
evasive eyes, eyes staring hard, 'smiling' eyes
and so on depending on our feelings and
attitude. Eyelids raised and combined with
dilated pupils tell us that the person is
surprised or frightened. On the other hand,
eyebrows with upper and lower eyelid closed
and combined with constricted pupils convey
feelings of anger or pain. Eye movement also
communicates in a significant way. A long,
fixed gaze shows our interest in something or
somebody. If the eye contact is brief, or we
take our eyes off a person very soon, it
indicates nervousness or embarrassment.
Gestures: Movements of our arms, legs, hands, torso
and head are called gestures. And gestures
also communicate very meaningfully. For
example, pounding fist on a table shows anger
while a forefinger rose above the head shows
'Number 1'. A forefinger and a thumb touching
to form a circle stand for 'OK'. In the same way,
arms spread apart convey the meaning of,
'wide', shuffling from one leg to another
means 'nervous' and a torso erect and
extended, slightly forward, has been
interpreted as 'intense'.
Body Shape and Posture: Our body shape and posture
affect the way we think about ourselves, how
we relate to others and others relate to us.
Body shapes may be thin and tall, athletic and
muscular or fat and round. We cannot do
much about our body, but whenever needed,
we can try to make the best possible
impression. Sometimes the effort to make an
impression may make our posture awkward.
While appearing for an interview we have to
take care that our body does not send out
wrong signals. Leaning forward or backward,
standing or sitting erect stretching or bending
sideways, all these make an immediate
impression on the other person's mind. We
can always try to be graceful and confident
without unnecessarily 'showing-off or
appearing unduly self-conscious; It is all a
matter of regular practice and minding our
body talk.

Ways to improve Body language

 Don’t cross your arms or legs – You shouldn’t cross your arms as it might make you seem defensive or guarded.
This goes for your legs too. Keep your arms and legs open.
 Have eye contact, but don’t stare – If there are several people you are talking to, give them all some eye contact
to create a better connection and see if they are listening. Keeping too much eye-contact might creep people out.
Giving no eye-contact might make you seem insecure.
 Don’t be afraid to take up some space – Taking up space by for example sitting or standing with your legs apart
a bit signals self-confidence and that you are comfortable in your own skin.
 Relax your shoulders – When you feel tense it’s easily winds up as tension in your shoulders. They might move
up and forward a bit. Try to relax. Try to loosen up by shaking the shoulders a bit and move them back slightly.
 Nod when they are talking – nod once in a while to signal that you are listening. But don’t overdo it and peck like
Woody Woodpecker.
 Don’t slouch; sit up straight – but in a relaxed way, not in a too tense manner.
 Lean, but not too much – To show that you are interested in what someone is saying, lean toward the person
talking. If you want to show that you’re confident in yourself and relaxed lean back a bit.
 Smile and laugh – lighten up, don’t take yourself too seriously. Relax a bit, smile and laugh when someone says
something funny. People will be a lot more inclined to listen to you if you seem to be a positive person.
 Don’t touch your face – it might make you seem nervous and can be distracting for the listeners or the people in
the conversation.
 Keep your head up - Don’t keep your eyes on the ground, it might make you seem insecure and a bit lost. Keep
your head up straight and your eyes towards the horizon.
 Slow down a bit – this goes for many things. Walking slower not only makes you seem more calm and confident,
it will also make you feel less stressed. If someone addresses you, don’t snap you’re neck in their direction, turn
it a bit more slowly instead.
 Don’t fidget; Use your hands more confidently – Fidgeting can be a distracting when you try to get something
across. Use your hands to describe something or to add weight to a point you are trying to make.
 Lower your drink – don’t hold your drink in front of your chest. In fact, don’t hold anything in front of your heart
as it will make you seem guarded and distant. Lower it and hold it beside your leg instead.
 Don’t stand too close –one of the things we learned from Seinfeld is that everybody gets weird out by a close-
talker. Let people have their personal space, don’t invade it.
 Keep a good attitude – last but not least, keep a positive, open and relaxed attitude. How you feel will come
through in your body language and can make a major difference.

Para language:
Though para language is very closely allied to
verbal (oral) communication but actually it is a form of
non-verbal communication. Para means 'like'. Hence
para language is 'like-language'. It is non-verbal
because it does not consist of words. But it is close to
verbal communication because it shows how words are
spoken or utterances made. Thus the most important
part of a speaker’s speech becomes his voice.
Advantages of Para language
(e) Para language is closely allied to oral
communication. No oral communication is
complete without it.
(f) It is a sufficiently dependable indicator of the
speaker's place in an organisation. It tells us
volumes about his place in the hierarchical system
of the organisation.
(g) On the basis of a person's para language or way of
speaking we can find out his educational
background.
(h) Para language also tells about a speaker's
regional/national background. It helps us a lot in
dealing with him.
(i) A careful listener can learn a lot from a good
speaker.
Limitations of Para language
(a) We cannot totally rely on para language. It is like
language, but not language.
(b) The voice quality, speaking speed, pitch etc., may
sometimes unnecessarily prejudice the receiver of
the message. One has to be open-minded.
(c) It is difficult to achieve uniformity because
speakers belong to different speech communities.
Voice:
Voice is the first signal that we receive or use.
Everybody knows about the importance of voice. It tells
us so much about the speaker's sex, background,
education, training and temperament. There are all
kinds of voices-clear, musical, cultivated, pleasant, and
unpleasant and so on. Generally human voice does a
satisfactory job. In other words, it conveys the meaning
or message. The clearer the voice the more effective is
the communication. One must, however, take care of
the following points in the use of voice:
(a) Pitch variation Most of us introduce wide
variations in pitch while speaking. These variations
are necessary to catch the listener's attention and
to keep him interested in us. Speaking at length on
the same level of pitch makes the speech
'monotonous' or boring. One good way to improve
one's pitch variation is to observe others speaking
and to benefit from their suggestions. It is seen
that generally people in authority speak in a high
pitched voice while those in subordinate position
speak in monotones. A lot also depends on one's
state of mind. Most of us, when excited or angry
speak in a high-pitched voice. A situation like this
P a g e | 31
speaks of a heated discussion in which we hear
voices at different pitch levels.
(b) Speaking speed We do not, and should not, always
speak at a high speed. Speaking fast or at a high
speed is not fluency. We speak at different speeds
on different occasions and while conveying
different parts of a message. As a general rule we
should present the easy parts of a message at a
brisk pace because it can be easily understood. On
the other hand, the difficult, complicated, highly
technical part of information should be conveyed
at a slower pace. If we reverse the order the result
will be counter-productive.
(c) Pause The speaking speed is also accompanied by
pauses. We cannot and should not, go on speaking
without pausing. But the pauses have to be at the
right moments. Incorrect use of pauses can create
problems. A pause can be highly effective in
emphasising the upcoming subject and in gaining
the listener's attention. Too frequent pauses will,
however, spoil the speech.
(d) Volume variation Our speech should be loud
enough to be audible to the audience, not too loud
to put them off. The loudness of our voice should
be adjusted according to the size of the audience.
The larger the audience the higher the volume. But
depending upon the different parts of the message
we should monitor the volume of our speech so as
to bring about a sense of contrast between the
louder and the not so loud parts of our speech.
Volume variation puts life into our speaking.
(e) Non-fluencies Utterances like 'oh, 'ah', 'urn', 'you
know', 'ok' etc. are known as non-fluencies. They
give the speaker breathing time (space fillers) and
the audience time to think over what has been said
(grasp-breaks). Carefully and judiciously used
these utterances add to the fluency of the speaker.
Too frequent non-fluencies irritate the listener.
Word Stress:
Proper word stress is of crucial importance in
communication. By putting stress or emphasis on a
word here or a word there in the same sentence we can
change the meaning. As an example let us look at the
following sentences repeated with different words
stressed:
Have you seen my new book?
Have you seen my new book?
Have you seen my new book?
Have you seen my new book?
Have you seen my new book?
The sentence or let us say the group of words
is the same. The stress on different words gives it a new
meaning every time it is uttered. In the same way
stressing or emphasising syllables or parts of spoken
words also changes the meanings as we see in the

following words. Convict (Noun) Convict (Verb) Record
(Noun) Record (Verb). As educated people we should
take care that proper stress is put on words or parts of
words while we speak. For this purpose we should not
miss any opportunity to listen to good speakers and
participate in discussions. Another useful hint is to
listen to English news bulletin on radio or television.
The news readers are selected on the basis of their
voice test. Their pronunciation is, therefore, supposed
to have widest intelligibility and acceptability.
Space, Surroundings, and Time
As has been said earlier we do not
communicate by words alone. In fact there is much
more communication that is of non-verbal type, i.e.,
that in which there is no use of words but sending out
other signals mutually understood by the sender and
the receiver. These signals may originate in many
sources. One such important source is the space around
us that communicates in its own unique way.
Communication experts have made serious study of
this dimension and called it 'proxemics' just as body
language is called 'kinesics'. Proxemics' is the study of
how we communicate with the space around us. We
can also call it 'space language'. Let us see what use we
can make of space to communicate. For this purpose
we will have to demarcate the distance between us and
the person/persons with whom we wish to
communicate. This distance or proximity can be stated
as follows:
Different Uses of Space
Communication experts have also seriously
observed how people make use of the space around
them. The way groups of people use the space assigned
to them shows their respective places and interaction
patterns. For example, people who start a conversation
and those seated in the front are usually leaders of the
group. If the same people are seated in a row then
communication pattern will be different. The
communication of people seated around a round or
oval table is mostly in the form of conference or
seminar.
Fixed and Semi-fixed Spaces
Fixed and semi-fixed spaces have important
implications for communication. In fixed spaces we
consider permanent features like walls, room sizes, the
building and its total capacity, corners, counters for
special purposes and so on. These permanent features
affect communication by marking out who interrelates
with whom, how and for what purpose.
In semi-fixed space the physical features are
changeable or likely to be rearranged. This flexibility in
arrangements permits a variety of spaces that can be
used to conduct different types of communication. For
example, the same furniture can be arranged or
rearranged for an interview, a group discussion or for a
P a g e | 32
presentation.
Surroundings:
Our surroundings or physical environment
speak their own non-verbal language. While it
encompass a large number of objects, it is worthwhile
to consider two important aspects of our physical con
Xl-colour and layout for the purpose of non-verbal
communication. Through our sensory perception we
get meaning from our surroundings, in the same way as
through our choice of colour and design we send out
signals to others.
Colours
From time immemorial man has been using colours
to convey messages in various forms and figurations.
Different colours are associated with different
behaviour patterns, attitudes and cultural
backgrounds. We make serious efforts to choose the
right colour for any significant occasion. Indifference to
choice of colour is regarded as lack of cultivation.
Some colours are universally associated with
mirth, cheerfulness or pleasant circumstances. Pink,
yellow, red, purple, blue, green are gray colours. Black
and gray are associated with negative feelings,
melancholy or sober mood. White is generally
associated with peace and chastity. For successful
communication it is important to have the right choice
of colour of our clothing, home and office interiors, and
upholstery and decoration pieces.
 Colors have cultural variations in
connotations.
 Black is the color of mourning in
the U.S., but white is worn to
funerals by the Japanese.
 In the U.S. white is typically worn
by brides, while in India red or
yellow is worn.
 Purple is sometimes associated
with royalty, but it is the color of
death in Mexico and Brazil.
 Red (especially red roses) is
associated with romance in some
cultures including the U.S.
Layout and Design
The space arrangement of an office, carpeting
or its absence, the furniture and its design everything
conveys a meaning. Everybody is impressed by a
tastefully, furnished office, the layout of a lobby/ dining
hall/ conference hall/reception desk. It is for this very
reason that special care is taken to do up the interior
designing of offices with the help of highly trained
designers. Layout designing and furnishing is in itself an
important business. The layout/design of an office
projects the image of the organisation. All successful
 P a g e | 33

communicators take great care in this regard.

Uses of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication provides individuals and
groups with many options for presenting their
messages. Here are some of the uses of nonverbal
communication.
 To create impressions beyond the verbal
element of communication (kinesics,
chronemics, vocalics, environment)
 To repeat and reinforce what is said verbally
(occulesics, kinesics)
 To manage and regulate the interaction among
participants in the communication exchange
(kinesics, occulesics, proxemics, synchrony)
 To express emotion beyond the verbal element
(kinesics, occulesics, haptics, vocalics,
proxemics)
 To convey relational messages of affection,
power, dominance, respect, and so on
(proxemics, occulesics, haptics)
 To promote honest communication by
detecting deception or conveying suspicion
(kinesics, occulesics, vocalics)
 To provide group or social leadership by
sending messages of power and persuasion
(kinesics, vocalics, chronemics)
 P a g e | 34

Management Communication: or else groups with differing incentives will develop

Communication can be studied with a
different point of view with reference to an
Organisation. Effective communication is vital for
success both at Stern and in the business world.
Courses in the Management Communication Program
emphasize developing the full range of communication
strategies required to become a successful manager.
Effective organizational communications are
an essential precondition of effective management—
without effective communication, management
becomes difficult or impossible. Organizations with
more than one level of management suffer from
communications problems that can interfere with
almost any aspect of the organization, including
corrective actions.
The purpose of communications management
is to ensure that both managers and workers have
access to the information. Theoretically, all parties will
be able to agree on the tasks to improve the
organization, and everyone will work together in a
more coordinated fashion; in practice, the same
incentives must apply to both managers and workers,
different goals, negating the effect of the shared
information. One of the simplest and most practical
communications management methods is a
straightforward, hierarchical, bidirectional
communication method, with clear incentives.
Broadly speaking and based on direction
Communication can be divided into two headings.
Horizontal and Vertical. Whereupon the presence of a
third type namely Grapevine cannot be overlooked.
The former two channels of communication
can be better understood with reference to the word
organization. As there are different levels of
management in every organization or an institution so
do the Communication that takes place in on
organization has various forms and attribution.
The Communication network within an
organization is largely made up of two types of channels
which are interrelated and dependent on each other.
They are formal and informal. As the name suggests
formal is deliberately created whereas informal is the
result of social structures present within as well as
outside the organization.

Formal communications Informal communications

Formal communications within an organization are
those that take place through well-known channels.
Informal communications are those that are not based
upon any set measures. This does not mean that such
relations are outside the networks of the organization. They
allow people to take the initiative into their own hands. This
enables them to come up with ideas and plans.

For example, the expansion of policy of an
organization comes from a formal procedure where
it is dictated from the members upwards. Members
discuss policy issues in their branches. Delegates
from the branches then meet at the Annual
Conference and debate and agree policy.
For example, an organization helps to share facts and skills
through the publication of a communications catalogue.
This is a system of formal relations. These formal
communications help to empower members who are
dealing day-to-day with problems and issues in the
branches. This then leads to a new process.

Through informal communications with employers and

Formal communications would also include all of the their representatives, members feel that they are being
paper-based and electronic communications that are supported. This helps them to take ownership of many
available to members as well as the meetings that problems as they work towards resolving them.
take place.

Limitations of Formal Communication

(a) Quite often it is seen that the formal channels of communication inhibit or stand in the way of
free flow of information.
(b) In continuation of the point given above we can say that the formal channels are time
consuming. Strict formality in sending out messages may cost the organisation in terms of man
hours.
(c) The formal channel may also incur a lot of expenditure in terms of money.
(d) There are more chances of red-tapism and delay tactics in this method because executives
generally overlook the interests of the subordinates. Any information upward or downward
favouring subordinates is more often suppressed or delayed by the superiors.
(e) In most of the big organisations, contacts between the top executive and the subordinates at
 P a g e | 35

the lowest level are far remote. Very often they do not recognise each other. This adversely
affects the relations between executives and subordinates.

Informal Communication or Grapevine Communication

Side-by-side with the formal channels of communication there exists on a much larger scale,
an informal channel of communication or a secondary network of information. Its source lies in
man's compulsive instinct to communicate or talk out whatever he feels and thinks with his fellow
beings and throw all norms to the winds. Man is essentially gregarious by nature, i.e., he likes to
move about and form groups. And whenever groups meet there is bound to be talking on different
subjects, serious and not so serious. This tendency is more visible in the low rung of the organisation.
Here the people are rather fond of setting afloat rumours regarding all matters under the sun. The
rumour mill is always working in any organisation. The larger the organisation, the more active will
be the rumours mill. It has come to be called the 'grapevine' in management literature. Quite often
it also contains some useful information. That is why it cannot be altogether ignored. Informal
communication is also known as grapevine. It represents the unofficial channels of communication
which are created and controlled by people themselves rather than the management. This channel
follows no set lines or definite rules but it spreads very fast and like the grapevine, in any direction.
So it is known as grapevine.

Formal Communication Informal Communication

1. It is based on formal organizational It emerges out of social interactions among the
relationships. people.
2. The channels of communication are Channels of communication depend on individuals’
prescribed. relationships.
3. It is rigid as deviations are not allowed. It is quite flexible because noting is prescribed.
4. The speed of message travel is slow because Message travels faster.
of formalisation.
5. Chances of message distortion are low. Messages are often distorted.
6. It is treated as authentic. It is not authentic even if the message is correct.

Vertical Communication:
These types of communication are needed to fulfil various ends:

Downward Channel Upward channel

Need
(a) to get thing done; (a) to get feedback from employees.
(b) to prepare for changes ; (b) to create a sense of belongingness through
active participation.
(c) to discourage lack of understanding and (c) to evaluate the effectiveness of
suspicion ; communication;
(d) to keep the members well- informed about all (d) to increase morale of employees;
organizational matters.
(e) to make improvements in managerial
decisions;
(f) to co-ordinate efforts; and
(g) to know ides of each individual in the
organization.

Forms
(i) notices ; (i) Reports ;
(ii) circulars ; (ii) Meetings;
(iii) instructions ; (iii) interviews ;
(iv) orders ; (iv) Conferences ;
 P a g e | 36

(v) letters ; (v) Letters ;

(vi) memos; (vi) Complaints ;
(vii) bulletins ; (vii) Suggestions ;
(viii) handbooks ; (viii) Surveys ;
(ix) annual reports ;
(x) announcements ;
(xi) group meetings, etc.

Levels of Management within an Communication between a superior and a subordinate is

Organisation known as vertical communication. It may be divided into
two headings either downwards or up wards.
Downwards means the flow of Communication from a
Directors
superior to subordinates. It follows the line of authority
from top to the bottom of the organization. It serves to
pass on information from management to the workers.
Manager Upwards Communication means the flow of information
from the lower levels of an organisation to the next
Downwards
Upwards Communication

s
DownwardsCommunication

higher authority. This type of communication manes

upwards step by step following the line hierarchy of an
organization. For example feedback from the labourer
Communication

Officers passes to the officers, from officers to the managers and

from managers to the directors.
Upward Communication is important as it serves to pass
the feedback on the effectiveness of downward
communication. The higher authorities are aware about
Worker how well its policies, plans and objections are followed
s by those working at lower levels of the organization.
Further, it keeps the management informed about the
progress of work and the difficulties faced in due course
of work.

Lateral or Horizontal:
The transmission, circulation or else sharing of information between people of similar rank is a form
of lateral, or sideward or crosswise or horizontal Communication.
For example the communication that takes place between managers, officers, clerks or labourers of
an organisation. Not only this communication that takes place among managers and officers, or
officers and clerks, or clerks and labourers that is the communication among people of next higher
or a lower rank can also be understood as horizontal communication. It serves to weave a link within
an organization enhancing its effectiveness.
Usually, it pertains to inter departmental communication, i.e. the communication between two
departmental managers working at the same level of organisation or among subordinates working
under one boss. Horizontal communication speeds up information and promotes mutual
understanding. It enables the managers working at the same level to exchange information and co-
ordinate their activities without referring all matters to the higher level of management.
It sometimes is of informal nature. It can be in both written as well as verbal forms. Staff meetings
coordination committees, discussions are the stage where information is exchanged in this channel
of communication. It is helpful in bringing together the related but different parts of an organisation.
It result in both coordination and cooperation within an organization and serves to achievement of
targets implementing polices and plans.
 P a g e | 37

Grapevine Communciation:

The very essence and the functioning of grapevine can be well understood trying to
The term understand the word grapevine.
Grapevine arose Grapevine is the name given to a plant on which grapes grow. Grapevine is a secondary
during the days channel of personal, informal communication which exists in every organization in addition to
of U.S. Civil war. the formal organized channel. It has no definite pattern or direction though it is largely
At that time, horizontal. It is a complex web or oral communication flow, linking all the members of the
intelligence organization in one way or the other. It may sometimes move along in a chain, passing
telephone lines information from person to person; and sometimes in clusters.
were strung This informal channel carries unofficial information about the management’s policies and
loosely from plans, individual managers, work programmes, the company’s performance, and such matters
tree to tree in related to the company, Naturally, the talk is coloured by the ideas prejudices and feelings of
the manner of a the persons engaged in it. Thought the stories and information circulation in the grapevine are
Grapevine, and not fully correct, and often carry added colour, it can become quite powerful and influential.
the messages Structure of Grapevine:
thereon were Grapevines are largely haphazard and get formed merely by coming into contact.
often distorted. There may be more than one grapevine channel in an organization, and individuals may be on
This led to the more than one grapevine. People whose places of work are close together, people who come
spread of into contact with one another in official work, people who travel to work together, or people
rumours. This with similar temperaments are likely to be on the same grapevine.
came to be Secondary Grapevine largely comprises up of rumours and it is these rumours that are the
known from the backbone of a grapevine. The more is the flow of rumours in an organization the more will be
Grapevine. the strength of grapevine in numbers and person.
The third integral part of a Grapevine is gossips. As earlier stated, Grapevines are formed
merely as a result of coming together. This in turn results in sharing as well as spread of
information which is half true.

Grapevine Network:
Grapevine Network Grapevine follows different types of network. Usually, there are four types of
pattern through which grapevine travels. These are single strand, gossip, Probability and cluster. In
each pattern, communication among different individuals is different as shown here.

Gossip Cluster
Probability

Singe Strand
 P a g e | 38

Grapevine Chains
(a) Single strand chain: Here one person tells something to the second who in turn tells it to the third and so on. This
is the least accurate chain in passing on the information or message.
(b) Gossip chain: Here a person transmits himself (broadcasts) the information to everyone he has obtained. This
chain is often used to convey informal messages.
(c) Probability chain: Here individuals transmit information vaguely and without any concern. This chain is useful when
the information is interesting but not significant. It is like spreading rumours.
(d) Cluster chain: Here a person tells something to a few selected individuals and then some of these individuals inform
a few other selected individuals.

It has been found out that the cluster
chain is the dominant grapevine pattern in an
organisation. Generally only a few individuals,
called 'Liaison individuals' pass on the
information they have obtained and then they
are likely to share it with the people they trust.
Most informal communication flows through
this chain.
In single strand network, the individual
communicates with other individuals through
intervening persons. In gossip network, the
individual communicates non-selectively. In
probability network, the individual
communicates randomly with other
individuals according to the law of probability.
In cluster network, the individual
communicates with only those individuals
whom he trusts. Out of these informal
networks, the cluster is the most popular.
None of these patterns are fixed or
recurring; they charge with time and depend
upon information to be exchanged. The
information that exchanges hands in a
grapevine cannot merely be oral but written
too. In modern electronic offices to grapevine
messages are typically flashed on computer
screens, erecting the new era of electronic
grapevine.
Factors Leading to Grapevine Phenomenon
The grapevine becomes active when
the following factors are present:
(a) Feeling of uncertainty or lack of sense of
direction when the organisation is passing
through a difficult period.
(b) Feeling of inadequacy or lack of self-
confidence on the part of the employee,
leading to the formation of groups.
(c) Formation of a coterie or favoured group
by the manager, giving other employees a
feeling of insecurity or isolation. People
operating in such circumstances will be
filled with all sorts of ideas and will share
them with likeminded companions, at
whatever level they may be. Mostly they
find them at their own level, but other
levels are not barred. This type of
communication is being seriously studied
by psychologists and management
experts.
Accuracy in a Grapevine
Usually there is a perception that the
information which travels in a Grapevine is
highly inaccurate as grapevine comprise up of
rumours and gossips .On the contrary the
information travelling in a grapevine can be
highly accurate too many times the may only
of grapevine information is the but one
inaccurate stand of that grapevine makes
meanings.
Once in an organization spread the story of a welder getting married
to a general manager’s daughter. Of course the entire story was true
with regard to his getting married, the date, the location, and other
details. The one wrong detail in this 90 per cent accurate story was
that the woman was not the general manager’s daughter but only
happened to have the same last name. This one wrong point made
the whole communication wrong even though it was 90 per cent
accurate in details.
Utility and Benefits of a Grapevine:
Firstly, Grapevine is type or a communication
channel where maximum
communication takes place any
organization. It thus provides a
stage of all sorts of informal
discussion. It can often be said
that the bulk of communication
takes place at this level.
Second, Not merely the amount of
communication is more at this
level but this communication is

preliminary. Preliminary
communication can other be
understood as pre official
communication where pre means
before, that is that
communication which takes place
prior to official discussions on any
topic. It is preparatory, directed to
clarify certain issues and re assess
the chief points of discussion.
Nearly all official meetings follow
after discussions over comings
issues. It is unofficial and entirely
informal.
Third, Analyses: Grapevine analyse all official
discussions, policies, orders, and
plans of an organization at the
smallest level. Since these
discussions are free and informal
without any restraint all the pros
and cons of the matter are
brought up and debated. This
makes aware not merely the
common people but also policy
makes about the problems that
may crop up in due course of
implementation of a policy.
Fourth, Suggest: Grapevine not merely discuss
but often come out with
suggestions and alternatives and
find better ways towards
successful implementation of a
decision or policy. It is often found
that unfavourable work
performances, problems relating
to work, unfavourable reactions
to various practices and policies in
an organisation travel through
these channels. As there are no
constraints there seldom appears
any inconvenience to suggest and
forward such information to
higher authorities.
Fifth, Speed: News through informal channels
rushes more rapidly than any
other communication channel.
Research has shown that
grapevine is not just a zigzagging,
unreliable channel. It often carries
P a g e | 39
more information than the formal
official system of communication
does; it moves much faster
because it is not hindered by the
delays of the official channel.
Sixth, Inference: Grapevine can affect an
organization’s working by its
influence on the opinions, beliefs
and attitudes of its members.
Attitudes have a direct bearing on
people’s willingness to work on
their assigned tasks. The nature of
the talk among the employees
also affects their attitudes and
efficiency. Excited talking and bad
tempers lead to poor
performance; so does excessive
fun. What employees hear and
say affects their relationship with
the management, and this has a
direct effect on productivity.
Seventh, Leaders: Despites all the greatest
benefit of a grapevine is that it
provides and promotes capable
leaders and administrators to an
organisation. Grapevine shapes
our communication shells which
in turn shape in an individual.
Thus the greatest benefit of
grapevine is to find and forward
able men.
Limitations of a Grapevine:
Informal communication, on the other hand,
has certain basis limitations. It is less orderly
and less static also, sometimes; messages
communicated through the informal channel
are so erratic that any action based on these
may lead to a difficult situation in the
organisation. In this case, the irresponsibility
of the person communicating through the
informal channels most important factor.
Since origin and direction of the flow of
information is hard to pinpoint, it is difficult to
assign responsibility for false information or
morale- lowering rumours. Moreover, as each
person conveying the message may add,
subtract or change the original message
according to his motive, informal

communication problems multiply. There is a
chance that by the time a communication
completes a complex journey, it may be
completely distorted.
The informal communication is a part and
parcel of the organizational process. The only
thing management can do in this respect is to
take suitable action to minimise the adverse
effect of this channel. Such an analysis of
informal communication and a suitable
clarification in this respect will be helpful in
making its use towards organisational
efficiency.
Improving Nonverbal Communication Skills
 Maintaining eye contact
 Occasionally nodding the head in agreement
 Smiling and showing animation
 Leaning toward the speaker
 Speaking at a moderate rate, in a quiet, assuring
tone
P a g e | 40
The presence of the grapevine is recognized
and accepted as a part of an organisation. It
needs to be skilfully controlled because it can
influence the efficiency of the organisation. A
manager who yearns to listen to it can find out
who are the talk- leaders and give them
desirable information; this can have a
beneficial effect.
This is a close relationship between the
grapevine and the morale of employees; when
the morale is high and employees are well-
motivated, the grapevine is usually thin and
slow; when the morale drops, it becomes thick
and strong.
Barriers to Effective Communication
 Ability to effectively communicate
 Way people process and interpret information
 Level of interpersonal trust between people
 Stereotypes and prejudice
 Egos
 Poor listening skills
 Neutral tendency to evaluate or judge a sender’s
message
 Inability to listen with understanding

Chapter Summary:
Note: All people are not skilled communicators. Skill in
communicating has to be developed. In order to be a
good, skilful communicator you have to watch yourself
constantly and persistently effort to overcome your
deficiencies and/or problems in communicating. It is
necessary to understand how barriers develop in
communication, and the ensuing problems that
prevent communication from being successful.
 Communication is a complicated process of giving
and receiving information with innumerable
dimension and variables.
 For communication, more than language, an
attitude of willingness to receive and give
information is needed.
 Creativity is a boon to communication.
 As stated in communication window the two
dimension of communication are exposure and
feedback—the stronger the exposure [that is the
higher the degree of clarity in transmission of
message] the stronger is the feedback
 The bulk of communication takes place as
Nonverbal communication.
 More than any other factor. Fatigue – a feeling of
being tired, hampers communication.
 Body language plays a vital task in communication.
Studying Communication
There are two approaches to study
communication. One is the traditional process
approach that emphasises that meanings are
communicated by the sender encoded in his message.
The other is the semiotic approach that emphasises
that the receivers fix meanings to a message and that
meanings are not transmitted in a communication
process.
Elements of Communication
The major elements of communication
comprise of sender, receiver, message, encoding,
decoding, medium, feedback, knowledge interest, age,
situation, and attitude.
Communication Window
Johari window comprises up of four quadrants
which are open, blind, hidden, and unknown.
It explains communication process between
people on two dimensions—feedback and exposure. As
for effective communication there must be a pleasant
environment, proper coordination between the sender
and the receiver so as there shall be proper encoding,
decoding, and a healthy feedback.
Proxemics
The distance we keep with others in our life
places us in different zones which fix our identity in
P a g e | 41
relation to other people. Edward T Hall placed us into
four zones varying upon the distance we share with
people. It can also be understood as language of
distance.
Attitude
Attitude plays vital role to turn us into a good
communicator. It blends with Action, faith, and
feelings. It can also be said action, faith, and feelings
make our attitude
Perception
Perception is an active process through which
an individual assigns the meanings to the messages. It
can be understood as a fixed bend in the mind of an
individual to assign meaning to a received stimulus.
Communication and Perception
Communication and perception can best be
understood as two sides of the same coin. Where
communication stands for transmission and reception
of the messages, perception works to receive and
interpret the same as a part of the process of assigning
a meaning to the message. As discussed earlier
meanings are not in the messages. They are in the
minds of the receiver and it is the receiver who assigns
a meaning to a message irrespective of the intentions
of the sender. This assigning of the meaning to the
message is shaped and finalised by an individual
perceptual constancies.
Barriers to Communication
If there is a break in continuity during a
process of communication this break is known as
communication gap. This break or gap is due to several
barriers to communication.
Air, weather and temperature, noise, fatigue,
attention, Language barriers, interest, and attitude are
the basic factors which effect communication.
They can be divided into four types for the ease of
studying and remembering. They are— Physical,
Semantic, Social, and psychological barriers. All other
barriers to communication fall in either of these
categories and can be grouped respectively.
Verbal Communication
The word verbal means "connected with
words or communicating through the use of words".
Human beings are not the only species gifted with the
faculty of sounds but they are the only one who has
converted the same into a language. It has two forms
oral and written.
Oral Communication: Speech mechanism is the mode
of this form of communication In fact speech, or oral

use of language, acts as the first binding factor between
persons. It provides immediate feedback and face-to-
face interaction.
Written Communication: While oral communication
comes naturally and spontaneously, written
communication requires effort. Words spoken are,
however, likely to be forgotten. That is why written
communication is indispensable. It provides us records,
references etc. on which important decisions rest. Most
importantly written records provide authentic facts.
Nonverbal Communication
This aspect of the communication deals with
the transmission and reception of messages that are
not a part of the natural language systems. Whether
they are spoken or written, words are considered part
of verbal communication. Any aspect of
communication that does not include words is
considered to be a part of the nonverbal code. It takes
place in form of Gestures, postures, facial expression,
movement, dress, and similar system of signs of
symbols.
Facial Expressions: Our face bears the expressions and
feelings that are in our mind. The lines on our forehead,
the eyebrows, the movement of eye-balls, gentle
movement of our eye-lids, the muscles of our cheeks,
our lips-in a smile or in surprise all these speak louder
than words.
Gestures Movements of our arms, legs, hands, torso
and head are called gestures. The meaning of these
nonverbal signs varies from one culture to another and
sometimes even within cultures.
Dress One maxim states that clothes can be your best
friends as well as your worst enemy. Your clothes
beforehand cast an impression about you even before
you have started speaking. The listener already locates
you and your status in the locale.
Paralanguage: Para means 'like'. Hence paralanguage is
'like-language'. It is non-verbal because it does not
consist of words. But it is close to verbal
communication because it shows how words are
spoken or utterances made.
Voice: Voice tells about the speaker's sex, background,
education, and temperament. Voices can be dubbed as
clear, musical, cultivated, pleasant, and unpleasant,
and so on. Human voice conveys a meaning or message.
The strength and clarity of communication depends
upon the clarity of voice. One must consider following
points:
Nonverbal Communication/Body Language
Body language is a term referring to the
meanings generated by body movements, gestures,
postures, space, and dress in addition to, sounds,
paralanguage, and verbal communication. This includes
the most subtle of movements that many people are
not aware of, like winking of the eye or the slightest
movement of the eyebrows. This branch of study is also
known as 'Kinesics' which means body movements. It
P a g e | 42
stands for the way the body communicates.
Management Communication:
Effective organizational communication is an
essential precondition for effective management—
without which management becomes impossible. The
purpose of communication management is to ensure
that both managers and workers have access to the
information. This study of communication studies the
flow of information in an organisation.
Horizontal and Diagonal: The transmission, circulation
or else sharing of information between people of
similar rank is a form of lateral, or sideward or
crosswise (diagonal) or horizontal Communication.
Usually, it pertains to communication between two
departmental managers working at the same level of
organisation or among subordinates working under
one boss. Horizontal communication speeds up
information and promotes mutual understanding.
Vertical Communication: In an organisation the
communication that takes place between the top and
the lowest level of management is referred to as
vertical communication. It is studied as upward and
downward communication. The upward
communication takes place in forms of appeals or
requests, whereas the downward takes place in form
of orders and directions.
Informal Communication or Grapevine: Side-by-side
with the formal channels of communication there exists
the most important communication channel—an
informal channel. This informal communication is also
known as grapevine. It represents the unofficial
channels of communication which are created and
controlled by people themselves rather than the
management. This channel follows no set lines or
definite rules but it spreads very fast and like the
grapevine, in any direction. So it is known as grapevine.

Review Questions:
1. What is the meaning of communication? Attempt
a definition of communication.
2. What are factors necessary for effective
communication?
3. What is function of language in communication?
4. Explain the process of communication?
5. What is communication cycle? What are the
essential elements of this cycle?
6. Explain Communication window.
7. What is the significance of feedback in
Communication?
8. Communication is a two-way process. Explain.
9. Define the term 'Communication' and trace its
origin? How is communication a social activity?
10. Why is communication so important to an
organisation? How does it relate the organization
to the outside world?
11. Explain the process of communication, giving
examples? Explain the features of
communication?
12. Effective Communication has always been
essential for success in business. Explain this
statement in detail.
13. What newer problems you might face as a new
user of electronic mail.
14. What are the new technologies in
communication? Explain the use of any one.
15. How does the medium of communication affect
the message being communicated?
16. What are Semantic barriers to communication?
How do they affect the process of
communication?
17. How feedback is important in communication?
What will happen if the sender does not receive a
proper feedback?
18. What are the two different approaches to study
communication? Point out the differences
between the two.
19. What do you understand by these lines?
“The message received by the sender is not
always the same as the message sent”
Substantiate your answer in about 200 words.
20. What is the basic difference between semiotic
approach to communication and the process
approach to communication?
21. Write down at least five elements of
P a g e | 43
communication. Out of these five elements which
one do you opine to be the most important?
Justify your answer.
22. Is there any relevance of Johari Window in the
process of communication? If yes/no justify your
statement.
23. How can we overcome the barriers to
communication?
24. “The attitude of a person is dominant throughout
the process of communication.” Explain.
26. What is perception? Define it in context to
communication?
27. What are the factors responsible for effective
communication?
28. Discuss the role of eye-contact in a
communication process.
29. Write a detailed note on how newer technologies
in communication are influencing the
communication process.
30. Discuss how important is perception in
communication process. Also mention how our
perception can influence communication?
31. Define types of Communication on basis of
direction.
32. What is Horizontal Communication?
33. Describe vertical channel of communication.
34. Give specific reasons & the importance of down
word communication.
35. Write a note on the uses of upward channel of
communication.
36. Define & describe Grapevines.
37. “For effective working of an organization
Grapevines should be checked and controlled”
Discuses.
38. What are the benefits of Grapevines?
39. Differentiate between formal and informal
channels of communication.
40. What do you mean by sign language? Discuss the
use of at least two examples of sign language.
41. Look around in your office or institution and
make a list of visual and audio signs there. Write
a short note on each of them.
42. Write a note on the use of sound signals clearly
distinguishing the different kinds and uses.
43. What do you mean by body language? Discuss
its various aspects in detail.
44. Write a note on the saying, "The face is the
index of the mind".
 P a g e | 44

45. Write short notes on Process approach—which of these approaches

maintains that— “Messages carry the meanings”
 eye contact
(i) Semiotic Approach
 nodding
(ii) Process Approach
 stiff standing Q.3 The use of word dress is used in English language
 body position to refer to different types of cultural, traditional,
formal, or casual clothes we wear. This property—the
46. Write short notes on the following: use of word dress to refer to different clothes—in
 speed variation in speech terms of language is known as:

 Word stress. (i) Arbitrary

(ii) Abstract
 pause (iii) Artificial
47. Write an essay on the para linguistic aspects of (iv) Creative
effective oral communication. Q.4 Signs and symbols are:
48. What are the risks involved in while depending (i) one and the same entity
on para language? (ii) refer to one aspect of language with a different
49. Define 'space language' and show its approach
importance for communication. (iii) signs are symbolic whereas symbols are
arbitrary
50. Write a short note on each of the following. (iv) signs attempt to explain things directly whereas
 Intimate space language symbols seek to establish an artificial
relationship between two aspects.
 Personal space language
Q.5 Fatigue can be best explained as:
 Social space language
(i) Tiredness
 Public space language (ii) An emotional state of tiredness
51. What is nonverbal communication? Explain (iii) A feeling of being tired
Nonverbal behavior. (iv) All the above

52. How much difference is there in the ways males
and females use nonverbal communication?
53. How do the two code systems (verbal and
nonverbal codes) work to create
“communication”?
54. In your mind, how do the different purposes of
nonverbal communication relate to the total
communication process?
55. What do you think is the role of media in
nonverbal communication? Are the roles they
create realistic?
Answer the following selecting the best
option(s):
Q.1 Which of the following statements are correct
about communication process?
The code of communication varies both with
culture and time.
Communication is a continuous process.
Communication is necessarily a two way process.
Q.2 Out of the two approaches of studying
communication—The Semiotic approach and the
Q.6 Communication is a process of receiving messages
whereas, the process through which we fix meanings
to the received messages is known as:
(i) Perception
(ii) Anchorage
(iii) Semantics
Q.7 What can be concluded from the statement:
The symbols change meaning regardless of situations
they are used.
(i) True
(ii) False
(iii) Cannot be concluded
(iv) Symbols have fixed meanings
Q. 8 Which of the following assumption(s) about
communication is/are true:
A. Communications reflects reality instead of
creating it.
B. Communication conforms to norms of
relationships and culture.
C. Understanding one another and sharing meaning
is the foundation of good communication.
Q. 9 Select the statements that are false about
communication:
 P a g e | 45

A. Good relationship will result in better
communication.
B. Effective communication is always clear and
unambiguous.
C. Communication leads to fewer conflicts among
people.
D. We can understand our problems in
communication.
Exercises & Activities
 Discuss the various models of Communication
and prepare/present one of you own?
 Are you a good communicator? If yes, based on
your analysis decide a list of factors that
contribute your being a good communicator. If
no, than prepare a list your blocks/factors in
which you find it difficult to communicate.
 Write a description about yourself including at
least ten adjectives.
 Write a paragraph describing someone you find a
good communicator. Make a list of factors that
distinguish him as an effective communicator.
 Write a short paper analysing the strength and
weakness of models of communication.
 Write one page case study of an event of
communication failure that you have
experienced.
 Find out and prepare a list of sources available on
internet about communication.
 Prepare a list of factors detailing reasons as to
why we should studying communication is
important in our lives.
 Have a class discussion about the need of
studying communication as a paper in an
engineering or a management classroom.
 Have a class discussion on how can
communication be classified into types or kinds.
 Explain the relationship between a sign and a
symbol.
 Explain from personal experience an example of
misunderstood communication caused by
differing interpretations of nonverbal
communication techniques.
 Explain the difference between monochronemics
and polychronemics.
 Identify three of the different uses of nonverbal
communication.
 Give examples from their everyday experience of
each type of linguistic signs: symbol, index and
icon.
 Role-play a scenario that dramatizes
misunderstands associated with differing
interpretations of nonverbal communication
techniques.

How to make our communication effective at work?

State your idea clearly and decisively: Before sharing your ides with your group members try to find out the
answer to these six ‘wh’ words—who, what, when, where, why, and how of events.
Avoid use of jargon and colloquial language: During conversation with your seniors/juniors avoid the use of
colloquial language including words and sentences. It renders a negative impact upon your personality and is
hostile to a healthy communication.
Avoid loaded words and adjectives: Words that convey a strong emotional meaning must be avoided. For
example, ‘what a stupid-looking google.’ It conveys a message who likes this google is stupid.
Be formal while conferring with your juniors/seniors: Your work culture can run smoothly in a friendly way and
environment when you call your colleagues by their names. In English customs women are usually addressed by
their first name with a prefix Miss irrespective of their age and marital status, example Miss Parul. Whereas men
are usually addressed with their surnames with a prefix Mr., example Mr. Khanna. In a friendlier environment it is
better to call people by their first names as it evaporates the air of formality between you and the other resulting
you to be closer.
Use an expressive tone of voice: Make it a fact that not merely your words communicate but the tone in which
you speak is expressive—helping the receiver to arrive at the desired meaning. Tome is a part of non-verbal
communication and often changes the meanings of the words you speak.
Speak slowly, clearly, and loudly: Most of the people who have a very good command over language are poor at
communication as they speak fast and overlook the prospects about the person and conditions they are
communicating in. Try to understand the situation and adjust yourself accordingly to get better results. Find out
the people you are talking with in reference to their age, education, culture, religion, financial status, and social
background.
 P a g e | 46

Use nonverbal cues: while communication face to face proper use of body language must be accompanied. Our
body language irrespective of its use tells the other how much we are interested in communication thereby using
it effectively will give better results.
Be polite and respectful: the last and the most important aspect of communication is being polite. Your several
mistakes too are overlooked by a polite and respectful tone in communication. Try to be calm even in the most
adverse situation even if the other person is not.
 P a g e | 47

Unit-3

Listening & Speaking

 P a g e | 48

Chapter 3

Listening & Speaking

In this chapter we will learn

 What is listening and how can  The salient features of Public

we define it? Speaking We should be prepared to
receive the right meaning of the
 The concept of Active Listening.
message.
 Listening is distinct from
 What is the role of audience in
hearing and not a natural
speech
process.
 How to prepare for delivering a
 How can one improve his
power point presentation?
Listening ability?
 What are etiquettes of talking on a
telephone?
 How to present yourself before an
interview panel/board?
 P a g e | 49

Language as Skill of Communication

Language has been divided into four main skills, namely listening, speaking, Reading and writing (often referred
to as LSRW concept). Each skill may further be subdivided into abilities that can be acquired.

Language Skills

Listenin Speakin Reading Writing

g g
Pronunciation Conversatio Mechanics
Getting n
Information
Skimmin
Sound Intonation g
Paragraphing

Convey
Syntax Scanning
Producing Syntax
Writing

Specific Details

These four skills can be divided into two stages of learning a language.
Step 1  listen
] Stage 1: Developing sound
Step 2  speak
]
Four steps of Step 3  read
] Stage 2: Developing words
learning a language Step 4  write
The four steps discussed are chronological and the acquiring of one depends on mastery of it the earlier one.

Stage 1:
LISTENNING and SPEAKING are two sides
which lists some sub-skills, illustrates this point.
Listening
Identify sounds
Segment sounds into meaningful groups
Understand the syntactic pattern
Interpret stress rhythm and intonation
Identify information/ gist
Identify emotional/ attitudinal tone
of the same coin — both are closely interlinked. The table below,
 Speaking
 Produce meaningful sounds
 Produce sounds in meaningful chunks
Produce language in syntactically acceptable

pattern forms
Produce language using proper stress, rhythm

and intonation
 Convey information
 Formulate appropriate response

Stage 2:
While discussing READING and WRITING, it is usual to talk of levels. This is because the sub-skills involved in
both these have to be clearly spelt out. The figure below illustrates this in brief:

Reading Writing
learning to recognize letters/words/ sentences  learning to forms letters
understandings conventions used in graphic  learning punctuation skills
representations of language
learning the meaning of written words  learning to write words
Understanding and interpreting discourse  producing written discourse

Cognition
Skill
Gettin
g Practice of sequence of sounds
Production
Interaction
Skill
or real
Using
communicati
on
To equip read and write, certain pre-reading and pre-writing tasks are suggested. The use of these tasks gives ‘reading
readiness’ and ‘writing readiness’.
For example, some of these pre-reading/pre-writing activities require learners to match similar shapes; trace out/copy
out shapes; find the odd one out etc.
W.S. Rivers and M.S. Temperly have proposed that learning skills of a language falls into two main categories, one
complementing the other.
Listening:
The greatest problem in listening arises out of a
great discrepancy between our physical ability to listen
and the ability of mind to process. Also there is
difference in our ability to talk and listen.
On an average we can listen about 100 words per
minute. At the same time our brain is capable of
processing 8 to 10 times of that, which nearly equals
information of about 800 words per minute.
The most important point here is, understanding
the fact from where this bulk or majority of information
come from.
The backbone of this information is our brain
itself. Most of it is idle when we are listening, thus, our
attention easily gets distracted and our brain starts
gathering information through its associations we start
forming counter agreements, developing responses,
thinking about incidents of past and what shall mw do
P a g e | 50
Perception
of units categories and functions
Abstraction
Internalizing rules relating to categories and
functions
Perception
Abstraction
Practice in formulating communication
Reception
Comprehension of a message
Expression Motivation to
Conveying personal meaning communicate
Adapted from Rivers and Temperly, 1978
shortly in future. This prevents us from listening
attentively.
It also is a fact that our mind is a store house of
information and any stimulus to one particular point
triggers the flow of related information from sub-
conscious centres in brain to our conscious self.
Thus, while we are listening, all our senses keep
sending information to our brain. This information
mingled with our associations form most of the part of
information we are receiving. It totals 800 to 1000
words whilst we listen merely a 100 words.
Hearing and listening
Hearing is basically a physical activity, a faculty of
body that depends upon ears. Listening, at the same is
much more than this physical activity. It requires
conscious involvement of listener in what is being
heard. The listener here analyses, concludes and
responses to what is heard.
 P a g e | 51

Vague
SOUND Attention

Hear Listen

Feedback

One-Way process of Communication Two-way Process of Communication

Information is received and Information is analyzed

forgotten
Does not involve the listener Listener’s involvement is active he
analyses and gives response
Hearing is vague Listening is purposeful
Example: Standing at a railway Example: standing at a railway
platform - platform –
we hear lot of sounds, but hardly We hear a lot of sounds and do at best
A good listener may remember any remember or say listen attentively to
not be a good those that pertain to the train we have
speaker. Yet he may come to board/receive or see some
be a good one off.
conversationalist. On There is no communication Listening involves both the speaker as
the other hand good process well as the listener a communication
listening does not process.
require one to be a
Hearing is a continuous and
good speaker as well. persistent activity without
monitoring.
It is effortless
Body language (of both listener as wall
as the speaker) plays a vital role in
listening.

Kinds of Listening: attention. Individuals pick up topic of their own

Depending upon quality and the extent to which
information has to be used listening can be
divided into four kinds: Vague or hearing,
selective or purposeful, attentive and emphatic
or laboratory.
(i) Vague Listening: Sometimes understood as careless
listening or hearing. It can also be understood as
listening by IGNORING. This type of listening is
more of a physical activity with no conscious
involvement of brain. It takes place when a
listener is not giving any emphasis on what is
being head. Example when we are listening to a
lecture we may simultaneous is hearing a lot of
other sounds and voices. But as we are focused
sounds thus heard are not given priority. This is
vague listening.
(ii) Selective Listening: It means listening to a specific
part of conversation and ignoring the rest of it.
We practice this type of listening when hearing
speeches, news on radio or television and other
similar tasks. This often happens in classroom
too. The whole lecture is rarely given the same
concern or interest and pay attention only to
them ignoring the rest of lecture.
It can also happen when we wish to use or rather we
can make use of a particular piece of
information and not the entire information. It
can also be referred to as purposeful listening.
(iii) Attentive Listening: It is a kind of listening where we
do not select some parts to be listened
purposefully and ignoring the rest. The listener
here focuses complete attention on speaker’s
words. It may be so when we are interested in
the topic or we are looking for a piece of
information for critical discussion. Here we try to
understand speaker’s perspective behind his
words. In short when we focus our attention on
the entire words of speaker and try to
understand the whole speech and its parts is
what can be called attentive listening.
(iv) Active Listening: It is ultimate kind of listening
where we try to understand the speaker’s world
as he sees it. Here the emphasis is on trying to
understand speaker’s view point not necessary
 P a g e | 52

agreeing with him. It can be achieved more or
less when we have or are in ideal conditions to
listen.
Laboratory listening conditions: Practically we can
listen emphatically when the element of
distraction of attention are least. Like a
laboratory. Here we not merely listen to the
instructor but in fact:
- The teacher or the Instructor speaks
very less.
- We largely perform some experiments
- This involves not only our brain but
our physical self also. We perform the
experiment thus supplying our brain
information to on a single topic to be
processed.
- Thus we meet out the problem where
we merely hear 10 words and brain
processes information equalling
information 800 words.
- We minimise not only the information
supplied to our brain but also remove
the vivid distractions.
- It is truly an act of listening with our
mind and body.
Barriers to Listening:
(i) Physical Factors: Norse is the most prominent
factor effecting listening. It leads to information
not being received properly (either
misunderstood or defected). Noise is something
that hangs like a cloud over the entire
communication network.
Other physical factors like, time, weather, distance
also affects the listening process. They lead to
information largely being understood in a
wrong way.
(ii) Age: We all are more familiar talking among
people of similar age. As me share common
likes, dislikes interests, attitudes and a mind to
receive things equally.
(iii) Attitudes & Interest: Lack of interest and an
attitude directed to other ends leads to
improper listening. Difference of age often lead
one into a stage which often blocks interest and
leads to formation of an attitude causing the
listener ignore the message being received.
(iv) Mind Set: A mind preconditioned to think
differently, listen distinctly, understand ideally is
responsible to digest a piece of information in a
particular way that may or may not he useful.
This may also lead to a stage where no
communication can take place. If you are
predetermined to think that what you do, think
or feel like is right no understanding of
information being received can take place.
Example if you reach a negotiation table
determined to reject the opponents arguments
there are no chances that a consensus be
reached.
(v) Language: Inadequate knowledge of language
is another factor of poor communication. It is
important to be aware of our pronunciation,
tone, pitch, voice, modulation, etc. so as our
words be clearly received and me too receive an
information well.
(vi) Careless Listening: It is a common sight to see
people looking at papers, sifting through lists or
even fidgeting with objects like paper weights,
while listening. This can put the speaker in a very
awkward position. Such actions can be annoying
for the speaker. It can also be seen as a way of
snubbing or dismissing what the speaker is
saying. It can also indicate to the speaker that
what he/she is saying is not important for the
listener. This kind of gesture can seriously
hamper communication if used by superiors in a
workplace or in any interpersonal
communication. If the speaker doesn’t feel
‘listened to’, the process of communication will
always remain incomplete. Listening, too, in
such cases is bound to be partial. Even if the
facts are conveyed, understanding or the facts is
generally inadequate or incomplete.

Improving listening:
(i) Try to understand the speaker perspective: it is not at all necessary for a listener
to agree with the speaker, but a goods listener will always try to see things from
the speaker’s perspective.
(ii) Listen with the whole body: As we have seen, the listener is as active a participant
in the act of conversation as the speaker is. The posture, facial expressions and
eye contact are important clues for the speaker to go on speaking or stop.
(iii) Go beyond the words of the speaker: As said before, a good listener will always
try to understand. But more than the words it is important to understand the
spirit and the sentiment that keeps the conversation going.
(iv) Paraphrase the Speaker: A good speaker while listening might also paraphrase
the speech of the speaker. This is just summarising the speaker’s thought,
informing him how he is being understood.
 P a g e | 53

(v) Show the other person that you want to hear them. Look at them. Nod when
you agree with them. Ask to explain further if you do agree with them.
(vi) Remove distractions. Good listening means giving the speaker your full
attention, and letting them know that are being given full attention.
(vii) Empathise with them. Especially if they are telling you something personal and
painful.
(viii) Be very slow to disagree to disagree, criticise or argue. Even if you disagree. Let
Listen with your the speaker his point of view first.
body and soul (ix) Ask lots of questions. Ask the speaker to clarify, to say more, to give an example,
or explain further.
 P a g e | 54

Summary: Have a discussion in the class on the following

 Active listening involves playing back your
own interpretation of what has been said
in acknowledgement.
 Poor listening is a major barrier to
communication.
 Listening is a conscious activity that
demands a lot more than just physical
hearing.
 An effective and active listener, after
grasping the content of the speaker looks
at the problem from the speaker’s
perspective, engineers his body language
appropriately giving the speaker constant
feedback.
 Selective listening is listening to parts of
the conversation while ignoring most of it.
 Empathetic listening is the ultimate kind of
listening that is done not just to listen and
understand, but understand the speaker’s
world as he sees it. It is getting into another
person’s frame of reference.
 Physical reasons, age and attitude, mental
set, language and quality of listening are
some of the other factors that become
either barriers to or enablers of good
listening.
statements
 Pollution destroys our ecology.
 Industries can share their by-products
through underground pipelines.
 Industry symbiosis involves working together
to recycle waste products.
 Wasteful habits are a menace to the
environment.
 Human beings are at the top of the food
chain.
 I can easily walk to school because of my
proximity to campus.
 In order to produce a product, industries
must first find the raw material necessary to
make it.
Think about your answers to the following questions.
Discuss your answers with a classmate, or write a
short journal entry describing your feelings.
 How much trash do you throw out in a
week?
 Are there ways you could cut down on
the amount of trash you generate?
 Do you recycle? If so, do you always
remember to recycle items that can be
recycled?
 Are these statics startling?

Question:
Q.1. Write a note on importance of listening.
Q.2. Explain the note of Body language in listening.
Q.3. Define listening and discuss the difference
between listening and hearing.
Q.4. Differentiate between hearing & listening?
Q.5. Discuss active listening.
Q.6. What are the different kinds of listening?
Discuss any one of them in detail.
Q.7. What is the relation between Attentive and
Emphatic listening? Compare these two types
of listening.
Q.8. What is careless listening?
Q.9. What are the barriers to good listening?
Q.10. What is the role of language in listening?
Q.11. Discuss how listening can be helpful in
improving reading skill?
Q.12. What are the difficulties faced by an
Indian learner learning English as a foreign
language?
Q.13. Discuss the role of body language while
listening. Elucidate the important aspects of a
positive Body language while listening?

Exercises/Activities
Waste and Recycling

Speaking:
One evening while sipping coffee when Mark Twain
peeped out of his window, the sight terrified him. He
deserted his coffee and he dashed towards the house
across the rood forced spin the door, surprising the
owner of it said, “Sir, I am Mark Twain. I and my wife
live in the house opposite to yours. We have learnt that
you’ve shifted here last week. Since then we both think
of inviting you to our place for a cup of coffee, but I am
extremely sorry as we could not do so neither drop in
to ask for any help that we can give. I sincerely
apologise for the and certainly will be pleased if you
drop in to our place for a coffee coming Sunday.
Anyway I have right now come to tell you that the first
floor of your house is on fire.
Speaking is a natural mode of expression. We
speak more than we write. We spend our time speaking
to one another. The language and manner of our
speech depend up on the audience and the speaking
situations. Sometimes we converse with someone, we
make an oral presentation, sometimes we instruct
someone, sometimes we attend, sometimes we brief a
team and even sometimes we speak to ourselves. The
matter and the manner both change from one speech
activity to another speech activity.
When we communicate through speaking we are
judged by the audience in terms of how well we
communicate. We enjoy listening to a person who
impresses us, who gives us something new, who relates
us things and ideas properly, who imports knowledge
to us, who knows how to choose words, who knows
what we want to listen to or what we want to learn
from him or her, who knows how to bind us to himself
or herself emotionally by his or her expression and
style. It is the personality or the identity of the person
that gets manifested through our speech.
Aids to Effective Speech:
(i) Speech Styles: Some of these are the formal,
informal, polite, blunt, tentative and direct styles.
These styles are context bases and it is important for
speakers to strike the right attitude and choose the
right language. As with many other languages, in
English too, you have different ways of expressing
the same content and message. The style you
choose will depend upon some or all of the
following:
 The relationship you have with the people
you are taking to (whether they are close
friends, strangers, people in authority and so
on)
P a g e | 55
 The situation you are in; (at a friend’s party,
at an official reception, etc.)
 The mood you are in; (angry, happy, nervous)
 The mood of the people you are talking to;
(you will probably be careful when talking to
a friend who is in a bad mood)
 What you are talking about; (you will be more
careful in your choice of words if you want to
complain to a friend about his/her behaviour
than you would if you were inviting him for
dinner)
It is important to choose appropriate ways of saying
things according to the situation you are in. In many
situations it will be appropriate to use normal or neutral
language. In other situations, it is necessary to use
language items that are appropriate to special
situations.
 We use tentative language when we are unsure
of our facts or of how we feel in order to be tactful
and diplomatic.
Example: It’s very kind of you to invite me, but I’m not
sure if I can come.
I hope that you can make it to my place this evening.
 Direct language is the opposite of tentative
language; it gives the impression that the speaker
is very sure. But it can sound rude and
inappropriate in many situations, like inviting a
superior to a party.
Example: No. You are mistaken. The statistics cannot
be this high.
 We use polite language when we want to sound
particularly polite without being tentative.
Example: I’m sorry, but I feel there is a mistake
somewhere. According to my calculations, the
statistics should not be so high.
 Formal language creates the impression of social
distance between people. It is used mostly in
official situations; e.g. business meetings and
official receptions.
Example: I’d be delighted if you could make it to the
party. We’ll all look forward to it.
 Informal language is usually used between
friends, it is generally inappropriate to use it with
anyone else.
Example: Cut it out, will you? I’ve had enough of this.
The best style to be used while conversing is a mixture
of all these styles depending upon the situation and not
the dominance of any one tone.
 P a g e | 56

(ii) Audience: One has to successfully judge the historian of expressions make a speaker
audience their level of knowledge, aptitude and so his times has effective.
on. remarked for
Looking at the Audience or making
his speaking
In making a speech or even in our day-to-day an Eye-Contact: The effective
ability that
conversation the audience has a great role to speaker looks straight into the eyes
he appeared
determine the material to be used and the of the members of the audience to
2 feet taller
approach to be followed. We have to look into find out the reactions of the
when he
following factors that decide the nature of listeners. It also shows the speaker’s
stood to
audience for the speech. confidence in himself or herself and
speak among
his or her interest in the listeners. In
1. Number of members. people.
an oral presentation an effective
2. Nature of purpose.
speaker keeps on changing his or her
3. Age
eye-contact with the member of the
4. Sex
audience, becomes alert while
5. Academic background.
listening to the presentation.
6. Present knowledge in the subject
Drooping head and a slouched and
of the talk.
fidgety stance hint at sloppiness.
7. Interest
The quizzical gaze and the lifting of
8. State of mind.
eyebrows also influence the
9. Physical state.
audience. Furtive glance show
10. Expectations
nervousness.
Speak to 11. Cultural background-religious
the and regional. Hand Movements: The hand
people. 12. Social background-community, movements indicate both
caste and class. psychological states of one’s being
13. Biases and prejudices. highly emotional and animated or
relaxed and carefree. An efficient
(iii) Body Language: The audience gets as much speaker gives an indication about his
information from our body language as from our
other relaxed state or animated
verbal means. We keep on making body pictures
state depending, upon the subject
of what we feel or thing at the time of speaking.
matter of the speech in an oral
When our visuals match our verbals we make an
presentation. The free use of
authentic presentation of what we speak. Body
gestures through hands reflects a
language is highly individualized. Our first
positive attitude towards the
impressions are bases of non-verbal
listeners. The efficient speaker
communication. Body language is helpful when a
shows his or her neutral thinking or
problem is complex; it also speeds up the
evaluation by stroking or rubbing of
problem-solving in an oral presentation. Some of
the chin or forehead. Sagging hands
the significant means of body language are as
display nervousness effecting low
follows:
credibility.
Smile: The smile is a very powerful Standing Posture: The comfortable
gesture. If it is used appropriately it posture for standing is to stand erect
may hide the inner nervousness and with the hands out of pockets and
make the audience response with a the feet slightly apart. One should
smile. When we smile we relax our not stand behind a desk.
vocal cords which, in effect, make
An upright posture indicates
our voice much interesting.
confidence. Walk among the
However, not only smiling but other
audience generates caution among
facial expressions showing anger,
listeners.
Napoleon interest, happiness, disgust,
Bonaparte, contempt, surprise, fear and love
(iv) Attention: The attention of the audience during a
the 5 feet can be effective in communicating
presentation generally goes through an attention
tall French information. It is very difficult for
curve. It starts on a high, drops a little first and
emperor is many to communicate false
more steeply later. It rises again towards the end
known in information through contrary facial
and further up for the last few minutes. Some of
history for expressions. Positive expressions
the ways the audience can be kept interested are
his speeches. like interest, happiness, surprise etc.
the following;
A French too communicated by facial

I. Look into points where the attention curve
drops and consider ways of varying the
texture, (If your presentation has been largely
oral, bring in an audio visual slide or have an
interactive session that will ensure
participation.)
II. Divide speech into parts a sections keep each
section short.
III. Involve audience into your speech; decide
what you want from them.
(v) Prepare in Advance:
Researching the subject: It is important to be clear
about the objectives of the presentation to the
audience you are presenting to.
Selecting the content: Once the information has been
gathered, it is necessary to filter out the non-
essential points. One has to then group the ideas
under separate headings; classify the information
depending on the available time and keep the
matter strictly to the point.
Planning for the talk:
To get the message effectively
across, one has to carefully draw out
a presentation layout. A well-
planned presentation is always a
well-received one. The important
Opening
factors to be considered at this
should so
stage are the following:
arouse
interest and (1) The beginning: During a
curiosity of presentation one is always sure of
the reader the first few minutes of the
that it takes audience’s attention. One therefore
him to the has to be very careful about the
middle, beginning. Make an impression that
which will hold the attention of the people.
should be One can start with a quotation, a
so web that question, a dialogue or even an
it lads him anecdote, a fable or a parable. A
to the end joke, an unusual definition or a
startling statements or statistics too
can be an effective beginning.
(ii)The middle: After making
impressive beginnings one has to be
able to deliver the contents
effectively. The contents should be
well structured, be logically
connected and effectively lead
towards a specific goal. To sustain
the interest of the audience, it is
important to include examples and
personal experiences, which will
make the material authentic and
interesting.
P a g e | 57
(iii)The end: The way a presentation
ends is again very important,
Primarily, this is what the audience
will remember the presentation as.
(vi) Language: Other than style language should have at
least two more qualities:
Word Order: There should be a logical and systematic
order of words in our speech. We should an order
of words so that our speech is both relevant and
good, largely this use can be studied in two heads
relevance; important words come first or at the
beginning. Decoration to enrich what we write by
using words – this can be done by a fitting use of
synonyms and antonyms.
 Use similar words with different
antonyms.
 Use synonyms combined by
‘and’ or ‘to’
 Use opposite words together.
Signposting: We should have several signposts in our
speech. Signposts mean certain marks in our
speech that we refer to again and again. We
normally have such marks when.
 We introduce an example or a
typical explanation
 We refer to a quotation,
reference or a part or section of
our speech.
 It can be between different parts
of speech or between your
present and previous speech. It
may also be used to relate your
speech with some other speech.
 Signposts are useful to a large
extent. They enrich and bring
variety in our speech.
 By using signpost we avoid
repetition of words thoughts and
examples. We rather use
signposts to refer to an example
quoted earlier.
 We not merely speak less but
also make the impression of our
more grouted in the listener.
 We keep the audience interest in
our speech by signposts.
 Signposts help the audience
recall what is said earlier thus
catching their attention and
holding their involvement in the
speech.

 It may also be also be used as an
advanced skill of rotating or
moving the audience in past,
present and future at the will of
speaker.
Referred below are some examples of signposts.
- My purpose of speech is ………
- My lecture is divided into ………
- You will note that ………..
- As I have said earlier ……….
- In addition to ………
- We may again look at ……..
- Let us return to …………
- We can relate this to ………
- We come again to ……….
- To sum up my main points ……….
Presentation Skills:
Presentation is an audio-visual form of
communication with an aim to deliver the message to
the audience. The most important aid to prepare for a
presentation is to decide what to say. Find out the
required information and give it a proper shape. The
speech prepared must have a logical and smooth flow
of words.
Following points should be heeded to while preparing
for presentation.
 Divide your speech into points.
Points into sub points. It is easier
to remember points than long
sentences & paragraphs.
 Prepare notes – take jottings brief
words / sentences/ thoughts
 Arrange notes into logical order
 Include examples, illustrations,
statistics & other similar matter to
make it effective.
 Question audience frequently. Do
not stress on them answering it.
 Organise speech well.
 fit your speech in the time
available
 Conclude towards the end.
To bring in variety and make our speech
effective one has to choose the RIGHTS – a style that
suits the personality of the speaker and is suitable to
P a g e | 58
audience’s level of understanding. Dress appropriately.
Choose language wisely. Make use of aids.
Style:
A talk is not a written text being read out; it
must sound like conversation. The style of speech is
different from the style of writing. In writing, long
sentences can be used since the reader can refer back
to the earlier part of the sentence. But in speaking,
sentences must be short to enable the listener to grasp
them at once. Vocabulary should consist of simple
words, which can be easily understood.
Audience:
One has to carefully judge the audience their
level of understanding, knowledge, social, background,
interest and altitudes and so on finding out as much as
you can about the audience is what is going to make
your speech successful.
Dress:
The first impression that we make is often
crucial. So is it in presentation, we shall note how -
- We reach the audience
- Always check in the dress code
- Dress formally – neat and tidy
Any untoward act can remove the audience’s
interest in your speech. Remember they’ve come to
hear you not to see you. Do not reverse the case.
Language:
Words: The speaker should use positive words. He
or she should avoid words like “but”, “try”
“may be” “perhaps” etc. use words that are
clear and not [prejudiced with the feelings
of religion and superiority.
Expression: The speaker should lay stress on those
words that effectively highlight the key
expressions of the theme. The choice of
expression shows how authentic, sincere
and enthusiastic the speaker is a about his
or her subject matter of the speech.
Pace of the voice: The speaker should so arrange the
matter of the speech that during delivery a
fact passage should be followed by a slow
passage. However, the text itself should
determine the appropriate pace. The
variation in the pace of the speech makes
the speech interesting to the listeners. The
listeners lose interest when the average
speed of speaking is too fast for the listeners
to understand if the average speed is slow
the listeners may get bored.

Pitch of the Voice: The speaker can make his or her
speech or an oral presentation effective by
starting deep down the notes. According to
the nature of the text he or she should
modulate his or her voice between high and
low. The speech becomes more meaningful
when the speaker makes use of tonal
variations. For effective speaking a speaker
needs practice in increasing the range of his
or her voice. None likes a monotonous tone.
Power of the voice: The speaker should vary the power
of his or her voice. For thought provoking
passages he or she should drop the power
as it has a surprisingly greater influence on
the listeners than raising power.
Pausing: An efficient speaker does not rush through the
speech while making an oral presentation.
He or she makes pauses to give the audience
adequate time to collect and digest the
contents of the speech.
Aids to Effective Presentation:
Audio-visual Aid: Audio-visual aid supplements our
message making our speech vivid and interesting. An
effective speaker with right use of these instruments
can make a presentation effective arresting the
attention of the audience. Use of these aids leads to a
better effect on the audience. It helps them remember
the contents better and assimilate the matter more
effectively. Sometimes visual aids save presentation
time and also make the presenter’s work easier. Some
of the commonly used visual aids are:
 Flip charts
 Overhead projectors
 Slides
 Power Point presentations
Flip charts: These are the blank or prepared sheets of
charts that are put up during a presentation as visual
aids. They can be used to generate ideas or quickly
record the responses that can be later organised and
ordered.
Overhead projectors (OHP): Like the flip chart, the
OHP, can be used in two ways. It can either be prepared
in an advance or written during the presentation as an
alternative to using the flip chart, like writing in the flip
chart, the transparency sheet too has to be carefully
prepared. Some of the factors to be kept in mind while
making an OHP presentation are:
 Use transparencies to show only
important points.
 Do not crowd the transparency sheet with too
many points on a single sheet.
P a g e | 59
 Learn in advance to use on OHP.
 Rehearse thoroughly, so that you get used to
placing and removing the slides without any
awkward movement.
 Take care to see that you use colours that are
bright and aid clarity.
 Organise the information you have to give
under heads and subheads. Remember that
the organization you give will help organize
the matter in the participant’s mind.
Power point presentations: They are today the most
common form of presentations. Power Point operates
through slides which have to be prepared vary carefully
as they can make or mar a presentation. Power Point
creates a lot of interest and brings in variety and life
into a presentation.
Body language: As we communicate more through our
body we should cultivate the language of our body too.
 Body movements: need to be monitored. They
should rather show our confidence and
preparation.
 Gestures, expressions & eye contact: Assertive
attitude with right postures of gestures is
required eye contact helps in forming a
rapport with the audience.
 Space: Depending upon the situation make
use of the space between you and audience.
Preferably commute this space or decrease it
by standing close to audience. Public space
denotes lot of distance. Social space brings in
familiarity.
Language: This section has been dealt with detail in
writing (chapter) while in presentation special
attention should be paid to the following.
 Words: Choice of words is demanded in all
spoken exercises. Avoid vague words. Prefer
using active voice. Use second person pronoun
in speech rather than I and always instead of
III person pronoun.
 Brevity: Use simple & clear language as it can
be understood by all. Ease of language and
understanding can be maintained by
observing brevity.
 Organise: Your speech well. Divide it into
parts. It should have an opening elaborate the
definition you laid at the onset of your speech
and always conclude with what you began.
the

Group Discussion
The term group dissuasion is used to refer to
an oral communication situation in which a small
number of members discuss problem or an issue to
arrive at a consensus. The purpose of Group Discussion
is to elicit views of all participants through intense
interaction and evolve a consensus.
Group Orientation: ‘‘Group” is a social unit
differentiated from the whole on basis of certain
characteristics. A group can be studied as
 Conventional or large
 Organised and non organised
 Official and unofficial
 The basic parameters of group traditionally
studied by social psychology are
 Composition (member)
 Structure (of communication)
 Groups processes (interpersonal relations)
 The dynamics of group norms (standards of
behaviour)
 Values – the level of group development.
Group Cohesion: A quality characterizing the strength,
unity and stability of personal interactions and
relationships in a group.
Group compatibility: A socio-psychological group
characteristics that manifests itself in the ability of
group members to coordinate their actions and
optimize their relationship in various types of joint
activities.
Group Consensus: Unity of views characterizing people
making up a group.
Group Dynamics: This is used to convey different
meanings.
i. Denotes a trend investigating small groups
along the principles of psychology.
ii. Describe the process occurring in a group as
it grows & change.
iii. Describe the cause-and-effect relationship
explaining these processes.
iv. Study social attitudes and inter personal
relations in a group.
v. Study inter group and inter group conflicts,
leadership etc.
vi Investigates correlation between
individuals and group motivation.
Group Decision-making: The choice of a solution from
among a range of alternatives made by a group under
P a g e | 60
the conditions of information exchange when solving a
common task.
Group formation: A process in course of which an
accidental aggregation of individuals turns into a
separate isolated group with a certain structure and
characteristic.
Group conformity: A person’s tendency to change his
behaviour under the infolded of other people so that it
would correspond to the opinion of one’s associate or
a group.
Group Norms: Standards of behaviour in a given
community and governing human relationships.
Objectives of GD:
Group discussions have several objectives which
can be arranged in order of their need and relevance
as:
 Studying group behaviour.
 Coordination & cooperation in a group
 Leadership qualities in an individual
 Present a platform of group learning
 Creating on opportunity to discuss a problem.
 Share findings of group members, analyse
classify and establish those findings.
 Bearing group dynamics.
Process of Group Discussion
(i) Participants: For a successful GD there should be an
appropriate number of participants.
The nature and effectiveness of
discussion also depends upon the
number of participants. For a large
group the significance of the discussion
may be lost if all members do not
participate. Contrary to it a small group
may lack in diversity of opinions.
Therefore an optimum number of
participants for a group is between 5 to
10. (Largely an average 7 or 8
members).
(ii) Time: A discussion too long will be wayward
and one short may end in advance.
Ideal time limit for a GD is 30 minutes.
Participants should divide this time
among them and not merely discuss but
also conclude.
(iii) Topic: Sometimes the topic to be discussed is
made known to the participants
beforehand so that they can ponder
 P a g e | 61

and formulate the views before the  Display your cooperation.

discussion starts. And sometimes the
 Don’t be rigid always seek to modify your view
topic is announced after the
by incorporating other people’s views into
participants have assembled. In this
yours.
case, a few minutes are allowed for
thinking and preparation. The  Use soft, polite and courteous language even
participants generally sit in a circle in case of disagreement.
round a table so that each participant is
 Try to convince others or rather convert them
able to observe the expression and
to your views instead of opposing them.
make eye contact with the others.
(iii) Controlling: It is a quality that largely displays
(iv) Process: Unlike a meeting, the group discussion
leadership skills in an individual.
is not structured. There is no
chairperson, no secretary and no  Ensure that everyone is given an opportunity
detailed agenda. Only the problem or to speak & express himself.
issue is stated and any member can
 Check that the members are on right track. If
initiate the discussion and deal with any
they deviate from the topic bring them.
aspect. Similarly, a member can give a
preview of what points are likely to  Use the allotted time for discussion wisely.
arise, provide an internal summary of
 Look at the topic from various angles and all
the views expressed up to a point of
possible perspectives.
time and summarise the discussion
towards the end. However, it is the duty (iv) Summing up: When you know that the time of
of each member to ensure that the discussion is almost up, it is necessary to give an
discussion to the emergence of a appropriate conclusion.
solution, a common viewpoint or a
 Quickly recap the important points.
course of action. Obviously, display of
anger, emotion and excitement has no  Emphasise the point where there are
place in a group discussion. differences.
 Frame a group conclusion.

Trek:  Get approval from all members over the final

decision taken by the Group.
(i) Initiating: Always initiate with the right note.
 Without summing up no GD can be concluded
 Ensure that you present a proper fitting as successful.
definition of the topic given.
Summary
 Never be wayward. Always present a
definition or an opinion. Never attempt to do  Analyse the topic word by word.
so.  Make brief remarks rather than
 It may also be sometimes referred to as speeches.
“breaking the ice.”  Be open minded and conciliatory rather
 Initially talk about the topic briefly rather than than rigid.
in detail.  Back your arguments with evidence and
 Divide the topic into some subtopics. It is authority.
better to do so as discussion on parts is easier.  Be group-centred rather than self-
(ii) Group behaviour: is what is tested in a G.D. centred.
Therefore,  Avoid personal attacks.
 Always cherish the right approach.  Maintain eye contact with group
 Coordination and cooperation of a member is members.
largely tested in a GD.  Present a group conclusion towards the
 Give all the participants a chance to speak. end not your individual views.

 Ensure that everyone not merely gives his  Look at the topic from all possible angles
views but they are also incorporated with and viewpoints.
yours when a final outlook is being accepted.
 P a g e | 62

Debates: team, in which they are allowed additional time to

respond to the opposing team's arguments and sum up
Debate (American English) or debating (British their own case, but may not introduce new arguments.
English) is a formal method of interactive and position Therefore, the speaking order and timings of each
representational argument. Debate is a broader form of debate is generally:
argument than logical argument, which only examine
the consistency from axiom, and factual argument, 1. Prime Minister 7 Minutes
which only examine what is or isn't the case. Though 2. Minister of the Crown (or Member of the
logical consistency, factual accuracy as well as some Government) 8 Minutes
emotional appeal to audience are important elements
3. Leader of the opposition 8 Minutes
of the art of persuasion, in debating, one side often
prevail over the other side by presenting superior 4. Member of the Opposition 8 Minutes
"context" and/or framework of the issue.
5. Leader of Opposition Rebuttal 4 Minutes
British Parliamentary style:
6. Prime Minister Rebuttal 5 Minutes
This style of debate is a common form of
academic debate. It has gained support in the United
Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Europe, Africa, and United Ideas for Debate topics
States, and has also been adopted as the official style
of the World Universities Debating Championship and  Television is better
than books.
European Universities Debating Championship.
Speeches are usually between five and seven minutes  Cats make better
in duration. The debate consists of four teams of two pets than dogs.
speakers, called factions, with two factions on either
side of the case.  Animals should not
be kept in cages.
Because of the style's origins in British
parliamentary procedure, the two sides are called the  Computers should
Government (more commonly called "Proposition" in replace teachers.
the United Kingdom) and Opposition. The speakers are  Beauty is only skin
similarly titled: deep.
Australasia style Debate:  The Olympics are a
Australasia style debates consist of two teams waste of money.
who debate over an issue, more commonly called a
topic or proposition. The issue, by convention, is
presented in the form of an affirmative statement
beginning with "That", for example, "That cats are
better than dogs," or "This House", for example, "This
House would establish a world government." The
subject of topics varies from region to region. Most
topics however, are usually region specific to facilitate
interest by both the participants and their audiences.
American Parliamentarian Debate
This style consists of two teams, with the
following speakers:

Government Opposition
1. Prime Minister 1. Leader of the
opposition
2. Minister of the
Crown (or 2. Member of the
Member of the Opposition
Government)

American Parliamentary style debating

includes an additional speech from the Leader of each
 P a g e | 63

Meetings:  Discuss the issues one by one

A meeting is a formal gathering of a group of  Extract views of all members participating

people at a predestined time & places. It can be both  Check digressions
formal as well as informal.
 End up by concluding the decision
It is most commonly used form of discussion in an
 Ratify the decision by all the members
organisation. Management needs are largely obtained
through meetings with a view to work effectively.  Remains himself cool and check over-
enthusiasm.
Meetings are generally held for
(iii) Conclude: Always conclude a meeting with its
following purposes.
summary confirming the conclusions of the meeting.
o Information gathering
 Convenor/Chairman should thank the
o Information giving members/participants.
o Problem solving  Convenor should thank even chairman
Almost all
meetings are o Decision Making  Before thanks he should ask everyone present
result if any other or question is to be discussed (of
o Future planning
oriented. called AOB) in the meeting.
o Formulating policies.
(iv) Minutes: While in a meeting it should be ensured
o Financial matters that someone is taking down notes. Minutes present
the record of business transacted in a meeting.
However, the nature of minutes prepared depends
upon the nature of meeting. Their chief characteristics
Good Meetings are:
 Be sure of facts and information to be exchanged.  Are written objectively.
 Express yourself by reasons for your point of view.  Are accurate in regard to facts.
 Clarity of thoughts and confidence while delivering  Language used is impersonal.
the same is required.
 Are concise accounts of main points of
 Distribute the Agenda of a meeting in advance. discussion, decisions arrived at and
 Achieve the purpose of meeting through recommendations made.
negotiating and arriving at a consensus. Actual writing of minutes takes place only after the
 In case of disagreement go for voting and in case of end of meeting. They include the following details and
deadlock defer meetings. are normally written in the format of a letter.

 As far as possible maximum information regarding  Name of organisation.

the meeting must be circulated in advance to the  Day & date, venue, time, meeting name (if any
members called for. given) or number
 Appoint a convener (normally the chairperson  Names of convenor and chairperson
himself is the convenor).
 List of members called for with details of
presence & absence.
Trek:  Record of transactions item wise.
(i) Welcome: It is convenor’s role to welcome the  Subsequent approval & notification from all
gathering: members.
 Exchange greetings 
 Reaffirm of or read out agenda
 Initiate meetings (with permission to start a
meeting from Chairperson).
(ii) Control: Convenor is responsible to execute the
entire meeting. He has to exercise his power, ability and
wise to conclude every meeting favourably.

Interview
An interview is a conversation between two or
more people (the interviewer and the interviewee)
where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain
information from the interviewee. There are many
types of interview like
 Information gathering interview,
 Appraisal interview,
 Exit interview,
 Job interview,
 College/university (admission)interview,
 Persuasive interview,
 Counselling interview and many more.
Job Interview is one of the best known and the
most widely experienced type of interview, where an
interviewer is taken by Human Resource Manager/
Educational Expertise. To reduce your chances being
rejected, here are some basic professional skills, which
will lead you towards the path of success in your
interview.
Effective Interview Skills
Talents and Skills are the only tools, which
could lead an individual towards the door of success in
this challenging time. To qualify for a professional
degree or a job, one should have strong past
educational background along with integrated multi-
dimensional skills. It’s of no use acquiring higher degree
without building character, confidence, and expressive
personality.
An interviewer always attempt to decide that
why they should select you? What are the qualities,
which you have and other do not have? How can you
benefit their organization? If you can show your trust,
your confidence, your commitment, and appropriate
skills, then you could win a successful future. Interview
is a form of oral communication. It’s one to one, or one
to group interaction, where an applicant proves
themselves as a unique person to be the part of an
organization. Remember that interview is always pre-
planned and structured. It’s a formal presentation
between an interviewer and an interviewee. Only those
pass it with flying colours, who are original and show
their interest with confidence and who present
themselves appealing.
P a g e | 64
There are many types of interview like
Information gathering interview, appraisal interview,
exit interview, job interview, college/university
interview, persuasive interview, counselling interview
and many more. In this article, we are going to learn
about College/university entrance and Job interview.
First of all, prepare your mind in advance that you
are going to have an interview next morning. Relax
yourself and do not get nervous, tense or tired at any
cost. Before going for an interview, pre-planned few
things:
 Learn about the company, organization or
educational institution and do some research
in advance.
 Why should you perform an advance
research?
 Simply to develop good answers and to prove
yourself unique.
 What you have to Research?
 You can gather information about
organizational structure; type of their clients/
students; departments and its branches; past
and present achievements etc. Simply search
yellow pages or ask your friend or family
member/relative who are familiar about
organization or you can collect information
through newspapers and websites.
 Prepare answers to typical questions. Practice
your answer and never rote learn it.
A few sampling questions that can be practised in
advance.
 What do you feel about our organization?
 What are your weaknesses?
 Why do you want to become a part of our
organization?
 Tell me about yourself and about your
hobbies.
 Who is your role model and why?
 If you are lucky to know the name of a person,
who will interview you, then memorizes
his/her name properly.
 Decide what to wear. Remember to Dress
simply but elegantly. Dress should be well
ironed without crease. Wear comfortable
shoes. You can even check what management
wears and dress similarly without over kill. Do
not Dress casual or wear Athletic Shoes. Do
not spray lots of cologne or wear lots of

jewellery. Do not wear wrinkled attire or
flashing tie.
 Prepare your file having your portfolio,
educational degree copies and extra copies of
your resume. Find proper address in advance,
that where are you going in the morning.
Traditional Interview Questions
Few of the traditional interview
questions, which an organization
might ask are:
After
 Tell me about yourself (in two
Interview
minutes).
With a
pleasing  Why do you feel that you will be
smile, say successful in ...?
thanks and
ask about  Why did you decide to interview
the next with our organization?
step in the  Are you willing to relocate?
process.
 Tell me about your scholastic
record.
 Tell me about your extra-
curricular activities and interests.
 What are your strengths and
weaknesses?
 Why should we hire you?
 Why did you choose to become a
teacher, nurse, ... ?
 Where do you see yourself in 5
years? 10 years?
 Why do you want to leave your
current job?
Typical Job Interview
Job interview is beginning when applicant for
job is coming to potential employer.
Job Interview Introduction
After brief introduction the most
importing part of job interview is set of
question. Interview questions should
show qualities, strong and weak points
and other characteristics of applicant for
job.
Interview structure
Interview is divides into following groups
of question. Sequence of question isn't
always same.
Education and languages
P a g e | 65
Questions are focused on education of
applicant and its activities during studies.
Logically this part is more vehement on
graduates than on other applicants with
wide job experiences.
Work experience
Work experience questions are focused to
present career experience and practices.
Questions should show range of
knowledge, practical job experience and
sometimes even communication, which
are importing for doing this job.
Reasons to change a job
Questions in this part of job interview are
focused to check loyalty of applicant.
Recruiter wants to find reasons why
applicant left previous job position.
Career future and motivation
Potential employer is interested in
ambitions of applicant for job, his/her
ideas about future career progress.
Employers need to look for the most
suitable applicant for job, not merely one
who fulfils all requirements.
Applicant's success, non-success, weak and strong
points
It is recommended to choose weak point,
which isn't really weak point but
advantage. Only really naive or truthful
applicant for job says the entire true.
Logical Task
Logical task it could not be always part of
job interview. Recruiters prepare logical
task sometimes. Purpose of logical task
could not be only test logical thinking, but
the way resolution of task and stress
immunity (mostly applicant for job do not
expect logical task and its reactions show
us about applicant for job many more
than a lot of question before).
Applicant’s interest, hobby
Recruiters want to know, what spare-time
activities of applicant for job are. Interest
and hobby can help the applicant
acquiring a particular a job. So far as
applicant for job presents hobby, which is
in harmony with presupposition for doing
work position and for team work.
Applicant’s questions
When applicant has answered all the
questions or towards the end of the
interview, he may have/be given an
 P a g e | 66

occasion to put forth one of his own

question. The question he asks should be
related to company, to fill information,
which applicant for job found about firm
or about work position before coming to
interview.

Job Interview Communication Tips

Success at an interview is not just about answering
the questions correctly. You must also include all the
following elements in order to give a good impression
and build rapport:
 A good handshake
 Check your pronunciations.
 Get the interviewer to do a lot of the talking.
 Have your brake through questions ready.
 Good eye contact with your interviewer.
 Smile. Look as if you are enjoying the
conversation.
 Confident posture.
 Mirror your interviewer's body language.
 Keep all your answers positive.
 Show enthusiasm.
 Listen carefully to the interviewer's question.
 Get the interviewer to see you in the job by
responding to questions with examples that
create pictures in the interviewer's mind.
 Stop selling when you’ve made the sale.
 P a g e | 67

Telephonic Conversation  Do not use slang.

Telephone these days is the most widely used  Do not ramble while talking.
means of oral communication. We seldom realise that  Do not exploit the condition that caller on the
a telephonic talk also needs to be planned. Planning a other side cannot see you and you can
telephonic talk not only saves time and money: but simultaneously execute some other talk or
brings the much needed clarity in the process of task.
information exchange following are the invited
 Answer calls promptly, quickly and in time.
qualities for a good telephonic conversation.
 Avoid talking on Bad lines and cross
Concise: Avoid lengthy talks and discussions on phone
connections.
as our memory doesn’t allow us to remember
everything.
 Talk only purposeful or relevant matter.
 Exchange appropriate & needed information.
 Do take down notes if the talks involve a
message to be transferred to a third person.
 Summarise all talks towards the end of
discussion.
 Always exchange greetings while starting and
when ending a telephonic discussion.
Clarity of language: This also is a barrier to all
telephonic discussion. If the language is not clear no
communication can take place.
 Always be courteous while talking on phone.
 Use largely formal language and completely
avoid the use of slang and colloquial words.
 Speak legibly with proper intonation and
pronunciation.
 Do not rush up with words instead talk
patiently and politely.
 Avoid distractions whatsoever they be. These
distractions lift us from what we our talking.
 There should not be ambiguous and confusing
expressions in our conversation.
Accessories:
 A pen and writing pad to take down notes
whenever needed.
 Always take notes of messages to be
transferred to someone else.
 Always note down telephone numbers,
addresses, reference and similar parts of
information being exchanged.
 Voice modulation: We should ensure that our
voice reaches clearly and lucidly to the other
end and should modulate our voice as needed.
Avoid:
 Before initiating a conversation we should at
first confirm the identity of the person we
intend to talk with.

Summary
 Effective speaking forms the crux of
communicative skills; it is striking the
right attitude and the right language at
the right place.
 Developing a positive attitude to
speaking increases the confidence level.
 Researching the subject, selecting the
content, planning for the talk is vital
before a presentation.
 Remember to divide your presentation
into short sections. This will ensure
audience attention.
 An effective presenter should prefer
‘social space’; avoid ‘public space’ and
use body language, eye contact and
intonation effectively.
 Good visual aids can immensely improve
the quality of the presentation.
 Effective group behaviour is largely
responsible for a good group discussion.
 Participation leads to effective group
discussion.
 It is important to network one’s ideas,
build up the argument and give the
discussion a definite direction.
 Good listening forms an important part
of group discussion.
 An effective chairperson of a meeting has
to be firm but sensitive to individual
speakers and listeners.
Role of Audience in Speaking:
The ending of an effective speech or an oral
presentation depends upon how well the audience has
participated in it. For audience participation there
should be separate question answer sessions duly
planned. The speaker invites questions from the
audience. The questions should be expected after the
audience is given some time to think. The speaker, after
getting the question, should first repeat it and then
answer it as concisely as possible. The speaker should
give chance to all groups to ask questions for
clarification. The efficient speaker usually remains
prepared with answers to the anticipated questions on
his or her talk.
Questioning keeps the audience involved in
the talk. This removes the barriers of understanding
and leads the audience to group the meaning of the
speakers words better.
P a g e | 68
Conclusion of the Speech or an Oral Presentation
The conclusion of the speech leaves the final
impression on the minds of the listeners. A well-
conceived conclusion not only signals the end of the
speech but also reinforces the central idea in the mind
of the listeners. A goods speech may lose all its impact
if the conclusion is loose. A strong ending leaves the
audience brooding and cogitation over the speech they
have just heard. The techniques to draw an ending of
the speech are:
 By giving verbal clues like “Let
me end by saying”, “Before I
Conclude”, “One Last Point”, “
In conclusion”, “To sum up”, “To
conclude” etc.
 By our manner of delivery
decreasing the pitch of the tone
to lower notes.
 By slowing down the articulation
of words and phrases.
 By going back to the story or
incident with which the speaker
started his or her speech.
 By making a summary of the
speech.
 By quoting an eminent
personality.
The speech should not end with the
expressions like “I think that’s all I had to say”. In fact
the conclusion should make it clear to the audience
what they should do next. The conclusion should
generate the last though in the mind of the listeners
regarding the issues taken up in the speech.

Questions
1) What are different kinds of visual aids? How do
they help in speaking effectively?
2) What is the importance of stress and intonation in
speaking?
3) What are the effective skills of speaking?
4) What role does a proper planning and organizing of
the subject matter have in effective speaking?
5) What are visual aids? Reflect on different kinds of
visual aids.
6) The non-verbal language of the speaker is as
important as the verbal language”. Explain.
7) How does the knowledge about the audience
effect speaking?
8) What are the different factors one has to be
sensitive to, to become an effective speaker?
9) During a presentation, how does a speaker ensure
audience involvement?
10) What preparations are necessary before giving a
presentation?
11) What are the factors crucial to an effective group
discussion?
P a g e | 69
12) Discuss the importance of role-play in teaching
speaking skills.
13) What is ‘attention curve’?
14) Discuss a few features of an effective meeting.
15) A successful telephone conversationalist takes care
of a few aspects consistently. Discuss.
16) What are the essentials of a goods leader?
17) Discuss the trek of Group Discussion?
18) What role does Body language has in a Group
Discussion?
19) What preparations are necessary for an effective
meeting?
20) What are the skills required for conducting a
meeting effectively.
21) What is Agenda? How do the agenda of a meeting
indicate the prospects of a meeting?
22) Compare the trek of a meeting with that of a group
Discussion.
23) Discuss the skills useful for a telephonic
conversation.
24) Discuss the utility of negotiation in a Group
Discussion.
 P a g e | 70

Unit-4

Reading & Writing

 P a g e | 71

Chapter 4
Reading & Writing

In this chapter we will learn

 Different types of writings.  What are the essentials of good writings?

 Differentiate between a report and a
proposal.
 Writing on technical topics.
 Different Formats of writing.
 Drafting a résumé, biodata, or
Curriculum Vitae.
 Writing proposals and
descriptions.
 Writing a Précis of a passage.
 How to write good business letters?
 What are reports?
 How to write description of a technical
gadget?
 How to attempt a précis of a
paragraph/passage?
technical  What are the essentials of an official
email?
 P a g e | 72

Reading is the receptive skill in the written mode. It Making Notes based on reading:
can develop independently of listening and First: read a section of your textbook chapter
speaking skills, but often develops along with them,  Read just enough to keep an
especially in societies with a highly-developed understanding of the material.
literary tradition. Reading can help build Do not take notes, but rather focus on
vocabulary that helps listening comprehension at understanding the material.
the later stages, particularly. Second: Review the material
 Locate the main ideas, as well as
Reading important sub-points
Before discussing reading we shall discuss the  Set the book aside
following:  Paraphrase this information:
 Why a person reads? (Purpose of reading) Putting the textbook information in
 How a person reads? (Method of reading) your own words forces you to become
 What a [person reads? (Material of reading) actively involved with the material
Following is the relationship between the Third: write the paraphrased ideas as your
three: notes
 Do not copy information directly from
the textbook
Why How What  Add only enough detail to understand
To get the Skim Newspapers,
gist magazines, articles Reading Strategies
To get a Scan Examination result, Good reading strategies help you to read in a
particular bit television or train very efficient way. Using them, you aim to get the
of schedule, results maximum benefit from your reading with the
information minimum effort.
To In-depth Research papers,
understand reading journals, course Some books are to be tasted; some few to be
completely books swallowed; and some few to be chewed and digested
or to
evaluate a The first basic step is knowing what you want to know:
text  Why you are reading the text?
 Are you reading with a purpose or just for pleasure?
 What do you want to know after reading it?

Different types of reading skills:
 Skimming - reading rapidly for the main
points
 Scanning - reading rapidly to find a
specific piece of information
 Extensive reading a longer text, often for
pleasure with emphasis on overall
meaning
 Intensive reading a short text for detailed
information
These different types of skills are used quite
naturally when reading in a mother tongue.
Unfortunately, when learning a second or foreign
language, people tend to employ only "intensive" style
reading skills. It is often noticed that students insist on
understanding every word and find it difficult to take
any advice concerning reading for the general idea, or
looking for required information. Students studying a
foreign language often feel that if they don't
understand each and every word they are somehow
not completing the exercise.
The second thing is to know how deep you have to
study the material:
 Where you only need the shallowest knowledge of
the subject, you can skim material.
Here you read only chapter headings, introductions and
summaries.
 If you need a moderate level of information on a
subject, then you can scan the text.
Here you read the chapter introductions and summaries
in detail. You may then speed read the contents of
the chapters, picking out and understanding key
words and concepts. At this level of looking at the
document it is worth paying attention to diagrams
and graphs.
 Only when you need detailed knowledge of a subject
is it worth studying the text.
Here it is best to skim the material first to get an
overview of the subject. This gives you an
understanding of its structure, into which you can fit
the detail gained from a full, receptive reading of the
material.
 P a g e | 73

These are written to provide entertainment or

Reading Magazines and Active Reading: background on a subject. Typically the most
Newspapers: When you are reading important information is in the body of the text.
These tend to a document in detail, it
give a very fragmented often helps if you Using glossaries with technical documents:
coverage of an area. highlight, underline If you are reading large amounts of difficult
They will typically only and annotate it as you technical material, it may be useful to photocopy or
concentrate on the most go on. compile a glossary. Keep this beside you as you read. It
interesting and  This emphasizes will probably also be useful to note down the key
glamorous parts of a information in concepts in your own words, and refer to them when
topic - this helps them to your mind, and necessary.
sell copies! They will helps you to The purpose of reading is to connect the ideas
often ignore less review important on the page to what you already know. If you don't
interesting information points later. know anything about a subject, then pouring words of
that may be essential to  Doing this also text into your mind is like pouring water into your hand.
a full understanding of a helps to keep your What Is Critical Reading?
subject. Typically areas mind focused on To non-critical readers,
of useful information are the material and texts provide facts. Readers gain
padded out with large stops it wandering. Critical knowledge by memorizing the
amounts of irrelevant reading is statements within a text.
waffle or with not simply Critical readers try to
advertising. close and recognize not only what a text says,
The most careful but also how that text portrays the
effective way of getting reading. To subject matter. They recognize the
information from read various ways in which each and
magazines is to scan the critically, every text is the unique creation of a
contents tables or one must unique author.
indexes and turn directly actively A non-critical reader might
to interesting articles. If recognize read a history book to learn the facts
you find an article and analyze of the situation or to discover an
useful, then cut it out evidence accepted interpretation of those
and file it in a folder upon the events. A critical reader might read
specifically covering that page. the same work to appreciate how a
sort of information. In particular perspective on the events
this way you will build up and a particular selection of facts can
sets of related articles lead to particular understanding.
that may begin to Non-critical reading is
explain the subject. satisfied with recognizing what a text
says and restating the key remarks.
Critical reading goes two steps
Reading Individual Articles: further.
Articles within newspapers and magazines tend to be
in three different ways. These are the three ways:  What a text  What a text says –
says restatement – talks
 News Articles: – restatement about the same topic
Here the most important information is presented  What a text as the original text
first, with information being less and less useful as does  What a text does –
the article progresses. News articles are designed – description description – discusses
to explain the key points first, and then flesh them  What a text aspects of the
out with detail. means discussion itself
 Opinion Articles: – interpretation  What a text means –
Opinion articles present a point of view. Here the interpretation —
most important information is contained in the analyzes the text and
introduction and the summary, with the middle of asserts a meaning for
the article containing supporting arguments. the text as a whole
 Feature Articles:
 P a g e | 74

Goals of Critical Reading  Now figure out whatever you have

Textbooks on critical reading commonly ask marked in the passage/paragraph.
students to accomplish certain goals:  It is in the second reading that we stress
 to recognize an  recognizing on understanding the passage.
author’s purpose involves
purpose inferring a basis for Improving Comprehension:
 to understand choices of content Reading comprehension requires motivation,
tone and and language mental frameworks for holding ideas, concentration
persuasive  recognizing tone and good study techniques. Here are some
elements and persuasive suggestions.
 to recognize bias elements involves  Develop a broad background.
classifying the Broaden your background knowledge by
nature of language reading newspapers, magazines and books.
choices Become interested in world events.
 recognizing bias  Know the structure of paragraphs.
involves classifying Good writers construct paragraphs that have a
the nature of beginning, middle and end. Often, the first
patterns of choice sentence will give an overview that helps
of content and provide a framework for adding details. Also,
language look for transitional words, phrases or
paragraphs that change the topic.
 Identify the type of reasoning.
Reading Comprehension: Does the author use cause and effect
The word Comprehension is derived from the reasoning, hypothesis, model building,
English verb ‘Comprehend’ which means ‘to induction or deduction, systems thinking? See
understand’. Thereby the task of Comprehension refers section 20 for more examples on critical
to attempt the exercise given on a passage based on thinking skills.
your understanding. The following points are worth  Anticipate and predict.
remembering while attempting a Comprehension Really smart readers try to anticipate the
passage: author and predict future ideas and questions.
If you're right, this reinforces your
1. Read the passage at least twice. understanding. If you're wrong, you make
2. The first reading should be quick adjustments quicker.
and complete including exercise  Look for the method of organization.
on a passage. Is the material organized chronologically,
3. Here one may fail to understand serially, logically, functionally, spatially or
the most of the passage but still hierarchical? See section 10 for more
gets the idea: examples on organization.
what the passage is about,  Create motivation and interest.
and Preview material, ask questions, and discuss
what sort of questions one ideas with classmates. The stronger your
has to answer. interest, the greater your comprehension.
 Pay attention to supporting cues.
The First reading should be QUICK it should Study pictures, graphs and headings. Read the
not take more than a minute to read a passage of about first and last paragraph in a chapter, or the
100 words. Even though reading quickly do mark out first sentence in each section.
the following in the passage/paragraph:  Highlight, summarize and review.
 difficult words, Just reading a book once is not enough. To
 words/phrase that could not be develop a deeper understanding, you have to
understood, highlight, summarize and review important
 words/phrases that are repeated, ideas.
and  Build a good vocabulary.
 any other word/phrase that seem For most educated people, this is a lifetime
interesting/important to you. project. The best way to improve your
vocabulary is to use a dictionary regularly. You
The Second Reading is to be detailed one. might carry around a pocket dictionary and
 Paragraphs may be read in a string or use it to look up new words. Or, you can keep
separately in light of related questions.

a list of words to look up at the end of the day.
Concentrate on roots, prefixes and endings.
 Monitor effectiveness.
Good readers monitor their attention,
concentration and effectiveness. They quickly
recognize if they've missed an idea and backup
to reread it.
 Should You Vocalize Words?
Yes, although it is faster to form words in your
mind rather than on your lips or throat. Eye
motion is also important. Frequent
backtracking slows you down considerably.
Hurdles in reading
1. No mastery over the spoken form. Learning to read
a foreign language is different from learning to read
the mother tongue. When the child learns to read
his mother tongue at the age of five years or so he
has already mastered its sound system and basic
structures in the spoken form. He also knows
vocabulary relevant to his range of experience. But
when the child learns to read English, he knows
nothing about its sound system, structures or
vocabulary. The implication for the teacher of
English is that the child must first be made aware in
the spoken form whatever he is going to read.
2. The problem of English spelling. Unlike Indian
languages, English is not a phonetic language, that
is, the pronunciation of a word is not the
combination of the sounds of the letters
constituting that word. Consider the word
knowledge. The student has, therefore, to learn the
pronunciation of each word separately.
3. The problem of script. English is written in Roman
script, which is different from the scripts in which
Indian languages are written, the learner in certain
case is already familiar with the scripts of two Indian
languages, that is, his mother tongue and the official
language Hindi. When he learns the Roman script,
he is mastering a third script. In learning Roman
script there is the additional difficulty of learning
two kinds of letters, namely, capital letters and
small letters. Scripts in Indian languages do not have
capital and small letters.
4. The problem of interference from the mother
tongue. The child carries the habits of reading the
mother tongue to reading of English. Some of these
habits are defective, e.g. wrong eye-movements,
halted reading, backward, movement of the eye to
get a second look, lip movements, sub-vocal reading
etc.
Those students whose mother tongue is Urdu face an
additional difficulty. Urdu is read from right to left,
whereas English is read from left to right.
P a g e | 75
Mechanics of Reading
The Mechanics of reading involve the following steps:
 Acquisition of proper eye-movement,
which is from left to right in the case of
English.
 Acquisition of proper eye-span that is,
taking in a few words at a time.
 Ability to translate visual symbols into a
stream of sounds.
 Ability to associate meaning with the
translated stream of sounds.
Reading skills
Reading skills involves the following steps:
 decipher the script. In an alphabetic system or
a syllabary, this means establishing a
relationship between sounds and symbols. In
a pictograph system, it means associating the
meaning of the words with written symbols.
 recognize vocabulary.
 pick out key words, such as those identifying
topics and main ideas.
 figure out the meaning of the words, including
unfamiliar vocabulary, from the (written)
context.
 recognize grammatical word classes: noun,
adjective, etc.
 detect sentence constituents, such as subject,
verb, object, prepositions, etc.
 recognize basic syntactic patterns.
 reconstruct and infer situations, goals and
participants.
 use both knowledge of the world and lexical
and grammatical cohesive devices to make the
foregoing inferences, predict outcomes, and
infer links and connections among the parts of
the text.
 get the main point or the most important
information.
 distinguish the main idea from supporting
details.
 adjust reading strategies to different reading
purposes, such as skimming for main ideas or
studying in-depth.
 P a g e | 76

Writing: developed in civilized society to pass on knowledge or

messages beyond the constraints of here and now.
Writing is perhaps one of the most demanding of All writing aims at clear and efficient
skills. It has to be deliberately cultivated. Unlike communication. But what goes into clear and efficient
listening and speaking, it is not something which is communication? Anne Raimes (1983) has
natural to humans—it is the skill which has been diagrammatically represented this as follows:

SYNTAX CONTENTS
sentence structure, relevance, clarity,
sentence boundaries originality, logic, etc.
stylistic choices, etc.

GRAMMAR THE WRITING

PROCESS
rules for verb Clear, fluent, getting ideas, getting
agreement, articles, and effective started, writing drafts,
pronouns, etc. communication of revising
ideas

MECHANICS AUDIENCE
handwriting, spelling, The reader/s.
punctuation, etc.

ORGANISATION WORD CHOICE PURPOSE

paragraphs, topic and vocabulary, the reason
support, cohesion idiom, tone. for writing.
and unity.
(Raimes 1983)

Reading is a skill that is directly related to - Short sentences.

writing. Every aspect of writing is an act of reading and - Short words.
every act of reading itself is a kind of writing. The close - Short verbs.
relationship between writing and thinking on one hand, The duo short & simple can be combined
and writing and reading on the other, makes writing a Brevity to form a quality present in all writing
valuable part of any language. All good writing should is the skills.
bear qualities like simplicity, order, division, format, soul of Let us first discuss simple and short words.
and organisation. wit A word, if English used in daily language
can be said to be simple. As their meaning
Brevity: & usage is well known to everyone.
Brevity means concise and clear. It can be better Whereas sometimes short words can also
understood as composed of these two words—First said to be simple, but this isn’t true for
word is Simple and the second Short. ever shorter words lead a better impact
on the audience, are easy to speak,
Simple: remember and concrete in conveying
Simple writing is perhaps the most meanings.
difficult of the tasks to be achieved and Find how many words are known to you.
this is what one should aspire for. All great Look for the rest in a dictionary.
writers write above all simple language. amid awry blur claw cult
Here for our discussion we limit the word deft dupe
simple to three parts : apt bail bow dog damn
i. Simple sentences. dice dump
awe bale brim cope darn
ii. Simple verbs/ tenses.
dire
iii. Simple words.
avid bid curb core dart
All the three can also be substituted with
dope
the word short/ concise instead of simple.
 P a g e | 77

aver blot cite curl dash  State: Either temporary or permanent a state
doom of action can well be explained in simple
present.
Simple sentence: I enjoy travelling.
A sentence which is short can be termed as simple in He looks awful.
the first instance. Whereas from Grammar point of We can even express views &
view a simple sentence is that which has one verb and feelings this way.
generally one subject and one object. As per I consider him fortunate.
structures in English Grammar following structures can  Future arrangements: events that are part of
be understood as simple some official arrangement that is time-table or
→ Subject + BE + subject complement VP1A programme are written in this form.
→ Subject + verb VP2A The train arrived at 5:30 PM.
→ Subject + verb + object VP6A I’m away on a holiday next week.
→ Subject + verb (t) + object (noun/ pronoun) Even while predicting we use this
This is a book. form.
It’s me. There is full moon tonight.
I have lost my way.  Specific time: To indicate that something
Simple things are We enjoyed the film. happened at a definite known time.
understood by all She has blue eyes. He left just a few minutes ago.
and thereby leave Simple sentences can at one instance seem to be elementary. Yet heavily
It rained are thein
most
the morning.
an everlasting demanding look at the following sentences and the effect of their meaning.
impression. Knowledge (if self) is power.
Common Errors in English:
Studies pass into character.
Revenge is a wild justice.
We add d/ed to verbs turning them to the past
Studies pass into character.
Simple tense: Though easy is the most important to forms.
understand among the simple words. Example, like + ed = liked.
There are two tenses in English Grammar that can be I liked tea. (Meaning an
termed as simple – Present indefinite and past action that happened or was true in
indefinite. These tenses are simple largely because: past)
- They take a simple verb to form tense as Negative: I did not like
well as action. tea.
- Their structures are largely among the Subject + Helping verb + Adverb +
simplest of verb patters i.e. subject + Main verb + object
verb (+object). Note: d/ed is not added to main verb if helping verb is
- The verb used in them doesn’t require used in a sentence.
any other helping verb to form tense or
complete the action. Contraction: Helping verb when used always forms
Example: tense and main in this case defines action.
I like tea. Similarity s/es is added to Main Verb when they are
Negative: I do not like tea written with III person pronoun. Example:
Though grammatically correct is not much acceptable He dislikes tea.
in English. A more acceptable way is to write as: Negative: He does not like
I dislike tea. tea.
Subject + verb + object (VP6) Subject + Helping verb + Adverb +
These sentences encompass a great difference in their Main verb + object
meaning. Largely simple tenses are used to refer to: Clarification: s/es is also added to helping verbs and
that a helping verbs and that a helping verb forms
 Express universal truths: Situations that exists
tense in all cases when used with a Main Verb.
now have been there in part and as far as we
can perceive, will go on indefinitely.
Short:
The sun rises in the east.
The short word short should be understood
It takes five minutes to get to the
with the word simple and not separated from it. In
school.
fact we should use short words, write short
It rains.
sentences, and of course short paragraphs. It not
 Habitual actions: actions that happens on merely is easy to understand them but also has a
regular basis. lasting effect up on the reader and looks good when
I leave for work at 09:30 most days. put on a piece of paper.
I get wakeup early in the morning.

Organise:
Preparation and planning to write is
one basic requirement. There are
several aspects to organise a piece
of writing. We need to draft an
outline of the topic. Answer certain
questions on its. Order the data a
logical sequence before we attempt
writing.
i) Split: This is one of the old Roman
law to rule, so as in writing. The best
way understanding a topic is to split it
in some parts. Reduce every topic into
sub-topics. We call it jottings: taking
or writing some notes on topic as well
as sub topics.
ii) Questions: Looking at a topic
scientifically there are always three
Tell us questions to be answered.
what you i. Why?
want to ii. What?
say on the iii. How?
topic and The three may be answered distinctly
not what depending on topic, yet are a sequel
others to every good piece of writing.
have iii) Ordering or Sequencing:
already Sequencing means linking up ideas &
said on this concepts using the proper linkers to
topic establish a relationship between
before. different ideas. It is a skill of organising
textual material, deciding priority and
focusing on different points that are
to be presented. This has to e done
logically in proper order, like the
number system (0, 1, 2, … 9).
iv) Planning: It helps us determining
the sequence and order of arguments.
It gives us an idea of completeness.
Planning can be done by taking brief
jotting on the topic given to us. Then
making or establishing logical
relations between different points
collected. It helps us to distribute a
topic justifiably in the scope given to
us for writing.
v) Editing & Checking: Good writing is
the result of rewriting. While checking
we analyse thoroughly what we have
written. We check for logic and clarity.
In checking we should try to find out
places and points where we are
wrong. Rewriting is an endless process
and a systematic approach in checking
yields positive results. Language can
be checked for words, sentences for
expression, paragraphs for
ornamentation and the passage for
logical construction of an idea.
P a g e | 78
Split:
Old Roman Divide what you are writing into
law teaches parts and then organise the same -
us divide and split a paragraph into sentences
rule this is and a passage into a paragraph.
what we This can achieved by:
apply while  First dividing the topic into sub
drafting a topics, picking for the words
paragraph. from the topic itself.
 Draft every topic into a
separate paragraph or a
sentence whichever is required,
and similarly as far as possible
sub topics should be divided.
 This division justifies the style
of writing and brings variety
into what we write. Further it
removes ambiguity and imparts
clarity.
Explaining a Topic:
A topic first of all is to be understood and
later defined. Three steps can justify be traced in
understanding a topic.
1. Identify: The first of the parts on attempting a
paragraph or answering a question is
to identify it from where it has been
taken? Where have you read this
topic or the words comprising it
before? This largely means answering
questions like what? When? And
where?
2. Understanding: The second of the exercise when you
identified a topic is to understand it.
What the question is asking? What
does it mean? You can only
understand a topic when you have
identified it and not prior to it.
3. Range: This is a mathematical quality better
understood in statistics. Every topic
has a range in which it could be
scattered. For example after giving a
test to class a teacher can conclude
that the class got marks between 2 to
14 out of twenty, that is the range of
marks for that particular class is 2 to
14. Similarly look at the following
topics
 Computers
 Future of Computes
 Future of Computers in Bank.
All the three topics have different range in which they
can be spread.
 First has the widest of them, in fact the
second and third are parts of it.

 The second limits the range and deals only
with their future.
 The third is the most specific and deals
with utility of computers in one particular
aspect.
Defining a topic
Before continuing to write a paragraph or an
article or say answer a simple question a topic needs
to be defined. Following points must be headed to
while defining a topic:
 First of all understand the topic before
proceeding.
 Second, draft short topical sentence to be
used as a definition or the introductory
line to the topic.
 Third, always remember that it is this
definition that has to be elaborated and
expanded in the coming paragraph,
passage, answer or the article.
There are three basic errors while defining a topic:
 First is Swirling. We often understand
given in the topic and not what the topic
is asking. Thus we do come near to the
topic but not on the topic and start writing
things related to the topic and never
realise what is asked and to be written.
This shortcoming is called swirling,
meaning to move round and round but
never reach the topic. This happens as
usually we know things about the words
in the topic and not the topic itself.
 Definitional difference. This happens
when we do not understand the topic and
start defining the topic as we presume.
Suppose the topic we need to write a
paragraph on was Future of Computers
and we started writing on computers
making the word future less important or
perhaps not attempting to incorporate
the same in our paragraph.
 Conceptual difference. This rather is a
technical part. For example, we have to
write a paragraph on the topic Future of
Computers in Banking. Here we omit the
word banking and do write about the
future of computers, say in field other
than banking, but not with relation to
banking industry. Here we are at a
difference from the second of the short
coming. We do reach near the topic much
more but miss a crucial aspect of it. In the
second of the topic we have generalised
the topic too much in the third taken a
different stance.
Repetition:
P a g e | 79
This stands as one of our major error while writing.
We often tend to repeat what we have already
written. In fact we should never repeat a word, a
sentence, a thought or an idea.
 Use thesaurus, a dictionary of synonyms and
antonyms. Look for newer words and use
them.
 Never repeat a sentence or an idea after using
it once. Even if you are short of words, write
less. But never tend to duplicate things.
 Repetition hampers the quality of what we
write and gives a mere impression that we do
not anything beyond these one or two points.
We cut a sorry figure and put on display our
shortcomings instead of our abilities.
Format:
Format means a justified use of Margins and Space.
 Divide your writing piece into parts, say
paragraphs.
 Use one margin or if you prefer to use multiple.
They should be so graphically used that all
newer used margins are clearly visible. The best
way is to use one margin.
 Leave space between parts of a written piece
 Indenting everything to a new margin is now an
old style and requires know how. Learn to use it
before using it.
Remember
 Unity: Proper division into sentences which express
one idea each and are grammatically correct. This
impacts unity of thought & builds up an idea.
 Variety: Variety comes in bundled with creativity.
Envisage to active something new. Repetition of a
word, idea or a thought brings monotony.
 Logic: After taking notes (jottings) rearrange them in
he logical order of what comes first. Like the number
system. A systematic development helps in
construction an idea.
 Humour: Humour means something that makes our
fancies chuckle. It is not a joke or thing to laugh; but
certainly an instance that relieves audience/
listeners/readers from monotony.
 Examples: Always include some references, stories or
pranks to develop or conclude your speech or writing.
This imparts a personal touch into that piece of
writing.
 Format: Follow format. This should be adhered to
strictly. A letter should look like a letter. An article,
and likewise.
 Avoid Repetition: Never repeat an idea, a thought or
even a word. This gives an impression that you know
nothing beyond this.

Writing Official Letters
 Always proofread your letter after writing it,
check for sentence structure, grammar,
spelling mistakes...
 Proofread your letter again (and again) after
you have revised it.
 Keep the recipient in mind, and write in a way
that he/she can easily understand the letter.
 Don't use abbreviated dates, i.e. use
November 19, 2004, and not 11/19/04
 Be respectful when you write, even if you are
writing a letter of complaint.
 Be concise and keep to the point, but don't
leave out any important information.
 Try to keep your letter short enough so that it
fits on one page.
 If your letter is more than a page long, use
another page, don't use the back of the page.
Official letters Letters to Editors
Official/business letters It should be written in form of a paragraph
Letters of 1. Letters of Complaint, not
Applications 2. Letters of Placing Orderswritten
1) Job Applications.
prices/quotations/tenders.
2) Other
official/Routine 3. Other Informative Letters.
Applications
Parts of a letter:
A letter is divided into five parts:
 Heading: It is further divided into three parts.
Addressor or the sender’s address,
Date, and
Addressee or the receiver’s address.
There is no fixed order for them but in any
case sender’s address must come before
receiver’s address.
 Salutation: the way a letter is begun or the
person addressed to is greeted. Usually is,
Dear Sir,
Respected Sir,
Sir,
Dear Mr. Smith (Surname in case of
addressing men)
Dear Ms. Elizabeth (First name while
addressing women)
 Body of Letter: It is further divided into two
parts.
Introductory line or the opening line,
and
P a g e | 80
 If you have access to company (or personal)
stationary with a letterhead on it, use that
instead of regular paper.
Letters:
Letters can be divided into largely two types.
 Official: or business. These are formal letters and
written to execute daily/ routine office or business
work. They are largely of three types & can further
be divided.
 Social: Those written to friends or relatives. They
are informal.
 Invitations: Either notes or letters are both formal
as well as informal. As the word suggests these are
notes to invite someone to a party or a function.
They are written in letter form as well as in heading
form.
The main paragraph(s) carrying
subject matter that has to be written.
 Concluding Line: A closing or a thanking line
to conclude the subject matter being written.
a sentence. Usually
Adjustments, Claims, ‘Thanking you’ is
et cetera.
ortoinquiring
conclude.
As far as possible this concluding line should
be topical and conclude the letter purposely.
For Example:
a. Letters of Enquiry
Kindly do the needful and oblige.
b. Letters Giving or seeking information
(Official letters)
I would be grateful…
Anticipating the needful.
Please reply by return of post.
A quick action/reply howsoever is
expected in the matter.
Usually thanking you as phrase is avoided
while writing letters these days.
 Subscription: The concluding lines to a letter.
That is writing your name and signing it. A
letter is usually concluded as:
- Yours obediently/faithfully: all official
letters Saluted as Dear Sir
- Yours sincerely or Sincerely Yours to all
official letters Saluting a person with his
Name, as Dear Mr. Smith
Note the punctuation marks:
 First letter capital (Except for Sincerely
Yours where both S and Y are capital
 where as when writing Yours sincerely S
becomes small)
 No Full Stop or Comma at last
 No apostrophe s in case of writing Yours
 Never use Your’s
 P a g e | 81

Bharat Hotels Limited

a. Addressor 10, Barakhamba Lane
New Delhi
b. Date
1. Heading 12th October 2000

c. Addressee ABC Corporation

1, Nariman Point
Mumbai

2. Date Dear Sir,

Please refer to your letter dated 30th September 2000 bearing letter No.
a. Introductory BHL/123/2000.
line.
We are grateful that you have agreed to pay Rs. 1, 23,456/- (One lac Twenty Three
3. Body of Thousand Four Hundred Fifty-six only).
b. Subject
Letter matter. The terms and conditions of the contract are acceptable to us.

A meeting for the formal signing of the contract between Executives of our company
with that of yours shall be arranged shortly, preferably in that last week of October
2000.

4. Concluding/Thanking Thanking you.

note/line. Yours faithfully

Joseph Smith
Manager Sales
5. Subscription
Dear Sir,

Please refer to your letter

dated 30th September 2000
bearing letter No.
Layout or Style of Writing Letter BHL/123/2000.
A letter can be written in different forms of
indentation. Depending upon them four to six styles We are grateful that you have
can be deciphered. These are all based on mixed forms agreed to pay Rs. 1, 23,456/-
of indenting a letter. The best style of layout is one (One lac Twenty Three Thousand
where proper use is Margins and Space is achieved. Four Hundred Fifty-six only).
Ascribing everything to left hand Margin is the
safest way to write a letter as this is one where we The terms and conditions of the
contract are acceptable to us.
make least mistakes and meet out the difficulty of
inventing newer margins while writing a new section or
paragraph of a letter. A meeting for the formal
signing of the contract between
This has gone into popularity with the advent Executives of our company with
of type-written letters and computers. Of course their that of yours shall be arranged
varying forms are inevitable while drafting a good shortly, preferably in that
letter. Here are a few of these styles: last week of October 2000.

Bharat Hotels Limited Thanking you.

10, Barakhamba Lane
New Delhi Yours faithfully

12th October 2000

Joseph Smith
ABC Corporation Manager Sales
1, Nariman Point
Mumbai 1. Non-indented style
 P a g e | 82

Bharat Hotels Limited We are grateful that you have agreed to pay
10, Barakhamba Lane Rs. 1, 23,456/- (One lac Twenty Three
New Delhi Thousand Four Hundred Fifty-six only).

12th October 2000 The terms and conditions of the contract are
acceptable to us.
ABC Corporation
1, Nariman Point A meeting for the formal signing of the
Mumbai contract between Executives of our company
with that of yours shall be arranged shortly,
Dear Sir, preferably in that last week of October 2000.

Please refer to your letter

Thanking you.
dated 30th September 2000
bearing letter No.
BHL/123/2000. Yours faithfully

We are grateful that you have

agreed to pay Rs. 1, 23,456/- Joseph Smith
(One lac Twenty Three Thousand Manager Sales
Four Hundred Fifty-six only).
3. Hanging Indent style
The terms and conditions of the
contract are acceptable to us.
Bharat Hotels Limited
A meeting for the formal 10, Barakhamba Lane
signing of the contract between New Delhi
Executives of our company with
that of yours shall be arranged 12th October 2000
shortly, preferably in that
last week of October 2000. ABC Corporation
1, Nariman Point
Thanking you. Mumbai

Yours faithfully Dear Sir,

Please refer to your letter

Joseph Smith dated 30th September 2000
Manager Sales bearing letter No.
BHL/123/2000.
3. Indented style
We are grateful that you have
agreed to pay Rs. 1, 23,456/-
Bharat Hotels Limited (One lac Twenty Three Thousand
10, Barakhamba Lane Four Hundred Fifty-six only).
New Delhi
The terms and conditions of the
th
12 October 2000 contract are acceptable to us.

ABC Corporation A meeting for the formal

signing of the contract between
1, Nariman Point Executives of our company with
Mumbai that of yours shall be arranged
shortly, preferably in that
Dear Sir, last week of October 2000.

Please refer to your letter dated 30th Thanking you.

September 2000 bearing letter No.
BHL/123/2000. Yours faithfully

Joseph Smith
Manager Sales
4. Partly-indented style
Letter Outlines:
Your Present Address
City, State, Zip Code
Date (Of Writing)
Heading
Title
Organization
Street Address, City
Salutation
Dear Ms. Blank:
Introductory
1st Paragraph
 Tell why you are writing; name
the position, field, or general
Subject career area about which you are
matter asking.
 Refer to the information
desired.
2nd Paragraph
 Mention the purpose why you
are writing.
 Mention your grievance, if any.
 Mention what you desire.
 Quote references if any.
 Include any other information
to be given, shared or required.
 Divide your letter into, parts.
 If your
complaints/suggestions/orders
are too many list them in short
or write in a tabular form.
3rd Paragraph
Concluding  Close by making a request to
see to execute your point.
 Indicate that you will follow up
with a phone call about the
possibility of a meeting.
 It would be polite to enclose a
self-addressed, stamped
envelope IF AT ALL REQUIRED.
 Make sure your closing is not
vague, but makes a specific
action from the reader likely.
P a g e | 83
 Try your ending to be topical
one.
 Thank the employer for his/her
considerations.
Yours sincerely
sd-
Subscription Your Handwritten Signature
(Your Name in brackets)
Post if Required
Letters of Complaint:
All formal and business circumstances require written
complaints. A complaint is largely the settlement of
discrepancies as a result of faulty execution of business.
It may be one:
 Asking for some kind of compensation.
 Asking for relief from some type of problem or
difficulty from higher authorities.
 It can be for a routine matter within an
organisation like repairs, remedies, etc.
While writing a complaint always include following
details:
 Evidence in support of your statements or
complaints.
 Logical reasons behind your complaint as well
as logical order and construction while writing
a complaint.
 Appeal to show honesty and fairness in
transactions.
 Express faith and confidence in the person or
the department you are writing complaining
to.
Letters of Orders:
We write these letters to an organisation or an
individual asking about the prices for delivering certain
goods. These may be further divided as letters for
placing orders, asking for prices, asking for quotations
and sometimes letters inviting tenders. Following
essentials be heeded to while drafting such letter:
 While asking for prices, do mention about
terms of payment, time of delivery and other
formalities required to be fulfilled prior to
executing an order.
 Place clear and firm order.
 Always include detailed, complete, accurate
descriptions you prefer to buy.
 Draw a list as far as possible include size,
quality, quantity, references through which
articles are ordered.
 State/Mention clearly the addresses on which
supply/delivery of goods is to be made along
with time and mode of delivery.
 P a g e | 84

 Refer to any other terms if needed, like  A job application is somewhat like a sale letter.
insurance of goods, etc. It is drafted to catch the attention of the
reader.
Informative Letters:  A job application should accompany your bio
Letters which carry information fall in this category. It data, either written within the application or
may safely be divided into several types. Namely, attached to your application with your
letters of inquiry, letters giving and seeking application being converted into a covering
information, letters of requests, and the like. letter.
After preparing a list of organizations which Bio data:
complement the position you are seeking, as well as Every bio data largely has four essential components.
your interest and training, a letter of inquiry in which They should include:
you approach the employer requesting employment  Personal details
information is the next step. It is important to research  Education
the organization as much as possible to lend credibility  Employment or experience
and insight to your contact letter.  Skills professional, specialisation if any and on
 Determine and state your exact interest in the job trainings received.
employer and explain why they, in turn,
should be interested in you.
 The more you know about the organization,
Bio data
the easier it will be for you to tailor your letter
to their needs and interests.
 Emphasize your positive assets and skills. Be Personal details:
as specific as possible about the type of Name: Peter Greene
position you are seeking and tie this to your Date of birth: 11th March 1980
knowledge of the organization and its Address for correspondence:
business. Permanent: 26, Windmill Road
 Identify a specific person within the SW, London
organization to whom to send your letter. As Present: 17, baker Street
a general rule, in larger organizations, send the Liverpool
letter to the Personnel or Human Resources Email:
Department - the Manager of Employment,
Ph. No.:
Recruitment or Personnel. Also, directing your
letter to the key executive or manager in
 The department to which you are applying is Education/Qualification
advisable. If the contact person's name is not Year Exam/Course Institute/ Grades/
University Percentage
available, address your letter: "Dear Madam
or Sir" or "Dear Selection Committee Chair." 1997 Higher Secondary Central School/CBSE I/85%
 State when you would be available to meet for 2000 B.Sc. Delhi University I/76%
an interview and include a phone number 2002 M.Sc. Delhi University I/71%
and/or e-mail where you can most easily be 2005 Ph.D. Delhi University -
reached.
Experience/Employment
Letters of Applications: From October 2005 till date, working as
Letters of application can be split in two categories one Junior scientist with Defence Research and
job application and two all other or official applications development Organisation posted at
for favours. Gwalior.
The word ‘apply’ means asking for some favours. An
official application may be one asking for some Skills
sanctions or leave etc., whereas job application may be  Computer Literate, familiar with
one establishing your status as a candidate to some programming in C++.
post.  Attended national Science conference,
 All applications are formal hence need to be 2006 held at Mumbai, as DRDO
concise, only purposeful material need be representative from Gwalior Unit.
written and all extra details be avoided.
 The style of language used largely is polite and
direct.

All other parts of a resume like References, Salary are
not compulsory requirements and should be
mentioned when asked for.
 When quoting references do take care that:
 One is your present employer.
 One is someone under whom you
have worked or studied previously,
your teacher or research guide.
 One is from your previous employer
or the college or university where you
have completed your studies from.
 Quoting salary do mention your present with
grades, gross emoluments and basic as well
write the expected.
While drafting a job application do keep in mind the
following considerations:
- What sort of person the employer needs?
- What kind of experience and qualifications are
required for this particular job?
- While presenting your credentials highlight
particularly the traits or qualities that may be
a boon for this particular job.
- Analyse clearly the job requirements and your
achievements. Thus getting an idea what
individual this organisation is looking for.
- Draft a bio data or curriculum vitae or a
resume specifically for the job you are
applying for.
- These days while drafting job applications all
unnecessary formalities are avoided. Do not
use a flattering language that show your extra
efforts on trying to please the person you are
writing to and the best way is to accompany
your bio data with a covering letter so as the
employer may have a better insight into your
particulars.
Sample Letters:
Complaint
India trading Company
Gole Market, New Delhi
21st March 2005
The Sales Manager
Hoshangabad Paper Mills
Bhopal
Dear Sir,
This has reference to the goods supplied vide
our order No. 2006/HPM/03 dated 1st March
2005.
P a g e | 85
Three reams of paper supplied by you have
reached us in a damaged condition. It doesn’t
seem that the damages have been caused in
transportation but have been incurred while
cutting and pressing.
At our end we are unable to use them and have
not utilised any part of them are in conditions as
supplied. Kindly arrange to replace the same so
as to meet our requirement of paper and to
proceed with our printing work without delay.
We shall be grateful if you replace the reams of
paper by the end of April 2005.
Any displeasure caused is sincerely regretted.
Yours faithfully
(Ramesh Sharma)
Manager, Printing
Replying to the said complaint:
Hoshangabad Paper Mills
Bhopal
27th March 2005
The Manager, Printing
India trading Company
Gole Market, New Delhi
Dear Sir,
Thank you for your prompt reporting for
damaged goods for the goods supplied vide your
order No. 2006/HPM/03 dated 1st March 2005.
This mistake has been committed by our Quality
control section while packing for the orders
requested.
We sincerely regret the inconvenience caused to
you by the supply of damaged goods. We have
instructed our supplies section to collect the
same from your end and supply fresh reams at
the earliest possible at our expenses.
Further, we assure that no such mistake will
occur in future while supplying for goods.
Regretting once again for the trouble caused at
your end.
 P a g e | 86

Yours faithfully Hoshangabad Paper Mills

Bhopal

(S R Yadav) Dear Sir,

Manager, Sales
We are in need of following items. Please quote
Reminder for goods not Supplied: prices for the same before 1st of March 2005
India trading Company
Gole Market, New Delhi S.No. Item Quality Quantity
1. Reams of Paper 75 GSM 10
21st March 2005 2. Reams of paper 120 GSM 10

The Sales Manager Terms of payment and delivery will be as per

Hoshangabad Paper Mills standard industry norms.
Bhopal
Yours faithfully
Dear Sir,

This has reference to the goods supplied vide

our order No. 2006/HPM/03 dated 1st March (Ramesh Sharma)
2005. Manager, Printing
Placing an Order
We had ordered vide above reference 20 reams India trading Company
of paper to be supplied immediately against Gole Market, New Delhi
your quotations No. 2006/R32.
21st March 2005
It is unfortunate that even after a lapse of one
month of placing the order we had not received The Sales Manager
the goods. Although we received a letter from Hoshangabad Paper Mills
your end confirming the receipt of our letter but
Bhopal
have not received any correspondence from
your end referring to the neither delay nor have
Reference No.: 2006/HPM/03 dated 1st March
the goods reached us.
2005.
Please let us know the status of our order and
Dear Sir,
also if your are not in a condition to supply the
same.
This has reference to quotations No. 2006/R32
tendered by you.
Please arrange for immediate delivery of paper
reams ordered.
We are pleased to place the following order:
Yours faithfully S.No. Item Quality Quantity
1. Reams of Paper 75 GSM 10
2. Reams of paper 120 GSM 10
(Ramesh Sharma)
Manager, Printing Terms of payment and delivery will be as per
standard industry norms.
Orders
Yours faithfully
Asking for Prices:
India trading Company
Gole Market, New Delhi
(Ramesh Sharma)
21st February 2005
Manager, Printing

The Sales Manager

 P a g e | 87

Sending quotations:  Minimum Eligibility for being admitted

Hoshangabad Paper Mills to the same. Like age, qualifications etc.
Bhopal  Facilities offered by the institute.
Namely, library, computer laboratory,
27th March 2005 hostel accommodation and placement.
 Other relevant information that may be
of use.
The Manager, Printing
India trading Company
For your information I am 21 years old, a
Gole Market, New Delhi
Graduate in Science from Delhi university with I
division and 74% Marks.
Reference: your letter No. No.
2006/Quotation/23 dated 21st February 2005.
I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Dear Sir,
Yours faithfully
Quotations are invited for the purchase of
following items:

(Ramesh Sharma)
S.No. Item Quality Quantity
1. Reams of Paper 75 GSM 10
2. Reams of paper 120 GSM 10 Asking a paper dealer or printing unit to send their
price list:
Terms of payment and delivery will be as per India trading Company
standard industry norms. Gole Market, New Delhi

Yours faithfully 21st February 2005

The Sales Manager

Hoshangabad Paper Mills
(Ramesh Sharma) Bhopal
Manager, Printing
Dear Sir,

Kindly send us your latest illustrated catalogue

Inquiry
and price list for paper reams for Printing Books.
A-1, GK II
New Delhi
Yours faithfully

27th March 2005

The Director
(Ramesh Sharma)
Management Institute
Manager, Printing
New Delhi

Credit status enquiries:

Dear Sir,
India trading Company
Gole Market, New Delhi
Subject: Admission to MBA Programme.

I am interested in taking admission to the above 21st February 2005

programme offered by the institute. Please let
me know the following details: The Sales Manager
 Course duration and division into Hoshangabad Paper Mills
semesters. Bhopal
 Course fee and the split up of the same
with time of deposition. Dear Sir,
 P a g e | 88

Yours faithfully
We are a reputed firm in printing and publishing
books since 1935 and having been purchasing
print media from toy esteemed company for last
six years. (Ramesh Sharma)

At this juncture we request you to open a credit Job Applications

account against our name and let us know the Do
following:  Follow rules of layout and format of a
 Credit limit that can be enjoyed by us. standard business letter
 The security required to avail the same.  Slant letter toward what you can offer
 Time required for clearing payment employers, not what you think they should be
after once placing an order. offering you
 Address, whenever possible, to an individual,
You are also requested to send some of your along with his/her correct title
representative to visit our company and have a  Spell, punctuate, and paragraph correctly
look at the facilities available at this end.  Write in your own words and in
conversational language
We shall be pleased to have a prompt reply form  Hand-sign, rather than type your signature
 Print your letters on good quality paper
your end.
 Be brief, concise and to the point
 Take advantage of any link to the employer
Yours faithfully
that can put your foot in the door or give you
an edge over the competition (for example,
mentioning the name of someone you know
(Ramesh Sharma) in the organization as reference)
Manager Don’t
 Use stiff language or phrasing
Job Application  Be gimmicky in an attempt to be original or
Covering letter: clever
A-1, GK II  Load with constant use of the word “I”
 Be lofty in tone or indicate you will do the
New Delhi
employer a great service by “considering” a
position
27th March 2005  Be excessively emphatic about your
reliability, capacity for hard work or
The Director intelligence. This kind of self-appraisal is
Management Institute usually best understated. The appearance
New Delhi and tone of your letter and resume can say
more about you than you can gracefully say
Dear Sir, about yourself.

I am writing to apply for the position of assistant

Programmer C++ advertised in the Times of
India 23rd February.

Please find enclosed a copy of my CV.

I have a degree in computers application and

have been working in similar category with EMS
corporation since last October. I would welcome
a chance to work as part of a small dynamic
team where I could make significant
contribution while developing my skills further.

I look forward to hearing from you soon.


Writing a Memorandum
An inter-office memorandum—or memo for
short—is an efficient way to communicate information
to people within an organization, while at the same
time providing a written record of your
communication. It is less formal than a letter, and it
takes less time to create. A memo does not have a
salutation
Dear__
or a formal closing
Sincerely yours
Memoranda (the plural for memorandum)
may be sent through inter-office mail or through
email.
Parts of a Memorandum
A memo has the following parts:
(1) the heading,
(2) the message or body,
(3) the reference initials, and
(4) notations, if appropriate.
The heading includes the name of the person
or persons to whom the memo is being sent, the name
of person(s) receiving a copy (if appropriate), the
name of the sender, the date, and the subject of the
memo. Persons to whom a copy is being sent may,
alternatively, be indicated at the bottom of the memo
after the reference initials.
The message, or body, of the memo should
contain these key components of a business letter: an
opening that clarifies why the memo is being sent;
details that are needed for understanding or support
of what is being presented or asked; and a closing that
makes clear what action is requested.
The person sending the memo should write
his/her initials over or next to his/her name in the
‘From’ part of the heading to document that it really
came from him/her; or, alternatively, the person may
sign the memo at the bottom beneath the message.
Typed initials at the bottom of the page should be
used to indicate who typed the memo if that person is
different from the person writing it.
If there is an attachment, it should be noted
at the bottom of the page in the notations part.
Writing a Memo on MS Word
 Start your memo 2 inches from the top of the
paper. Word processing programs generally
have a default one-inch top margin. You will
need to press the <enter> key six times to move
down another inch.
P a g e | 89
 Type in the title ‘Memo’ or ‘Memorandum’ in a
large font (30 or higher), and perhaps bold,
either, centre-or left-or justified, followed by
three blank lines. (Press <enter> four times.)
Follow the directions below to create the
heading. This section contains the word ‘To’
with the name of the person to whom the
memo is directed; ‘From’ with the name of the
sender; ‘Date,’ with the current date; and
‘Subject’ or ‘Re,’ followed by a brief statement
of the subject of the memo. The heading may
be single- or double-spaced, though double
spacing makes it easier to read. Generally the
heading is left-justified, and the headings
themselves (To, From, Date, Subject) are
generally mixed upper and lower case, though
they can be all upper case.
To enter appropriate names and dates after
each of the headings, use the <tab> key after
the colons to align the information.
 At the left margin, key To: Use the <tab> key
and key the name of the person. Then press
<enter> twice.
 At the left margin, key From: Use the <tab> key
and key the name of the person. Then press
<enter> twice.
 At the left margin, key Date: Use the <tab> key
and key the date. Then press <enter> twice.
 At the left margin, key Subject: Use the <tab>
key and key the subject. Then press <enter>
three times.
 Begin keyboarding the body of the memo.
 If the person keying the memo is different from
the person who wrote it, press <enter> twice
and key the initials of that person in lower case.
 If there is an attachment, press <enter> twice
and key Attachment on the left margin.
NOTE: If a copy of the memo is being sent to someone
else, insert CC: on the left margin between steps 3 and
4 above and indicate to whom it is being copied, OR
insert this information after step 8, below reference
initials.
 P a g e | 90

Memo
To: Students
Cc: Ruth Garcia, Principal
From: John McMahon, Instructor
Date: April 17, 2005
Subject: Completing Career Portfolios
I want to remind all of you that you are
required to complete and present a career
portfolio in order to receive credit for this class, as
explained in the course syllabus. The due date for
completed portfolios is no later than May 31. To
date, I have reviewed only 5 portfolios.
As a reminder, required components of the
portfolio are listed on the portfolio checklist in
your assignment packet. They include a completed
application form, a resume, three letters of
reference, a cover letter to accompany a resume
or make a job inquiry, and a follow-up thank you
letter. Those wishing extra credit should also
include at least four work samples, a personal
reflective essay, and an alternate resume using
one of the formats we discussed in class.
Only after I have reviewed your portfolio will
I schedule your oral presentation, probably in the
first week of June, so the choice slots will go to
those who turn in their work early.
Do get back if you have any questions.

JM

Attachment

Email Writing
If you want to be a good email citizen and
ensure the kind of results you’re looking for, you’ll need
to craft messages that are concise and easy to deal
with. First: Understand why you’re writing. Before you
type anything into a new message, have explicit
answers for two questions:
1. Why am I writing this?
2. What exactly do I want the result of this
message to be?
There are a few important points to remember when
composing email, particularly when the email's
recipient is a superior and/or someone who does not
know you.
 Be sure to include a meaningful subject
line; this helps clarify what your message
is about and may also help the recipient
prioritize reading your email
 Just like a written letter, be sure to open
your email with a greeting like Dear Dr.
Jones, or Ms. Smith:
 Use standard spelling, punctuation, and
capitalization. THERE'S NOTHING WORSE
THAN AN EMAIL SCREAMING A MESSAGE
IN ALL CAPS.
 Write clear, short paragraphs and be
direct and to the point; professionals and
academics alike see their email accounts
as business. Don't write unnecessarily
long emails or otherwise waste the
recipient's time
 Be friendly and cordial, but don't try to
joke around (jokes and witty remarks may
be inappropriate and, more commonly,
may not come off appropriately in email)
Continuing Email Conversations
Once you have exchanged emails with a
person on a given subject, it is better to leave
greetings out of your follow-up emails. Here are some
other points to consider about continuing
conversations over email:
 Try to respond within a reasonable time
frame, though "reasonable" will
depending on the recipient's expectations
and the subject being discussed
 Trim back the old messages: most email
clients will keep copying older messages
to the bottom of an email. Delete older
messages so as to keep your message size
from getting too large, and to keep your
messages looking clean.
 If someone asks a lot of questions, it may
be OK to embed your answers into the
sender's message copied at the bottom of
your email. However, if you're going to do
P a g e | 91
this, be sure to say so at the top, and leave
generous space, for example:
 How long are you staying?
Less than two weeks.
 Will you have time to visit
with us?
I'm really hoping to, but my
schedule will be pretty
tight. Let me get back to
you about that after the
weekend.
Sending Information
Emails generally are neither encrypted nor
secure instead the email you send is "open" and could
possibly be read by an unintended person as it is
transmitted to your reader. With that in mind, never
send the following information over email:
 Usernames and passwords
 Credit card or other account information like
bank transactions
 Additionally, avoid sensitive or information
that could be potentially damaging to
someone's career and/or reputation, including
your own.
Beyond email's general lack of security and
confidentiality, your recipient can always
accidentally hit the Forward button, leave her
email account open on a computer or print and
forget that she's printed a copy of your email.
Thereby it is recommended that the information
you send is of statutory importance.
Sending Attachments
The ease of transmitting files to a particular person
makes email very attractive. However, there are some
guidelines you should follow:
 Never send an attachment to someone
you don't know the first time you contact
them (unless, of course, the contact has
posted a job ad requesting a resume in a
Word document). They (or their
computers) might think it is spam or a
virus, and delete your message.
 Avoid unnecessarily large file sizes. Digital
photos especially: most digital photos
come off the camera much larger than can
be viewed on screen. Learn how to resize
your digital photographs.
 When you must send a large file or set of
files, do the recipient the courtesy of
sending an email telling them what you'll
be sending and why.
 Be sure to have anti-virus software
installed on your computer to scan all of
your outgoing and incoming messages for
viruses.
 P a g e | 92

Follow these tips while

drafting an email.
 Write a meaningful subject line.
 Keep the message focused and readable.
 Avoid attachments.
 Identify yourself clearly.
 Be kind -- don't flame.
 Proofread.
 Don't assume privacy.
 Distinguish between formal and informal
situations.
 Respond Promptly.
 Show Respect and Restraint.

Precise Writing
The word “precise” means exact or to the point.
The goal of a précis is to summarize the findings in an
article by identifying the main points and conclusions of
the research along with reviewing the broader
implications of the results obtained in the passage. In
order to accomplish this goal, it helps to follow a six
step process:
Step 1: Read the passage. Read it again. Go on
reading it until you understand it. Put
down on paper the main idea or ideas;
make notes in the margins.
Step 2: Read the passage again to make sure you
haven’t missed any important ideas.
Step 3: Referring to your notes if you need to, but
not to the original, write a rough summary
of the passage. By not looking at the
original, you will avoid copying; you will
be forced to put the ideas into your own
words.
Step 4: Read your précis. Ask yourself the
following questions—
 Does it say what the original says?
 Does it sound like normal English?
 Have you kept the connections of
thought original?
 Is the précis perfectly clear?
 Can you improve or condense any
words or phrases?
Step 5: Count the words. If there are too many,
write more concisely to shorten the
précis. If there are too few, check to see
whether you omitted some important
ideas.
Step 6: Read the précis again. If nothing
important has been omitted and nothing
at all added, write your final, correct
copy. Proofread it.
Purpose of Precise Writing:
Precise Communications can help you to create
polished, professional and effective text. Whether
you're developing a brief sales letter, text for your Web
site, or a doctoral dissertation, an experienced writer
and editor can help you eliminate writing errors and
improve your opportunity for success. Precise
Communications can serve for the following purposes:
 Proofreading
 Rewriting
 Editing
 Copywriting
 Instructional/educational
material development
 Speechwriting or Screenplay
proofreading
P a g e | 93
 Experienced and
individualized writing
services
Precise Communications is dedicated to helping
intelligent people achieve their goals, by helping them
to create polished, professional writing products and
effective marketing tools.
Effective writing, on the Web or in print, can be
defined as conveying what you mean. To achieve this,
attempt to select words that both express exactly what
you are thinking and feeling, as well as suit your
audience, purpose, and subject. Often, you will find
that the vocabulary that you already possess is
sufficient for your purpose; however, at times, you may
need to consult a thesaurus or dictionary. There are
two steps necessary to avoid inexact, incorrect, or
ambiguous word usage:
1. Choose words with the precise
denotation you require.
2. Choose words with the connotation
appropriate to your meaning and
audience.
The Incorrect denotation:
denotation of  “After reading the textbook,
a word is its I implied that writing is a
explicit difficult subject to master.”
meaning, as [Imply means “to state
found in the indirectly.”]
dictionary. Correct denotation:
There are  “After reading the textbook,
three potential I inferred that writing is a
usage pitfalls difficult subject to master.”
regarding a [Infer means “to conclude from
word's the evidence.”]
denotation: Inexact denotation:
incorrect,  “I read the textbook, and I
inexact, and inferred that writing is a
ambiguous. difficult subject to master.”
The examples [And adds or continues the first
below clause.]
illustrate these Exact denotation:
three cases.  “I read the textbook, so I
inferred that writing is a
difficult subject to master.”
The connotation of a word is what the word implies
or suggests. Context has much to do with the
perceived connotation of a word.
Sunlight, for instance, in the context of a technical
report on atmospheric conditions will evoke
scientific connotations; whereas, when used in a
fashion magazine sunlight may evoke images of
swim wear. Always be sure to take into account the
likely connotations your readers will derive from
 P a g e | 94

your words, based on both your context and your

purpose.

Technical Description

The biggest hurdle you may face in writing a

description is remembering what the term means as
it is used in this context. We all use the word
description loosely to refer to practically any
discussion or explanation. But in this context, it
means the detailed discussion of the physical aspects
of a thing. That means discussing things like colour,
shape, size, weight, height, width, thickness, texture,
density, contents, materials of construction, and so
on. It also means discussing any quantifiable details
such as numbers.
Descriptions are common element in technical
writing. They appear more often as a sentence or two
here, a paragraph there, or a whole section there.
There are certain kinds of technical writing that feature
description. You can imagine accident reports requiring
plenty of description. Product specifications—
documents that describe design and feature of a new
or changed product—have plenty of description. Also
instructions typically require description as an
important supplement: readers need to be able to
visualize what they are doing and what they are
working with.
For example, the sentence "A computer diskette is a
device used for storing electronic data" is not really
description in our sense of the word. It explains the
function or purpose but provides little or no physical
detail. However, the sentence "The common computer
diskette is 3.5 inches by 3.5 inches and approximately
1/8 inch thick" is very definitely description.
 P a g e | 95

Writing Technical Descriptions  discussing a bit of process as you describe.

Here are some important guidelines that are
helpful while deciding for the content and the Description of the operation or process. At some point
organization of these descriptions. in a description, often at the end, it is useful to
summarize the operation or process associated with
Introduction: Plan the introduction to your description the object you're describing. For example:
carefully. Make sure it does all of the following things  If you've just described a mechanical
(but not necessarily in this order) that apply to your pencil, you could briefly explain how it is
particular description: used.
 Indicate the specific object about to be  If you've just described a snowflake, you
described. could discuss the process by which it
 Indicate what the audience needs in formed.
terms of knowledge and background to
understand the description. Using Numbers: We are often vitally concerned about
numbers in the technical writing context, and want
 Give a general description of the object
and its function, cause, or effect. them to stand out. This means that you should use
numerals in running text when the number indicates an
 Give an overview of the contents of the
exact, measured, or measurable amount or when it
description.
represents a critical value. For example, in the sentence
"The cup is 3 inches in diameter" or in the sentence
Background: If the thing you are describing is not likely
"Use 4 tacks to fasten the poster to the wall," it seems
to be familiar to most of your readers, consider adding
to matter that the numbers are exact. However, this
some background before you plunge into the actual
does not mean using numerals for indifferent values:
description. If you are about to describe an SGO/3
for example, in the sentence "The report contains four
density gauge to non-specialists, you'd better first
major sections," there is nothing heart-stopping about
discuss:
how many sections the report has.
 what in the world the thing is,
 Don't start sentences with numerals--
 what it does, and on
write the number out or, better yet,
 what part of the planet it is used.
rephrase the sentence so that it doesn't
begin the sentence.
Description of the parts or characteristics: The main
 For decimal values less than 1, add a 0
part of your description is the discussion of each part or
before the decimal point: for example,
characteristic. You must divide the thing you are
.08 should be 0.08.
describing into parts, or characteristics, or both.
 Make a firm decision on how to handle
 Parts are easy: for example, a wooden
0 and 1 when they refer to key, exact
pencil has lead, a wooden barrel, an
values and stick with it. (Style varies
eraser, and a metal clip.
wildly in technical writing on these two
 Characteristics are describable aspects of
villains.) Some technical styles choose to
a thing but are not parts: for example, the
use words for these; they resign
pencil has a certain weight, length, width,
themselves to the slight inconsistency
and so on.
but better readability.
 If you were a budding real-estate tycoon
 Use numerals for important, exact
and had to describe a vacant lot for
values, even when those values are
company files, you'd probably describe it
below 10.
by its characteristics: its location, square
 Use words for numerical values that are
footage, terrain, vegetation, access to
unimportant, such as in the sentence
utilities, and so on.
"There are six data types in the C
Once you've divided the thing you are
programming language."
describing into parts, characteristics, or both, your next
 When you must use fractions, avoid the
job is to describe each one. For mechanical things, it
symbols that may be available in the
works well to start by defining the part, by explaining
character set used by your software or
its function. After that, you describe the part from
typewriter. Construct the fraction like
general to specific, using any of the sources of
this: 5-1/4. Be sure and put the hyphen
description that are appropriate.
between the whole number and the
 Notice that in description, you can mix other
fraction.
kinds of writing. You'll find yourself
 It would be nice if all fractions could be
explaining:
reset as decimals, but such is not the
 functions,
case when you have things like 1/8
 defining terms,
 P a g e | 96

floating around. Stay consistent with Sample description of a machine

either decimals or fractions in these
situations.
 Don't make numerical values look more
exact than they are. For example, don't
add ".00" to a rupee amount if the
amount is rounded or estimated.
 For large amounts, you can write things
like 36 million or 45 billion, but, for
some reason, not 23 thousand.
 Apply these rules in specifically
technical, scientific contexts only. Be
sensitive to what the standard practices
are in the context in which you are
writing.
Abbreviations. In technical writing, we expect to see
abbreviations. Use them in your description freely.
Remember the rule on punctuating abbreviations—
punctuate them only if they spell a word (for example,
"in."). Remember that abbreviations do not go up
against the number they are used with
 for example, make that "8 mm tape" or "8-
mm tape" but not "8mm tape"
A machine is an assembly of
connected parts arranged to
transmit or modify force to perform
useful work. All machines are based
on six types:
1. lever;
2. wheel and axle;
3. pulley;
4. inclined plane;
5. Wedge; and
6. Screw.
The wheel barrow, human arm, and
crowbar are all levers. Wheel and
axles are used to raise loads by
pulling a rope attached to the axle.
Pulleys work in the same way, but the
force and movement of load may be
in different directions. Inclined plane
and screw are used to move heavy
weights with little efforts. Wedges
exert large sideways forces.

Symbols. The most common problem with symbols in

the instructions and descriptions assignment has to do
with inches and feet. If you're writing instructions for a
carpenter's dream project where there are feet and
inches all over the place, use the symbols:
 " for inches, and
 ' for feet
However, if you cite inch and foot measurements only
a few times, use the word or abbreviation instead.

Graphics in Descriptions
In most descriptions, you'll need at least one
illustration of the thing you are describing, with labels
pointing to the parts. See the section on graphics for
more on creating graphics, formatting them according
to the requirements, and incorporating them into your
descriptions.
 Headings. In descriptions, you'll want to use
headings and subheadings to mark off the
discussion of the individual parts or
characteristics. Remember that, ideally, you
want to describe each part in a separate
paragraph or section—and flag that discussion
with a heading.
 Lists. Lists are not as important in descriptions
as they are in instructions. However, if you
itemize parts or subparts or list specifications,
these are good situations for lists. See the
section on lists for the specific requirements.
 Special notices. A special notice may be useful
to emphasize important points or exceptions.

Questions
1. What are the essentials of reading?
2. What are the problems faced by the Indian students
while reading texts in English?
3. What do you understand by the term mechanics of
good reading?
4. What are the guidelines of reading/attempting a
comprehension passage?
5. Define critical reading?
6. Discuss the steps of improving comprehension.
7. What are the hurdles while reading English?
8. Differentiate between reading a course text book
and newspaper/magazine.
9. Write a short note on letter writing.
10. Write characteristics of effective business writing.
Or describe the features of a typical business letter.
11. What is a business letter? How is it different from
social letter?
12. What is the role of planning a business letter?
13. What is the role of layout in an official letter?
14. You wish to purchase some books from a leading
publisher on Regular basis for your own book store.
Write a letter to the company inquiring about the
Credit Facility offered, references require and other
formalities to be fulfilled prior to opening a new
credit account.
15. Draft an application for the post of receptionist for
a leading daily newspaper who are looking for
someone fluent in English, verse in handling
telex/PBX system, pleasing personality.
16. Draft an application for the post of secretary for a
multinational company who are looking for some
one at least PG in related field.
17. Draft an application to a customer who has
reported about poor working of a printer supplied
by your firm.
18. As a manager of a bank draft a tactful letter to a
customer who is in a habit of overdrawing his
account without prior permission.
19. What are job applications? Is bio data a necessary
to asset to them?
20. Healthy Foods Ltd, a fast-growing manufacturer in
the food-processing industry, has openings in its
training program. Only highly motivated, dynamic,
and result-oriented people with excellent
communication skills need apply. Opportunities for
advancement to management positions based on
performance. Applicants must demonstrate a
professional image and possess skills in working
with people. Computer literacy required. Apply to
Personnel Manager, P.G. Box 520, Bangalore. Draft
your job application including a bio-data in a
suitable format.
21. Candidates holding a bachelor's degree with a
background in information systems, marketing, or
communications are required for work on company
intranet, extranet, and Internet sites. Mastery of
HTML coding, website design including graphic
P a g e | 97
design and client server technology is vital.
Applicants must also possess excellent writing skills
and the ability to effectively manage multiple
projects while interfacing with company
employees. Please send resume to Promod Tiwari in
Human Resources, Exclusive Software, 520, North
Main Street, Coimbatore, or fax it to 022-25221100,
or e-mail toprati@esoft.com. Draft your job
application including a bio-data in a suitable format.
22. As the Manager of Sangam Hotel, New Delhi, write
a claim letter to the General Manager of Bharat
Potteries, Aligarh Road, Bhavanipur, telling him that
most of the contents of the chinaware which you
had ordered from their firm have reached you in a
damaged condition. Demand replacement or
suitable compensation. Invent necessary details.
23. As the Purchase Manager of Satyam Computers, 9
Naidu Road, Hyderabad-500007, you had ordered
two dozen Personal Computers from Hindustan
Computers Limited (HCL), 140 M.G. Road,
Bangalore-50000 1. When the consignment arrived,
you found some of the pieces in the damaged
condition. Write a complaint letter to the Sales
Manager of the company asking for repair,
replacement, or compensation.
24. As the Purchase Officer of a Company, write a
complaint letter to Uniflex Ltd, New Delhi, pointing
out the damage which was discovered after
checking the consignment containing Compact
Discs sent to you by the supplier. Invent the
necessary details.
25. You have been busy getting your furniture
warehouse ready for the annual summer sale, a
traditional event in the area. It attracts hundreds of
local citizens. The prices are genuinely low, and the
quality is uniformly high. But you get a sudden jolt
when you receive the delivery of Apex Tea Tables
from Apex Ltd, Assam. Out of 200 Tables that you
had ordered, 35 are broken and 25 have scratches.
You think packaging is the problem, but you cannot
be certain. Already you have advertised the Tables
for sale. The Tables still form the part of your sale.
Write a claim letter to Apex Ltd, seeking a rapid
replacement. The sale is just nine days away. You
will return the damaged products, but you do not
intend to pay transport charges. Invent other
necessary details. Playing the role of Senior Sales
Manager, Apex Ltd, draft a suitable reply to this
claim letter.
26. Ajay purchased a VCR on August 13 from Smiley's TV
Town, Mumbai. The VCR came with a 'ninety-day
warranty against all defects' and a guarantee for 'in-
home free repairs and labour'. On October 30, the
VCR showed a horizontal line across the screen
when she replayed tapes. Ajay called the store
manager, Vikas Mallik, and explained the problem.
Mallik said the horizontal lines were caused by a
dirty head and told Ajay to bring the VCR in for
cleaning. He also told Ajay that he would be charged

for this service since dirty VCR heads were basic
wear and, therefore, not covered by the warranty.
Ajay was angered by this response from the store
manager and decided to write a letter of complaint.
Based on the information provided, write Ajay's
letter of complaint.
27. As the Sales Director of Fitness Plus Centre,
Bangalore, draft a sales letter to Business
Professionals selling them on your 3 Wellness
Packages: 1.The 3-day Fitness Weekend 2. The 7-
day Total Fitness Program 3. The Individualized
Corporate Well-being Program.
28. Assume that you are the Marketing Manager for a
professional hockey team. At present, you are
concerned about season-ticket sales for the coming
season. They are well below sales for previous years
and hence you plan to do something about it. Draft
a sales letter to those 500 people who have bought
season ticket last year but did not this year.
29. Realizing the need of packing services in Faridabad,
Elite Professional Packers have recently started
their services in the city. You, as the publicity
manager of this company have the onus of
promoting this service. Draft a sales letter to be sent
to the customers.
30. As the Sales Manager of Modern Electronics Ltd,
Mumbai, write a sales letter to all the Principals of
Higher Secondary Schools in your town to promote
the sale of a new film projector your company has
recently manufactured. Point out its features and
facilities.
31. Assume that you are the Publicity Officer of the
Haryana Tourism Department which has recently
developed a tourist centre near Delhi. This centre
has an aquarium, an artificial lake, and a Japanese
style hanging garden, a museum, and a handicraft
showroom. Attached to this centre is a tourist
bungalow which has air-conditioned rooms, a bar,
and a swimming pool. Draft a sales letter to be sent
to the First Secretaries of the foreign diplomatic
missions in Delhi for promoting tourist traffic to this
centre.
32. Wanted a Plant Manager (Operations) at our new
factory in Gaziabad, UP Engineering Graduates with
minimum 3 years experience in manufacturing
industries as Plant Managers can apply. Salary is
negotiable. Apply with particulars to Box 650, The
Hindu, Chennai-600004 latest by 30thJuly.
33. If you are a fresher and a post-graduate in science
and interested in research, apply for the post of
Junior Research Associate in our R&D Division. You
should hold a post-graduate degree in
mathematics, physics, chemistry, or biology. If
selected you will be given a Research Assistantship
of Rs 8000/ - p.m. and you will have the opportunity
to work in excellent laboratories. Apply within 15
days to Manager Research, R&D Division, Wipro
Industries, Bangalore-560 012.
P a g e | 98
34. Safe Insurance Company seeks personable, college-
trained person to manage office of five employees.
People skills and good communication ability a
must. Knowledge of office procedures and Word
processing essential. Send application within 07
days to Human Resource Office, P.O. Box 719,
Kanpur.
Exercises
1. Prepare a list of steps/actions that can be
taken to remove hurdles while reading English
(a foreign language).
2. Prepare a list that can be given a critical
reading. Discuss the essentials steps that can
be followed for any one of these texts.
3. Identify the reading skills required in the
following reading situations:
Note: There is often not a single correct
answer; several choices may be possible
according to your reading purpose. If you find
that there are different possibilities, state the
situation in which you would use the various
skills.
 The TV guide for Friday evening
 An English grammar book
 An article in National Geographic
magazine about the Roman Empire
 A good friend's homepage on the
Internet
 The opinion page in your local
newspaper
 The weather report in your local
newspaper
 A novel
 A poem
 A bus timetable
 A fax at the office
 An advertising email - so called
"spam"
 An email or letter from your best
friend
 A recipe
 A short story by your favourite
author

Writing Reports:
Reports are a highly structured form of writing often
following conventions that have been laid down to
produce a common format. Structure and convention
in written reports stress the process by which the
information was gathered as much as the information
itself.
 A report is a collection of DATA.
 It is based on OBSERVATION.
 A report is a FACTUAL
description of the incidence or
accident.
 Reports are drafted OBJECTIVELY
and have no place for personal
views or comments.
 It describes the events to those
who were not present at the
scene.
 It helps in DECISION MAKING.
Types of Report:
During your time at university you may be asked to
write different types of reports, depending upon the
subject area which you have chosen. These could
include laboratory reports, technical reports, and
reports of a work placement or industrial visit, reports
of a field trip or field work.
Reports vary in their purpose, but all of them will
require a formal structure and careful planning,
presenting the material in a logical manner using clear
and concise language.
The following section explores each stage in the
development of your report, making recommendations
for structure and technique.
The following stages are involved in writing a report:
 clarifying your terms of reference
 planning your work
 collecting your information
 organising and structuring your information
 writing the first draft
 checking and re-drafting.
Introduction or The terms of reference:
The terms of reference of a report are a guiding
statement used to define the scope of your
investigation. You must be clear from the start what
you are being asked to do. You will probably have
been given an assignment from your tutor but you
may need to discuss this further to find out the precise
subject and purpose of the report. Why have you been
asked to write it?
Knowing your purpose will help you to communicate
your information more clearly and will help you to be
more selective when collecting your information.
P a g e | 99
Planning:
Careful planning will help you to write a clear, concise
and effective report, giving adequate time to each of
the developmental stages prior to submission.
 Consider the report as a whole
 Break down the task of writing the report into
various parts.
 How much time do you have to write the
report?
 How can this be divided up into the various
planning stages?
 Set yourself deadlines for the various stages.
 Draw up an outline structure for your report
and
 Set the work within a sensible time scale for
completion by the given deadline.
Some of the most time-consuming parts of the
process are collecting and selecting your
information, and checking and revising your
report.
Collecting information
 What is the information you need?
 Where do you find it?
 How much do you need?
 How shall you collect it?
 In what order will you arrange it?
You may have much of the information you need
already such as results from a laboratory experiment or
descriptions of your methods of data collection.
However, there may be other material which is needed
such as background information on other research
studies, or literature surveys. You may need to carry out
some interviews or make a visit to the university library
to collect all the information you need.
Organising information:
One helpful way of organising your information into
topics is to brainstorm your ideas into a ‘spider
diagram.’
 Write the main theme in the centre of
a piece of paper.
 Write down all the ideas and
keywords related to your topic
starting from the centre and
branching out along lines of
connecting ideas.
 Each idea can be circled or linked by
lines as appropriate.
 When you have finished, highlight
any related ideas and then sort
topics.
 Some ideas will form main headings,
and others will be sub-sections under
these headings.

 You should then be able to see a
pattern emerging and be able to
arrange your main headings in a
logical order.
Format:
We discussed earlier that there are different types of
report such as laboratory reports or reports on an
industrial placement. Always check with the person
commissioning the report (your tutor, your placement
supervisor) to find out precisely what your report
should include and how it should be presented. There
are two methods by which individuals can write a
report:
The Letter Format: It may be written in the form of
an ordinary letter. Here the usual
formalities of a letter are:
 Date
 Addressee
 Subject or the title of a report
 It may or may not include salutation
 The report with all its compulsory parts
either written with headings or sub
headings or in mere divided into
paragraphs like a letter.
 Finally signing and writing your name in
brackets.
Schematic format of a report:
This method is more popular when writing a committee
report. Following is the format or the sub titles in which
this report is written.
Title page
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Introduction
Methodology
Results or findings
Discussion
Conclusion and recommendations
References
Appendices
We shall now look at each of these in turn.
Title page
This should include the title of the report (which should
give a precise indication of the subject matter), the
author’s name, module, course and the date.
Preface or a Short Opening Summary
This should be a short paragraph summarising the main
contents of the report. It should include a short
statement of the main task, the methods used,
conclusions reached and any recommendations to be
made. The abstract or summary should be concise,
informative and independent of the report.
P a g e | 100
Acknowledgements
You should acknowledge any help you have received in
collecting the information for the report. This may be
from librarians, technicians or computer centre staff,
for example.
Contents
You should list all the main sections of the report in
sequence with the page numbers they begin on. If there
are charts, diagrams or tables included in your report,
these should be listed separately under a title such as
‘List of Illustrations’ together with the page numbers on
which they appear.
Introduction
This should give the context and scope of the report
and should include your terms of reference. State your
objectives clearly, define the limits of the report,
outline the method of enquiry, give a brief general
background to the subject of the report and indicate
the proposed development.
Methodology
In this section you should state how you carried out
your enquiry.
 What form did your enquiry take?
 Did you carry out interviews or questionnaires,
how did you collect your data?
 What measurements did you make?
 How did you choose the subjects for your
interviews?
 Present this information logically and
concisely.
A method can generally be of two types.
One, involving meeting several people and other
merely getting a questionnaire worked out by the
persons interviewed, either in person or phone.
The media used for the method is also important. The
media can either be personal interview, interview on
phone, some other means of collecting indirect
responses, through the use of internet, etc.
Results or findings
Present your findings in as simple a way as possible. The
more complicated the information looks, the more
difficult it will be to interpret. There are a number of
ways in which results can be presented.
Here are a few:
 Tables
 Graphs
 Pie charts
 Bar charts
 Diagrams

Discussion
This is the section where you can analyse and interpret
your results drawing from the information which you
have collected, explaining its significance. Identify
important issues and suggest explanations for your
findings. Outline any problems encountered and try
and present a balanced view.
Conclusions and recommendations
This is the section of the report which draws together
the main issues. It should be expressed clearly and
should not present any new information. You may wish
to list your recommendations in separate section or
include them with the conclusions.
References
It is important that you give precise details of all the
work by other authors which has been referred to
within the report. Details should include:
 author’s name and initials
 date of publication
 title of the book, paper or journal
 publisher
 place of publication
 page numbers
 details of the journal volume in which the
article has appeared.
 References should be listed in alphabetical
order of the authors' names.
 Make sure that your references are accurate
and comprehensive.
Appendices
An appendix contains additional information related to
the report but which is not essential to the main
findings. This can be consulted if the reader wishes but
the report should not depend on this. You could include
details of interview questions, statistical data, a
glossary of terms, or other information which may be
useful for the reader.
Style of writing
There are several points that you will need to consider
when you are writing your report. Some of the most
basic tips to remember when writing include:
 Avoid the use of slang words
 Try not to use abbreviations (unless
appropriately defined)
 Steer away from the use of symbols
(such as ampersands [&])
 Clichés should be avoided, or at the
very least, used with caution
 Brackets are used to play down words
or phrases
 Dashes are generally used for
emphasis
P a g e | 101
 Great care should be taken to spell
the names of people and companies
correctly
 Numbers should be expressed as
words when the number is less than
10 or is used to start a sentence
(example: Ten years ago, my brother
and I…). The number 10, or anything
greater than 10, should be expressed
as a figure (example: My brother has
13 Matchbox cars.)
 Quotation marks should be placed
around any directly quoted speech or
text and around titles of publications.
 Keep sentences short
Active or Passive?
Your tutor will be able to advise whether the report
should be written in the ‘active’ or ‘passive’ voice.
The active voice reads as follows:
‘I recommend ...’
The passive voice reads:
‘It is recommended that ...’
The active voice allows you to write short, punchy
sentences.
The passive appears more formal and considered.
Be aware of these differences and avoid mixing the two
voices.
Simplicity
Most written reports should avoid using overly
complicated language. If a report is to persuade, brief
or justify, its message must be clear. Furthermore, the
factual presentation of data should not be swamped
with sophisticated, lengthy sentences.
Avoid using unnecessary jargon. This confuses even the
most informed reader.
Ensure that your abbreviations are standardised. All too
often authors invent their own jargon to ease the
pressure on writing things in full. Be cautious of
confusing your reader.
Use of language
Most reports should avoid the use of subjective
language. For example, to report on a change in
colouration from a "stunning green to a beautiful blue"
is to project your own values onto a measurable
outcome. What does the term "beautiful" mean to
you? What will it mean to your reader? Such subjective
or personal language commonly has no place in the
more objective field of report writing.
Layout
Most reports have a progressive numbering system.
The most common system is the decimal notation
system. For example:
 P a g e | 102

 The main sections are given single Arabic  Does this state:
numbers - 1, 2, 3 and so on.  The main task?
 Sub-sections are given a decimal number - 1.1,  The methods used?
1.2, 1.3 and so on.  The conclusions reached?
 Sub-sections can be further divided into - 1.11,  The recommendations made?
1.12, 1.13 and so on. • Introduction
An example structure would look as follows;  Does this include:
1. Introduction  Your terms of reference?
1.1 ———————-  The limits of the report?
1.11 ———————-
 An outline of the method?
1.2 ———————-
 A brief background to the subject
1.21 ———————-
matter?
2. Methodology
• Methodology
2.1 ———————-
2.11 ———————-  The form your enquiry took?
2.12 ———————-  The way you collected your data?
The following suggestions will help you to produce an • Reports and findings
easily read report:  Are your diagrams clear and simple?
 Leave wide margins for binding and  Are they clearly labelled?
feedback comments from your tutor.  Do they relate closely to the text?
 Paragraphs should be short and • Discussion
concise.  Have you identified key issues?
 Headings should be clear -  Have you suggested explanations for
highlighted in bold or underlined. your findings?
 All diagrams and illustrations should  Have you outlined any problems
be labelled and numbered. encountered?
 All standard units, measurements  Have you presented a balanced view?
and technical terminology should be • Conclusions and Recommendations
listed in a glossary of terms at the  Have you drawn together all of your
back of your report. main ideas?
 Have you avoided any new
Presentation information?
Once you have written the first draft of your report you  Are any recommendations clear and
will need to check it through. It is probably sensible to concise?
leave it on your desk for a day or so if you have the time. • References
This will make a clear break from the intensive writing  Have you listed all references
period, allowing you to view your work more alphabetically?
objectively. Assess your work in the following areas:  Have you included all the necessary
• Structure information?
• Content  Are your references accurate?
• Style • Appendices
 Have you only included supporting
Redrafting and checking information?
• Title page  Does the reader need to read these
 Title? sections?
 Author’s name? • Writing style
 Module/course details?  Have you used clear and concise
• Acknowledgements language?
 Have you acknowledged all sources  Are your sentences short and jargon
of help? free/
• Contents  Are your paragraphs tightly focused?
 Have you listed all the main sections  Have you used the active or the
in sequence? passive voice?
 Have you included a list of • Layout
illustrations?  Have you clearly labelled each
• Abstract or summary section?
 P a g e | 103

 Is your labelling consistent

throughout the report?
• Presentation
 Have you left sufficient margin space
for binding/feedback?
 Are your headings clear?
 Have you checked your spelling?
 P a g e | 104

Sample Reports: India Electronics Company

Report on workers discontent at India Engineering A Report

Limited on the
India Engineering Limited Declining Sales of
21, Industrial Area Mumbai Television Sets Manufactured
The Director, by the Company
IEL
Mumbai Prepared for
The Managing Director
A Report on Workers Discontent in
the Manufacturing Unit
Prepared by
Introduction: Ramesh Kumar
I was asked vide office order dated Investigating Officer
21st September 2006 to submit a Date: 25th November 2004
report on the workers discontent  The workers were given long
in the factory’s manufacturing hours on production line
unit.  Skilled persons were no eager
to explain the working of
Method: machines to the workers
In this connection I interviewed  Safety precautions in the
the following people: machine rooms have long been
- 30 workers ignored
- Supervisor  Further, there has been a long
surviving belief that these
I found the following facts
workers are the least paid in
responsible for unrest.
such an industry.
Findings:
Conclusion:
 There seems to be wide-spread
I am of an opinion action must be
discontent among workers.
taken to prevent further
 Several people pointed out that discontent. There is evidence to
the numbers of incidences of believe that all the complaints are
violation of rules and true.
discipline in the factory have
gone up.
Recommendations:
 The situation is deteriorating
seriously and number of  Deliberately ignoring safety
incidences of misbehaviour may precaution against industry
increase. The workers on the rules must be immediately
other hand also had complaints: checked.
 The number of supervisors were  Regarding pay and allowances it
inadequate is necessary to aware the
workers that ours are at par
with the standard norms for
similar industry.
 A special officer be appointed
to study in detail the problem
and the remedy to it.

Sd-
(Name of officer reporting)
Company secretary
 P a g e | 105

Results or findings 7
24th September 2006 Conclusion and Recommendations 18
References 19
A Report on Declining Sales Appendices 20

Cover page Introduction:

Preface:
The company has been witnessing a
decline in sales of TV sets
manufactured for the last two
years. There have several factors
responsible for the same, factors
relating to the market and on part
of the company. Earlier also the
company tried to investigate the
matter and overcome the problem but
little could be achieved in this
area.
I was asked to conduct a survey and
present a report of my findings so
as to curb the declining sales.
I met several people in the course
of compiling the report for the
company and took several pieces of
information from the market.
The data thus collected details the
probable causes of the declining
sales and measures to prevent the
same.
The details of the same are here
presented in the report.
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank...
 Include the names of person,
organisation who helped in
drafting and preparing the
report
 Thank the printer and the
publisher
 Thank the person who may have
helped in preparing the
statistics and obtaining
copyright of material if any
sought for.
Contents:
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Introduction
Methodology
 Give references to the order,
notice or letter vide which you
were asked to draft this report
 Give historical perspectives
or the background to the matter
 Detail, that is describe in
short the work earlier done on
this matter
 Refer to the statistics of
declining sales
Methodology:
 Give the method used for
preparing the report
 List the different people you
met in the course of drafting
the report. Divide them in
groups with reference to their
job or status
 If a questionnaire has been
prepared by you present or
include a sample of copy of the
same in your report.
 Write about the media or
communication channel used to
draft the same. Whether it was
personal interview or phone
etc.
Findings:
 The discrepancies in the sales
and the downfall can largely be
found with reference to three
things.
o Quality
o Service
o cost
 Listed in order of priority it
can be studied as provided by
the company and the same be
compared to other brands
available in the market.
i  Bring out the shortcomings in
ii your product as well the
positives of other competitor
1 brands.
4
 P a g e | 106

 Present your statistics

graphically. A Report on Employment Trend in
 If possible and meaningful Industries
include some illustrations in
what you are presenting.
A Report
Recommendations: on the
 This comprises up of the Employment Trend in
inferences drafted out as a industries
result of your findings.
 Be brief put down straight
forward remarks and measures. Prepared for
 Don’t simply bring out the The Managing Director
shortcomings but suggest how
they can be overcome.
 Mention what can be achieved if Prepared by
your recommendations are Ramesh Kumar
accepted and how they are to be Investigating Officer
enacted. Date: 25th November 2004
 More importantly this becomes Acknowledgements:
an important part of your
report when you are asked to I would like to thank...
submit your recommendations.  Include the names of person,
So check carefully what you organisation who helped in
have to include. drafting and preparing the
report
Conclusion:  Thank the printer and the
 This merely is a logical publisher
inference drawn after you have  Thank the person who may have
compiled your report. helped in preparing the
 Write in short the outcome of statistics and obtaining
the report in one or two copyright of material if any
sentences. sought for.
 Refer to your findings and
recommendations mentioned Contents:
earlier. Acknowledgements ii
 Mention only the last figures
Contents
and not the entire data.
Introduction 1
References: Findings 4
List the books journals and Results or findings 7
other of any such material if Conclusion and Recommendations 12
used to compile the report. References 15
Appendices 16
Appendices:
It is the matter that is
necessary to support your Introduction:
report and what you have There is a growing need for people
proved. It largely is the with technical skills in various
evidence of the research spheres of science and technology.
carried out. The competitive world of today
List serially the tables requires people who are trained in
collected, questionnaires used specific areas. To meet this need
and other related data used at there has been a rapid growth in
your end.
 P a g e | 107

the institutes which offer of particular sectors. In the

specialized education.
Technical Institutes periodically
analyse the job-opportunities that
exist in different fields so that
they can reorient their programmes
accordingly. The present report
attempts to give an overview of the
employment pattern of the students
of institute of Technology in 1996,
1997 and 1998 in selected
industries, namely, Electronics,
Software, Pharmacy and
Construction. The data for this
report was collected from the
records of the Institute's
Admission and Placement Division.
It is expected that the analysis
and conclusions drawn would help
bring about a change in the
institute's plan for growth. Since
the report analyses the trends for
only three years, it cannot suggest
a definite course of action.
Moreover, in the ever changing
world of technology, it is
difficult to foresee the demands
of the industry even two or three
years hence.
Besides Introduction the report
contains six sections. Section 2
gives an overview of the employment
pattern, the next four analyse the
trends in different industries
while the last two sum up the
discussion and show the results of
the study and significant trends.
Findings:
An overview of the employment
trends during the last three
years. The results are reflected
here in the following table:
Industries Years
2005 2006 2007
Electronics 225 185 175
Software 375 395 435
Pharmaceuticals 75 75 60
Construction 60 75 95
The variations as indicated by the
data presented above are co
relatable to the demand in the
employment market of different
industries and the degree of
competition because of expansion
discussion that follows, the trend
in individual industries has been
analysed.
Analysis:
There has been a decline in the
number of students employed in
electronics companies. Whereas 225
students were employed in this
industry in 2005 only 175 students
got jobs in 2007. On interviewing
the officers of a few leading
companies, who came here for
conducting campus interviews, it
was found that they were not very
happy with the course structure
followed in the institute. As a
result they were seeking employees
from other institutes which
satisfied their requirements. The
courses like Power Electronics,
VLSI design, Robotics and Fibre
Optics, they felt, were essential
in today's technology- dominated
world but these are not included
in the Institute's B.E.
(Electronics) programme.
There has been a growth in the
number of students recruited in the
software industry. This can be
attributed to several reasons.
Firstly, the software market is
increasing exponentially during
the last four to five years.
Moreover, the Institute has
changed its software course
pattern to incorporate in demand
subjects and topics like CH, Oracle
and Java. The students too are
aware of this demand and are
increasingly opting for the
software courses.
There is a steep decline in the
placement of students from 75 in
2005 to only 60 in 2007. However,
it is observed that, though
intensive research is going on in
the field of Pharmaceuticals, it
is not as popular as the other
fields. A smaller number of
students are opting for degree
Courses in pharmacy and so there
is a decrease in the number of
students getting jobs in this area.
The Institute provides a very good
programme in pharmacy, and
 P a g e | 108

companies are satisfied with it,

but students tend to go in for more
easily available lucrative jobs in
the new emerging areas.
The scenario in the Construction
employment market is as fluid as
the construction business itself.
This is noticeable in the year
2007, when the construction
business was in full swing; it
attracted the maximum number of
students. However, the number of
students who have been going in for
construction as a profession is the
lowest as compared to other fields.
Understandably students cannot
trust their future with a dicey
profession like this. Thus, even
if the companies want to recruit
construction students, they fail
to get them because of lack of
interest on their part. Further,
construction nowadays is dependent
on software tools and methods, and
companies, therefore, prefer
software engineering personnel who
can later be tuned to the required
construction skills.

Construction:
The report has brought out the
distinct pattern in the trends in
employment in the industry in the
recent years. Where, the software
industry depicts tremendous growth
and job opportunities at the same
time the Pharmaceuticals section
is finding it difficult to keep up
with the situation. The recent
changes also foreshadow a growing
demand of professionals in the
construction sector which may soon
pick up to the next employer of man
power in the industry.

Questions
1. What are the essential requirements of writing a
report?
2. Write a note on the style of language adopted while
writing a report.
3. What are essentials of writing a technical report?
4. Discuss Format of a report.
5. Into how many parts a report can be divided.
6. Draft a business report on basis of a consumer
survey conducted for your company’s intercom
telecom systems.
7. Your company has to supply intercom telephone
system to a newly built institute. Draft a report on
basis of the survey conducted by you to comply with
the demand.
8. You have been asked by your company on the
decline of sales of computer books. (Supposing you
are working with a publisher) Draft a report
mentioning cause of decline and details of sales in
previous years.
9. You are working in TECHNO PLASTICS LIMITED.
Recently there was a major fire that caused heavy
damages in the company. Draft a report the
damages done by fire (detailing the total losses).
10. Draft a report on providing welfare facilities to the
workers of Reddy Surgical Company. Supposing you
are the chairman of the committee instituted for
the said job.
11. You are the head of a committee that has been
appointed to investigate into alleged theft of raw
material and finished products from your
electronics manufacturing company.
12. You are the member of a team that is marketing a
new telecom service which offers calls at a reduced
rates and facility of trekking down anonymous,
threatening and obnoxious calls. You have tried to
market it to business magnets and political leaders.
As a team you have overshot your target. Now you
are required to submit a report on your findings,
performances and recommendations. Prepare a
final report.
13. You are a sociologist and have conducted a survey
of long term performances of children passing out
from government and public schools. Draft a report
of your findings, recommendations and giving your
own conclusion to be submitted to the Ministry of
education for improvement in system of schooling
in India.
14. Your company has recently installed new machinery
(looms) for enhancing the production of cloth. You
are the head of a committee asked to draft a report
on the working of the machines and the total loss or
profits registered since the induction of these
machines as well as the competency of workers in
handling them.
P a g e | 109
15. You have recently surveyed the country-side and
have found that a large number of Primary schools
setup by the government are either partially
functioning or functioning not at all. Draft a report
to be submitted to the ministry of education
expressing your concern as well as the loss nation
incurred as a result of this malfunctioning.
16. You are the head of a committee deputed by the
head of your institute (College/Academic) to
present a report on the importance of English
language for the institute – faculty as well as the
students. Draft a report based on your findings
(present status and position of language
competency) and your recommendations.
17. The management of you firm has recently
introduced a bill for improving workers conditions
in the factory. Draft a report mentioning the areas
where improvement is required for the
management for swift introduction of reforms in
the workers conditions as well as working
conditions.
18. Recently the workers of your factory went on strike
demanding pay rise. Draft a report for the
management to consider the workers point as well
as to decide if the workers have to be given pay rise
(do mention present salary at different levels and
the last pay rise).
19. The production of your company has terribly gone
down in the last few months. This is a major concern
for the management. You have been deputed to
draft a report stating the causes of decline in
production and the means of overcoming the
problem.
20. Your company has proposed in the last board
meeting the induction of new machines in the
factory to enhance production. Draft a report for
the company detailing time required and the
sections of the factory where this upgrade is needed
most and sections where the company could
benefit most from it.
21. Draft a report to be presented to the Vice-
chancellor of Your University stating why the
students are losing interest in studies with
reference to present educational system pointing
out its defects and suggesting improvements in the
present educational system.
22. Draft a report to be presented to the Vice-
chancellor of Your University giving the defects of
the present educational system which is largely
theoretical and bringing to light the advantages of
Vocational form of education. Also mention the
benefits the country could procure treading on the
paths of Vocational education.
23. Draft a report to be presented to the Ministry of
Education bringing to light the dire need of
computer literacy and pointing out benefits of
making computer applications as a compulsory
subject to be studied at all levels and for all streams.
 P a g e | 110

24. Draft a report to be presented to the Ministry of

Education detailing the problems that the country
would face by opening more and more Colleges and
the long term disadvantages of it.
25. Draft a report to be presented to the Ministry of
Education mentioning why the academic standard
of the country has gone down and steps to be taken
to improve the same.

Chapter Summary
Writing is perhaps one of the most demanding of skills.
It has to be deliberately cultivated. Unlike listening and
speaking, it is not something which is natural to
humans—it is a skill developed in civilized society to
pass on knowledge or messages beyond the constraints
of time.
Varieties of Writing: Language possess several
varieties/forms in which it is usually written to meet
both civil and contemplative ends. It is the use of
language that decides the form of writing. Whatever be
the form and purpose of writing the qualities of good
language are common for all. Depending upon the
purpose of writing we can divide writing in about four
or five varieties; namely, academic, aesthetic, critical,
creative, and language for specific purpose.
Brevity: Brevity is the soul of wit. It means concise and
clear. It can be better understood as composed of these
two words—first word is simple and the second short.
Simple: Simple writing is perhaps the most difficult of
the tasks to be achieved and this is what one should
aspire for. All great writers write, above all, simple
language.
Simple sentence: A sentence which is short can be
termed as simple in the first instance. Whereas, from
grammar point a simple sentence is that which has one
verb, (generally) one subject and one object. As per
structures in English Grammar following structures can
be understood as simple:
Simple tense: Though easy is the most important to
understand among the simple words.
There are two tenses in English Grammar that can be
termed as simple—present indefinite and past
indefinite. These tenses are simple largely because:
They take a simple verb to form tense as well as
action.
Their structures follow largely the simple verb
patters i.e. subject + verb (+object).
The verb used in them doesn’t require any other
helping verb to form tense or complete the action.
Short: The short word should be understood with the
word simple and not separated from it. In fact we
should use short words, write short sentences, and of
course short paragraphs. It not merely is easy to
understand them but they have a lasting effect up on
the reader and appear good when written.
Organise: Preparation and planning is the basic
requirement of good writing. There are several aspects
to organise a piece of writing. We need to draft an
outline of the topic, answer certain questions on its,
and order the data in a logical sequence before we
attempting to write. The steps include splitting,
ordering, and sequencing, planning, editing, and
checking.
Split: Divide what you are writing into parts and then
organise the same—like, splitting a passage into
P a g e | 111
paragraphs a paragraph into sentences. This we can
achieve by:
 First dividing the topic into sub-topics, picking up
the words from the topic itself.
 Draft every topic into a separate paragraph or a
sentence whichever is required, and similarly as far
as possible sub-topics should be divided.
Format: Format means a justified use of Margins and
Space.
Divide your writing piece into parts, say paragraphs.
Use one margin or if you prefer to use multiple
margins they should be so graphically used that all
margins are clearly visible. Prefer using one margin.
Leave space between parts of a written piece, like a
line or so.
Indenting everything to a new margin is now an old
style and requires knowhow. Before going for it
Learn to use it.
Letters
Letters are written to carry out routine office work.
They are a form written complaints, request, orders,
invitations, and giving and seeking certain information.
Letters can be divided into largely two types. It should
be noted that entire official correspondence begins
with a letter. Letters written in official matters should
be concise and clearly, as these letters are intended to
be glanced at to grab the content and not to be read
word by word.
Official or business. These are formal letters and
written to execute daily/routine office or business
work. They are largely of three types and can further
be divided.
Social: Those written to friends or relatives. They
are informal.
Invitations: Either notes of invitation or letters of
invitation are both formal as well as informal. As the
word suggests these are notes to invite someone to
a party or a function. They are written in letter form
as well as in heading form. They are short,
purposeful, and precise in their content.
Letters of Complaint: All formal and business
circumstances require written complaints. A complaint
is largely the settlement of discrepancies as a result of
faulty execution of certain tasks. It may be one:
Asking for some kind of compensation.
Asking for relief from some type of problem or
difficulty from higher authorities.
It can be for a routine matter within an organisation
like repairs, remedies, etc.
Letters of Orders: We write these letters to an
organisation or an individual asking about the prices or
for placing an order to deliver certain goods. These may
be further divided as letters for placing orders, asking
for prices, asking for quotations, and sometimes letters
inviting tenders.
Informative Letters: Letters which carry information
fall in this category. It may safely be divided into several

types. Namely, letters of inquiry, letters giving and
seeking information , letters of requests, and
sometimes even letters seeking acceptance from some
important person to be a guest of honour.
Letters of Applications: Letters of application can be
split in two categories one job application and two all
other or official applications for favours. The word
‘apply’ means asking for some favours. An official
application may be one asking for some sanctions or
leave etc., whereas job application may be one
establishing your status as a candidate to some post.
Biodata/Résumé/Curriculum Vitae
Every letter written by a job seeker aims at attracting
the employer’s attention towards his
credentials/portfolio so as to ensure a berth for him.
Biodata, Résumé, or Curriculum Vitae is an essential
part of it. It can be presented both within the body of
the letter or as an attachment to it. A good biodata
should be divides into five parts—Career Objective,
Personal details, Education, Employment or
Experience, and Skills. Other parts of a biodata like
references, salary, and hobbies are not compulsory
requirements and should be included only when asked.
Memorandum
An inter-office memorandum—or memo for short—is
an efficient way of interpersonal communication within
one’s work environment. It contributes to effective
working in an organisation. They can simply be used to
get a works done and may sometimes be used to meet
complex ends of giving warnings to employees
Memoranda (the plural for memorandum) may be sent
through inter-office mail or through email.
Proposals
The Cambridge dictionary defines a proposal as a
prospective (written) plan or action for other people to
consider. Proposal is an act of putting forward some
details of a work, to seek necessary approval, which has
to be undertaken. A proposal is a description of the
work likely to be undertaken on a project or a project
itself that has to be undertaken. It is aimed at
persuading the reader to accept a particular course of
action either to solve a problem or to undertake a
project.
Parts of a proposal: You may further divide your
proposal into following parts: introduction,
methodology, project plan, understanding of the
problem, approach, proposal, budget, results, and
summing up.
Précis Writing
Précis writing refers to converting a speech or a passage
into a suitable word limit that can be remembered and
easily understood. The five step process adopted to
P a g e | 112
attempt a comprehension too can be employed of
converting a passage into a précis. Yet certain minor
alterations can be made in the same to suit the needs
of the task.
Purpose of Précis Writing: Précis helps one to create a
polished, professional and effective text. Whether you
are developing a brief sales letter, or a doctoral
dissertation, an expertise in précis writing will help you
achieve your goals in a precise way.
Email Writing
Email is a quick and reliable form of sending messages.
The speed as well as the frequency at which emails are
being sent these days has completely changed the
information transmission forever.
Language of Emails: Emailing has grown so prominent
just in the past two decades that they have developed
their own pattern as well as language. Employing use of
symbols, abbreviations, acronyms, and several other
notations they have almost developed a language of
internet.
Writing Reports
Reports are a highly structured form of writing often
following conventions that have been laid down to
produce a common format. Structure and convention
in written reports stress the process by which the
information was gathered as much as the information
itself.
A report is a collection of data.
It is based on observation.
A report is a factual in nature and entire recordings
therein are true to life.
Reports are drafted objectively and have no place
for personal views or comments.
It is a description of events for those who were not
present at the scene.
It helps in maintaining records of official dealings,
preparing guidelines for future action, decision
making, and planning.
Elements of Report: A report is divided into five parts,
beginning with the introduction or terms of reference,
the method adopted while preparing a report, the
findings that have been unearthed in the course of
preparation of a report, the analysis of the data
collected to reach a result, and finally conclusion and
recommendations.
Technical Description
Descriptions are a part of reporting and official writing.
When it comes to describe a technical gadget or one
involving certain scientific/technical rules/principles it
becomes a technical description. A student of a
technical, science, or technical fields often come across
a task where they have to describe a technical gadget.
They appear quite often in form of a sentence or two, a
paragraph, or a whole section.

Remember
Unity: Proper division into sentences which
expresses one idea each and are grammatically
correct. This impacts unity of thought and builds up
an idea.
Variety: Variety comes in bundled with creativity.
Envisage to active something new. Repetition of a
word, idea or a thought brings monotony.
Logic: After taking notes (jottings) rearrange them
in the logical order of what comes first. Like the
number system. A systematic development helps
in construction an idea.
Humour: Humour means something that makes
our fancies chuckle. It is not a joke or thing to laugh;
but certainly an instance that relieves audience/
listeners/readers from monotony.
Examples: Always include some references, stories
or pranks to develop or conclude your speech or
writing. This imparts a personal touch into that
piece of writing.
Format: Follow format. This should be adhered to
strictly. A letter should look like a letter. An article,
and likewise.
Avoid Repetition: Never repeat an idea, a thought
or even a word. This gives an impression that you
know nothing beyond this.
Tell us what you want to say on the topic and not
what others have already said on this topic before.
Follow these tips while drafting an email.
Write a meaningful subject line.
Keep the message focused and readable.
Avoid attachments.
Identify yourself clearly.
Be kind -- don't flame.
Proofread.
Don't assume privacy.
Distinguish between formal and informal
situations.
Respond Promptly.
Show Respect and Restraint.
P a g e | 113
The skills involved in writing a report will help you to
condense and focus information, drawing objective
findings from detailed data.
The ability to express views clearly and succinctly is an
important skill and is one that can be greatly
enhanced by approaching each report in a planned
and focused way.
 Understand the type of technical report you
are writing.
 Write down your specific aim.
 Plan the sections and subsections you need.
 Avoid starting with Background, Introduction
and Methodology.
 Write your headings using strong verbs and
specific nouns.
 Match content to your readers' knowledge
and needs.
 Keep information specific rather than general.
 Write in plain English.
 Use active verbs rather than passive verbs.
 Keep your average sentence between 10 to 20
words.
 Edit wordy phrases.
 Use simple words rather than complex ones.
 Avoid jargon.
 Keep technical terms to a minimum.
 Use examples and illustrations.
 Use diagrams, flowcharts and graphs.
 Use good layout to draw attention to key
information.
 Test your document with the intended
readers.
 When drafting a report as an individual write
in letter format.
 When drafting a report as a committee write
in schematic format.
 P a g e | 114

Unit-5

Grammar
 P a g e | 115

Chapter 5

Common Errors in English

In this chapter we will learn

 To use the correct form of tense.  To write correct English and polish your
writing skills
 Subject-verb agreement.
 The use of passive voice.
 Use conditional sentences.
 Uses of indirect speech.
 Structurer of sentences.
 P a g e | 116

Verbs
A Verb may tell us –
1- What a person or thing does:
Sita plays. The clock strikes.
2- What is done to a person or thing:
Mohan is beaten. The book is spoiled.
3- What a person or thing:
The dog is dead. Stone is hard. I feel ashamed.
Thus Verbs are subdivided into three main classes: -
1- Transitive Verb - A verb is Transitive, if the action does not stop with the agent, (The doer
or subject) but passes from the agent to something else (to some object).
(i) The captains hit the ball
(ii) The cat kills a rat.
2- Intransitive Verb – A verb is intransitive, when the action stops with the agent (the subject
or doer), and does not pass from the agent to anything else (to some object).
(i) Men laugh and play to lengthen life.
(ii) She sleeps soundly.
3- Auxiliary verb – An auxiliary verb is one which (a) helps to form a tense or mood of some
principal verb, and (b) forgoes its own significance as a principal verb for that purpose.

Note: - Verbs which are not used in all the moods and tenses are called ‘Defective’. They may
belong to any class.
Rules regarding charges in spelling in the formation of past tense, present participle (and
gerund):
(i) Verbs ending in e add d only for their past tense.’ For example, prove- proved; lade- laden.
The letter ‘e’ is omitted before ing in the present participle and gerund, e,g, , proving , lading
etc.
(ii) Verbs that end in y preceded by a consonant change the y to I before – ed, e.g. carry – carried;
marry- married.
(iii) Verbs that end, in- i e change to –y before – ing. For example, to die has the present participle
dying.
(iv) The final consonant letter is doubled before – ed and – ing if the consonant is single is
preceded by a single vowel letter, and if the verb is monosyllable or stressed on the last
syllable e.g. , allot- allotted; fell- felled; rot- rotted; knit- knitted
(v) Verbs ending in – l double the final consonant even when the last syllable is not stressed,
e.g. marvel- marvelled; travel- travelled; similarly: kidnap – kidnapped; worship-
worshipped,

Tense
Thus, a verb has three main times or tenses. Tense tells us two things:
- Time of action, and
- Degree of completeness of action.
(1) The present, (2) The past, and (3)The Future :
Each of these has four different forms:-
1- Simple (Indefinite)- It denotes present , Past, or Future time in its simplest form; as , “I Play, “I
Played”, “I shall play”
2- Progressive (continuous)—It denotes that the event the present , past or Future time is still
continuing or not yet completed; as “I am playing”, “I was playing”, “I shall be playing.”
3- Perfect- It denotes that the event (In present, past, or future time) is in a complete or perfect
state; as; “I have played”, “I had played”, “I shall have played”.
4- Perfect Progressive (Continuous – It combines the meanings of the two preceding forms; as, I
have been playing. I had been playing. I shall have been playing.
Four Tenses and sixteen forms of verb in the Table
I Active Voice
Form Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense Future in the past
Simple I play I Played] I shall play I would play
 P a g e | 117

Progressive I am playing I was Playing I shall be I would be playing

playing
Perfect I have played I had played I shall have I would have played
played
Perfect I have been I had been I shall have I would have been
Progressive playing playing been playing playing
II Passive voice
Form Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense Future in the past
Simple I am seen I was seen I shall be seen I would be seen
Progressive I am being seen I was being ……. …..
seen
Perfect I have been seen I had been seen I would have I would have been
been seen seen
Perfect ……. …….. ……. ……
progressive

Uses of Different Tenses

Simple Present
Form- The original form of the simple present is that of the infinitive but it adds an ‘s’ (es) for the
third person singular:
Simple present: I read; You read; he (she, it) read & c.
The Negative is formed with the present Tense negative of the verb to do + the infinitive (without
to) of the main verb.
I do not read; you do not read; he (she, it) not read.
The Interrogative is formed with the present Tense interrogative of to do + the infinitive (without
to) of the main verb.
Do I read? ; Do you read? ; Does he (she, it) read?

Uses of the simple Present,

(a) To express habitual, permanent of repeated action; as,
I get up at five O’ clock in the morning.
Cats drink milk,
My watch keeps correct time,
Birds fly.
I drink like a fish and write like a devil
(b) For a universal truth , a general statement, a proverb where no particular time is thought of
; as,
The sun rises I n the east and sets in the west.
Actions speak louder than words.
Strong words break no bones.
(c) To introduce quotations; as,
John Keats says, ’A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
Voltaire says ‘Life is a tragedy for those who feel and a comedy for those who think.’
(d) To make a past event more graphic or vivid (This is also called the Historic or Graphic present);
as
Babar now leads (=then led) his men through the Khyber pass, and enters (= entered) the
plains of India,
(e) Simple past is also used for dramatic narrative: This tense is often used by radio
commentators at sport events, public functions to describe activities in progress.
Govind pushed the ball to Ashok; Ashok dribbles past two defenders takes a shot at goal; the
ball strikes the cross-bar and rebounds in to play……
(f) Sometimes to express a future action about which a decision has already been taken ; as,
I leave for Kanpur on Tuesday next, stay there for a week, and come back to Delhi the next
Tuesday.
(g) It is used with the Verbs of Perception Like: See, hear, smell, notice, recognize,
 P a g e | 118

Appearing: appear, look, and seem.

Emotion: desire, feel, like, love, hate, hope, prefer, refuse, with.
Thinking: agree, believe, consider, forget, imagine know mean, mind, remember,
suppose, think, trust, and understand.
Possession Have (possess), own possess, belong to, consist of contain, be (except when
used in the passive); as,
Sight I see an aeroplane, (not, I am seeing an aeroplane’).
Hearing I hear what you say (not ‘hearing’).
Memory I remember his name is Mohan.

Present Continuous (Progressive)

Form: This tense is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary verb to be + the present participle
(the infinitive + ing; as,)
I am reading; You are reading; he is reading & c.
The Negative is formed by putting not after the auxiliary; as,
I am not reading; You are not reading; he is not reading & c.
The Interrogative is formed by inverting subject and auxiliary,
Am I reading? ; are you reading? ; Is he reading?
Negative – Interrogative is formed, Thus; as
Am I not reading? ; are you not reading? ; is he not reading

Uses of the Present Progressive:

(a) To denote an action that is going on at the time of speaking or in the immediate present; as
The Prime Minister is just stepping out of the aeroplane
The boys are learning the lesson.
I am going home.
(b) “For an action which began in the past and will terminate in the future, but which at the moment
of speaking is incomplete and still continuing “; as,
I am reading ‘Godan’ (but I am not reading at this moment),
(c)To denote a repeated action, “especially some action that is causing annoyance or irritation”,
perpetually, continually and adverbs of frequency: as,
Ramesh is very naughty; he is always playing truancy.

Exercise 1
Fill in blanks with the right tense forms (Present simple or present continuous) of the verbs given in
brackets.
1 School …………………… begin with prayer every day.
2 Anil (keep …………………………awake) till midnight these days.
3 He………………………… (prepare) for the annual examination.
4 It …………………………(rain) Don’t go out now.
5 This parcel…………………………… (contain) a gift for my sister.
6 Anil ………………………(do) his home work still. His sister, Leela who ……………………………(work)quicker, has finished hers and
……………………(play)in the garden.
7 I………………………………………(want) a dozen orange, please.
8 Don’t make a noise. A meeting……………………………………… (go on) in the head master’s room.
9 Your health…………………………………(depend) on nutritious food and good habit pf exercise, sleep and rest..
10 Father usually ……………………………..(wake up) at five, To day he …. (sleep) still.
11 The commission ………………………………………..( prepare) its report.
12 It ………………………… (expect) to complete it in a month.
13 The clerk (type) the letter still. He usually ………………….…… (finish) his work quickly but to day he ………………………(seem) to be
some what slow.
14 15-This radio set…………………………(cost) Rs. 1,500. I …………………………,( think) of buying it.
15 16-Mr. Das …………………………(have) two sons. Both of them …………………………………(resemble)him very much.
16 17-They………………………………(build) a bridge across the river near my town.
17 What …………………………………(happen) in that house ? I (see ) a small crowd in front of it.
18 This house …………………………(belong) to my uncle. He ………………………………(build) another house in the next street.
19 We ………………………………(but) out milk from a woman who …………………………(bring) it every day.
20 My mother rarely ……………………………………….(sleep) in the day time.
 P a g e | 119

Present Perfect Continuous

Form: This tense is formed by the present perfect (has/ have- been) of the verb to be +
the present participle (verb + ing)
Affirmative I have been writing; she has been writing.
Negative I have not (haven’t been) writing.
Interrogative Have you been writing?
Negative Interrogative: haven’t you been writing?

Uses of the Present Perfect Continuous: It is used:

(a) “ It is used to express the duration of an action up[ to the present, The tense suggests
that the action is still continuing at the moment of speaking The action may continue
in to the future “ as,
I have been living in this house for five years (and am still living in it)
He has been reading for two hours (and is still reading and will probably go on reading
for some time).
N.B. This tense is particularly associated with the words for and since.
(b) Comparison of the present perfect, Present progressive and present perfect progressive.
(i) I am teaching (Present progressive) History these days. (It simply means
what you are doing at present. It has nothing to do with the time).
(ii) I have taught () present perfect history for ten years. (It denotes for how long
I have been teaching History. It means I have attained mastery over the
subject and I have become an experienced teacher).
(iii) I have been teaching (present perfect progressive) History for ten years (It
expresses continued action).

EXERCISE 2
Fill in the blanks with the right tense forms (present perfect or present perfect continuous) of the
verbs given in brackets.
1- The people ………………………(ask) the government to do something about the rising prices. But the government……………………… (not
take) any steps yet to check them.
2- This orchard ………………………… (yield ) lots of apples every year. It ……………………………(yield) lots of them this year too.
3- The boy ………………………… (go) to a tutor for six month. There……………………………(be) some improvement in his performance at
school.
4- The papers ……………………………… (report) frequent thefts in the city for months now . But the police………………………………( not
succeed ) in catching the thieves.
5- The water ……………………………( boil) for five minutes . Why don’t you make the tea?
6- The Secretary………………… (draft) the report since morning. He ………………… (not finish) drafting it yet.
7- Father………………………… (not come) in yet for lunch. He ……………………………(dig) in the garden since morning.
8- He ………………………… (call) me all kinds of names . Do you expect me to put up with it anymore?
9- The students ………………………… (wait) for their results to be announced. They…………………………… (not hear) anything about it yet.
10- Electricity …………………………… (fail) continually in our town for a month now.
11- The universe…………………………(expand) continuously ever since the beginning of time and the galaxies ………………………… (move) away
from one another at great speed.
12- The water level at the dam ………………………….(rise) fast. It continues to rise and …………………………… (reach) the danger mark
already.
 P a g e | 120

EXERCISE 3
Put for or since in the blanks below:
1. The workers of that factory have been on strike – a month.
2. Geetha has acted in films – the age of twelve
3. Mr. Thomas has been our tenant – ten years now.
4. Gopal says that he hasn’t touched liquor – six months now.
5. The two brothers have not talked to each other – they quarrelled last month.
6. I haven’t been to a circus – I was a boy.
7. He has attended several conferences abroad—he became a minister.
8. “” Have you seen this film?” “No, I haven’t been to a cinema – age now.”
9. The M.P. hasn’t visited his constituency – he got elected.
10. The telephone has rung about twenty times – early morning.

Past time:
In English, six different tenses are used to talk about the past:
The simple past (l worked)
The past progressive (l was working)
The simple present perfect (l had worked)
The present perfect progressive (l have been working)
The simple past perfect (l had worked)
The past perfect progressive (I had been working)
The differences between these tenses are quite complicated. Some English tenses
express meanings (e,g. completion, continuation, present importance) which are
not expressed by verb forms in all other languages, and this can make the use of
tenses difficult for students to learn, The most important rules for past and
perfect tenses are given in the following sections,

Past Time: The Simple Past Tense Forms (Regular Verbs)

Affirmative Question Negative
I worked did I work? I did not work
you worked did you work'_ you did not work
he/she/it worked did he/she/it work? he/she/it did not
work

Use
We use the simple past tense to talk about many kinds of past events: short,
quickly finished actions and happenings, longer situations, and repeated events.
Peter broke a window last night.
The simple past is common 'in story-telling and when we are telling people about
past events.
One day the Princess decided that she didn't like staying at home all day
She told her father that she wanted to get a job. . .
The simple past is often used with references to finished periods and moments of
time.
I saw John yesterday morning. He told me. . .
In general, the simple past tense is the 'normal' one for talking about the I we use
it if we do not have a special reason for using one of the other tense

Past Time: The Past Progressive Tense Forms

 P a g e | 121

Affirmative Question Negative

I was working was I working? I was not working
you were working were you working? you were not working

Uses
We use the past progressive to say that something was in progress (going
around a particular past time,
What were you doing at eight o'clock yesterday evening?' I was watching T.V.
[Not What did you……………… I watched T.V.]
When I got up this morning the sun was shining, the birds were
singing,... (NOT ..._, the birds sang..,)

Another use of the past progressive is to stress that an activity was in progress at
every moment during a period of time.
I was painting all day yesterday.
They were quarrelling the whole time they were together.

Past Progressive and Simple Past: 'background' Events

We often use the past progressive together with a simple past tense. The
progressive refers to a longer 'background' action or situation; the simple past
refers to a shorter action or event that happened in the middle of the longer
action, or that interrupted it.
As I was walking down the road, I saw Bill.
The phone rang while l was having dinner.
Mozart died while he was composing the Requiem,

Past Progressive and Simple Past: Temporary and Permanent

The past progressive, like other progressive forms, is used for temporary actions
and situations. When we talk about longer, more permanent situations we use
the simple past. Compare:
It happened while [was living in East Bourne last year.
I lived in London for ten years while I was a child.

Past Progressive and Simple Past: Repeated Actions

The past progressive is not the normal tense for talking about repeated or
habitual past actions. The simple past is usually used with this meaning.
I rang the bell six times. (N OT – l was ringing the bell six times.)
When I was a child we made our own amusements.
(NOT We were making)

However, the past progressive is possible if the repeated actions form a

'background' for the main action.
At the time when it happened, I was seeing a lot of Belinda, and I was also
going to the opera a lot.
 P a g e | 122

Special Uses
Because we often use the past progressive to talk about something that is a
'background', not the main 'news', we can make something seem less. important
by using this tense.
I was talking to the President last night, and she said... (as if there was
nothing special for the speaker about talking to the President)

The past progressive can be used with always, continually and similar words to
talk about things that happened repeatedly and unexpectedly, or in an
unplanned way.
- Aunt Lucy was always turning up without warning and bringing us presents.
- I didn't like him - he was continually borrowing money.

Past Time: The Simple Present Perfect Tense

Affirmative Question Negative
I have worked have I worked? I have not worked
you have worked have you worked? you have not worked

Finished events connected with the present

We can use the simple present perfect to say that a finished action or event is
connected with the present in some way. If we say that something has happened,
we are thinking about the past and the present at the same time
I can't go on holiday because I have broken my leg.
(NOT I can’t go on holiday because I broke my leg)

We could often change a simple present perfect sentence into a present sentence
with a similar meaning.
 I’ve broken my leg. (→ My leg is broken now.)
 Have you read the Bible? (→ Do you know the Bible?)
 Some fool has let the cat in. (→ The cat is in.)
 Utopia has invaded Fantasia. (→Utopia is at war with Fantasia.)
 Mary has had a baby. (→ Mary now has a baby.)
 Our dog has died. (→ Our dog is dead.)
 All the wars in history have taught us nothing. (→ We know nothing.)
 My experience at school, all those years ago, has given me a permanent hatred
of authority. (→ I hate authority.) .

The present perfect is often used to express the idea of completion or

achievement.
 At last! I've finished!
 Have you done all the housework?

We do not use the present perfect if we are not thinking principally about the
present. Compare:
 I've travelled ill Africa a lot. (I know Africa.)
 P a g e | 123

 Some people think that Shakespeare travelled a lot in Germany,

 We've learnt enough to pass the exam, (The exam is still to come.)
 We learnt enough to pass the exam. (The exam is over,)
 Look what John's given me! (focus on the gift)
 Who gave you that? (focus on the past action of giving)

We do not use the present perfect in story-telling.

 0nce upon a time there was a beautiful princess who lived. . .

Finished events: news

The simple present perfect is the most normal tense for giving news of recent
events.
 Here are the main points of the news. There has been afire...... The Pound has
fallen against Dollar

The present perfect is not often used to talk about a finished event, if we say
when it happened (see below). Compare:
 There has been an explosion at Edinburgh Castle.
 There was an explosion at Edinburgh Castle last night.
(NOT -There-has-been…last night)

Finished events with expressions of 'time up to now'

We often use the simple present perfect for past events when we are thinking of a
period of time continuing up to the present - for example when we use indefinite
time adverbs that mean 'at some! Any time up to now', like ever, before, never,
yet, already.
 Have you ever seen a ghost?
 You've only ever called me 'darling' once.
 I'm sure we've met before.

If we use a more definite expression of 'time up to now' (e.g. today, this

Week) , we usually prefer a simple past tense in affirmative clause. Compare:
 I spoke to the boss today about my holiday.
(More natural than I've spoken to the boss today.)

Time not mentioned

We use the present perfect when we are thinking of a period of 'time up now',
even if we do not mention it. On the other hand, we do not use the present perfect
when we are thinking of a particular finished time, even do not mention it.
Compare:
 Have you seen 'Romeo and Juliet'?
 (Have you ever seen it? OR Have you seen the current production)
 Did you see 'Romeo and Juliet'?
 (Did you see the production on TV last night?)
 P a g e | 124

Past Time: Simple Present Perfect and Simple Past

We normally use the simple present perfect when we are thinking about past
events together with their present results
I can't come to your party because I've broken my leg.
However, we usually prefer a simple past tense when we identify the person, thing
or circumstances responsible for a present situation (because we are focusing on
the past cause, not the present result). Compare:
 Some fool has let the cat in.
 Who let that cat in? (NOT –Who has let the Cat-in?)
 The Chinese invented paper.
(Not The Chinese have invented paper.)

Progressive and Simple: Temporary and Permanent

We often prefer the present perfect progressive to talk about more temporary actions and
situations; when we talk about 10Onger-Iasting or permanent situations we often prefer the
simple present perfect. Compare:
 That man has been standing on the corner all day.
 For 900 years the castle has stood on the hill above the village.
 I haven't been working very well recently.
 He hasn't worked for years.
I've been living in Sue's flat for the last month.
My parents have lived in Bristol all their lives. Generally, however, both
progressive and simple tenses are possible in cases like these, with a slight
difference of emphasis.
It's been raining. It's rained steadily since last Saturday.
Generally use the progressive to talk about continuous change or development.
Even if this is permanent.
Scientists believe that the universe has been expanding steadily since the
beginning of time.

Past Progressive and simple: Differences

Progressive tenses are often used to talk about more temporary actions and
Situations; when we talk about longer-lasting or permanent situations we prefer
simple tenses (though both forms are often possible in the same situation, with a
slight difference of emphasis). Compare:
My legs were stiff because I had been standing still for a long time,
They lived in a castle which had stood on a hill above the village for
800 years.
Progressive forms generally emphasise the continuation of an activity; Wt' use
simple tenses to emphasise the idea of completion. Compare:
I had been reading science fiction, and my mind was full of strange images
I had read all my magazines, and was beginning to get bored.

Past Verb Form with Present or Future Meaning

A past tense does not always have a past meaning. In some kinds of sentence we
can use verbs like I had, you went or I was wondering to talk about the present or
 P a g e | 125

future.
If I had money now I’d buy a car.
I wish I had a better memory

Narration
A Report Speech is the speech of a person as narrated by himself (direct), or by someone else
(indirect).
In direct speech we quote the very actual words of the speaker without any change, while in
indirect speech we give his words in the third person with a reporting verb of saying or thinking,
exactly following the Sequence of Tense.
Observe the following sentences:
Mohan said, “Ram is a fool” (Direct Speech)
Mohan said that Ram was a fool. (Indirect Speech)
The second sentence gives us Mohan’s words indirectly by reporting what he said.

Remember the following points about Direct Speech:

1 The actual words of the speaker are put within inverted commas (“…..”).
2. The reported Speech is separated from the Reporting verb by a comma.
3. The first word of the Reported Speech begins with a capital letter.
Remember the following points about indirect speech:
 No inverted commas are used.
 The comma separating the Reporting Verb from the Reported speech is
removed.
 The Reported Speech is introduced by some conjunctions –that, if,
whether, what, why, etc.
 The Tense of the Reporting Verb is never changed.
Analysis of parts of a sentence

He said to me, “We are going to market.”

Reporting Subject Reporting Verb Reporting Object

Speech

Rules for changing Direct speech into Indirect Speech

A. Change of Tense
1. The tense of the Reporting Verb never changes.
Direct: She says. “I like school”
Indirect: She says that she likes school.
2. The Tense of the Reporting Verb governs the Tense of the Speech:
The Tense of speech is same as the tense of the Reporting Verb. That is is
the reporting verb is n present tense the tense of the speech will be
present, if it is past then the tense of the speech will be past and finally
if the tense of the Reporting Verb is Future then the tense of the speech
will be Future. Example:
Direct Indirect
He says, “Smith writes a letter.” He says that Smith writes a letter.
He says, “Smith wrote a letter.” He says that Smith writes a letter.
 P a g e | 126

He will say, “Smith will write a letter.” He will say that Smith will write a letter.

B. Changes in Verb
Tense (Direct) Tense (Indirect)
Present Simple Past Simple
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Present perfect Past Perfect
Present perfect Past Perfect
Continuous Continuous
Past Simple Past Perfect
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Future Tense Future in the Past
Shall & will would
Conditional Perfect Conditional
Is, am, are Was, were
Has, have Had
Was, were Had been
May Might
Can Could
Examples
1. Direct: He said, “I play hockey.” (Present Indefinite)
Indirect: He said that he played hockey. (Past Indefinite)
2. Direct: He Said, “My brother has come back.” (Present Perfect)
Indirect: He said that his brother had come back. (Past Perfect)
3. Direct: He said, “The mother is beating the child.” (Present Continuous)
Indirect: He said that the mother was beati ng the child. (Past Continuous)
4. Direct: He said, “She has been working since morning. (Present Perfect continuous)
Indirect: He said that she had been working since morning. (Past Perfect Continuous)
5. Direct: He said, “She worked hard” (Past Indefinite)
Indirect: He said that she had worked hard. (Past Perfect)
6. Direct: She said “My brother was writing a letter.” (Past continuous)
Indirect: She said that her brother had been writing a letter.(Past Perfect Continuous)
7. Direct: He said, “I will work hard.” (will)
Indirect: He said that he would work hard. (would)
8. Direct: He said, “I shall return on Monday.” (shall)
Indirect: He said he would return on Monday (would)
9. Direct: He said to the boy, “You may go home” (may)
Indirect: He told the boy that he might go home. (might)
10. Direct: I said to him, “I can write” (can)
Indirect: I told him that I could write
(could)
Note: If the Reported Speech contains some universal truth or a habitual fact, the present tense of its verb remains
unchanged whatever the tense of the Reporting Verb may be:
1. Direct: The teacher said, “Two and two make four.”
Indirect: The teacher said that two and two make four.
2. Direct: He said, “The earth moves round the sun.”
Indirect: He said that the earth moves round the sun.

Note: The Future Tense is not changed into the past form, if what is said
refers to the future at the time of reporting:
Direct: he said this morning, “I am going to buy a car.”
 P a g e | 127

Indirect: He said this morning that he is going to buy a car

Note: The Past Indefinite Tense remains unchanged if the Reported Speech
states a past historical fact; as,
Direct: He said “Babar defeated Abrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.”
Indirect: He said that Babar defeated Abrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.
Direct: You said, “I lived in France for ten years.”
Indirect: You said that you lived in France for ten years.

Note: If the Reported Speech states two actions that took place at the same
time, the Past Indefinite or continuous tense in it is not changed:
Direct: He said, “James was reading a novel while Smith was playing Cards.”
Indirect: He said that James was reading a novel while Smith was playing cards.

Note: If the Reported Speech expresses an imaged condition its tense

remains unchanged: e.g.
Direct: He said. “If Ram approached me, I would help him.”
Indirect: He said that if Ram approached him he would help him.

C. Changes in Pronouns
The pronouns and possessive adjectives generally change as follows:
Direct: Indirect
I, me my, mine he (she), his, (her) hers
him,(her) his
We, us our, ours they, them their, theirs
You your, yours they, them their, theirs
Rule1.Pronouns of the first Person in the Reported Speech is changed into the Person of the subject of
the reporting Verb:
Direct Indirect
1. I said “I am not solving the sums. I said that I was not solving the sums.
2. You said, “I am not solving the sums.” You said that you were not solving the sums.
3. He said, “I am not solving the sums.” He said that he was not solving the sums.
Rule 2. Pronouns of the second Person in the Reported speech are changed into the Person of the object
of the Reporting Verb i.e., the Noun or Pronoun coming after it; as,
Direct Indirect
1. The teacher said to me, “you are honest.” The teacher told me that I was honest.
2. The teacher said to you,” You were honest.” The teacher told you that you had been honest.
3. The teacher said to him, “you are honest.” The teacher told him that he was honest
Rule3. Pronouns of the Third Person in the Reported Speech remain unchanged:
Direct Indirect
1. I said to him, “He is fool.” I told him that he was fool.
2. You said to me, “he is a fool.” You told me that he was a fool.
3. He said to you, “he is a fool.” He told you that he was a fool.

(1) First person changes according to Subject

(2) Second Person changes according Object
(3) Third Person changes according No change

D. Use of Conjunction
When statements and certain questions in direct speech are changed into indirect speech a
conjunction, that/if/whether is inserted after the reporting verb.
 P a g e | 128

D. Change of Adjective Adverbs

Reported speech usually tells about events which took place earlier than the
time of reporting and away from the place of reporting. When this is the case,
words denoting nearness in time and place are changed into words denoting
distance. Here is as chart that shows the changes made.
Words expressing nearness in time and place becomes the corresponding
words expressing distance or remoteness.
Words expressing nearness Words expressing distance
(Direct Speech) (Indirect Speech)
Now Then
This That
These Those
Here There
Thus So
Ago Before
Hither becomes Thither
Come Go
To-day That day
To night That night
Tomorrow The next day
Yesterday The previous day
Last night The previous night
Next week The following week

The day before yesterday is changed into the day before the previous day’ “The
day after to-morrow’ is changed into ‘the day after the next day’.
Note: When the words denoting nearness in Direct Speech refer to object or
things present at the time of reporting or the place or time at which the
speech is reported they remain unchanged ; as,
Direct Indirect
1. He said, “This is my shirt” He said that this was his shirt.
2. He said, “This is the house in which I live”. He said that this was the house
in which he lived.
3. Smith said, “I will do it now or never.” Smith said that he would do it
now or never.

Conversion of Different Types of Sentences

1. Assertive sentences or statements
(a) The reporting verb is not changed if an object does not follow it:
He said, “I prefer milk to tea.”
He said that he preferred milk to tea.
(b) If the reporting verb is followed by an object (noun/pronoun), it is
changed into told or informed or remarked or answered e.g.
Direct: He said, “I must work hard”
Indirect: He said that he must work hard.
 P a g e | 129

EXERCISE 4
Rewrite the following sentences, using indirect speech.
1. “We are building a house, “my friend said to me.
2. “It has been a dull life in this village, “The boy said to his father.
3. “I would advise an operation, “the doctor said t o the patient.
4. “This river causes floods every time we have heavy rains, “the villager said to the collector.
5. “All the shops are closed today on account of the strike, “he informed me.
6. “The portrait will be unveiled on Independence Day, “the head master an nounced in the school assembly.
7. “Your complaints will be looked into very soon, “the warden said to the boys.
8. “Ivan, I am dying and you in turn will have to die, “the old man said to his son.

2. Questions (Interrogative Sentences)

1. Question beginning with ‘who’ ‘what’, ‘where’ ‘why’ ‘whom’ ‘when’ ‘how’
(a) The reporting verb is changed into ‘ask’, ‘inquire’. Etc.
(b) The reporting verb is not followed by any conjunction.
(c) The word who/what/ where/why/whom/when/how, etc. follow the
reporting verb unchanged.
Example:
Direct: He said to the servant, “Where are you going?”
Indirect: He asked the servant where he was going.
2. ‘ Yes No’ questions :
(a) The reporting verb is changed into ‘ask’, inquire’ etc.
(b) The reporting verb is following by ‘if/whether’.
Example :
Direct : He said to me. “Can I use your pencil?”
Indirect : He asked me if he could use my pencil.

EXERCISE 5
Rewrite the following sentences, using indirect speech.
1. “Why didn’t you ask me if you needed the money?”
Mr. George asked his friend.
2. “How do we get to the post-office from here?” the man asked the traffic constable.
3. “When did Columbus first land in America?” the teacher asked the boy.
4. “What time do you expect the train to arrive?” the passenger asked the stationmaster.
5. “How many kilometres per litre does your scooter give?” Mohan asked his friend.
6. “How tall is Suresh now?” Mrs. Jamal asked Mrs. Mohan.
7. “How long will it take for you to finish building the house?” Mr. Das asked the contractor.

3. Imperative Sentences
(a) The reporting verb ‘say’ or ‘tell’ is changed into some verb like ‘request, order, eg, advise,
forbid, ask, etc. according to the sense.
(b) The imperative mood of the verb of the reported speech is replaced by
the infinitive mood by putting ‘to’ before the verb.
(c) If there is a subordinate clause in the imperative sentence, the tense of the verb of the former
will be regulated by that of the reporting verb.
(d) In the negative sentences ‘to’ is used after ‘not’
Example:
Direct: He said to me, “Please lend me your book”
Indirect: He requested me to lend him my book.
Direct: The teacher said, “Stand up on the bench, Ram.”
 P a g e | 130

Indirect: The teacher ordered Ram to stand up on the bench.

Direct: He said to his master, “Pardon me sir.”
Indirect: He begged his maser to parson him.
(e) If the word ‘let’ denotes permission, it is changed into one phrase as
‘might be allowed’ or simply into the infinitive ‘to let’; as,
Direct: Sohan said, “Let me go home, Mohan.”
Indirect: Sohan requested Mohan to let him go home.
Direct: The principal said to the peon, “Let Ram have his cycle”
Indirect: The principal ordered the peon that ram might be allowed to
have his cycle.
(f) When ‘let’ expressed a condition or supposition, it is changed into
‘might’:
Direct: The teacher said, “Let him work ever so hard, he cannot pass
the examination.”
Indirect: The teacher said that he could not pass the examination,
however hard he might work.

EXERCISE 6
Rewrite the following sentences, using indirect speech:
1. “Don’t post the letter before I have seen it, “my father said to me.
2. The Geeta says, “Do you duty and don’t worry about the result.”
3. “Let’s go to Sona dam for our picnic, “the boys said to the teacher. (Use suggested’)
4. “Take the prisoner away,” the judge said to the officer.
5. “Taste this sweet and tell me how good it is,” my mother said to me.”
6. “Don’t bring any books into the examination hall,” the Superintendent said to the candidates.
7. “Halt!” the caption said to the soldiers who were marching.

4. Exclamatory Sentences
(i) Change the Reporting Verb into ‘wished’ or ‘prayed’
(ii) Use ‘that’ to introduce the Reported Speech.
(iii) Change the exclamatory Sentence into the Assertive Sentence.
Direct: He said to me, “May you live long!”
Indirect: He prayed that I might live long.
Direct: He said to me, “May you be happy!”
Indirect: He wished that I might be happy.
Exercise 7
Convert the following sentences into Indirect Speech:
1. The boy cried out, “Hurrah! We are winning.”
2. The old lady cried, “Alas! My only son is dead.”
3. The teacher said to Sohan, “What a lazy boy you are!”
4. Sita said, “To think that we should meet here!”
5. “Bravo!” cried the Captain “Well played, Gavaskar!”
6. The people said, “Ah! What terrible accident!”
7. They said, “Hurrah! Our armies have come out victorious!”
 P a g e | 131

Passive Voice
VOICE: is what we speak. Our speech is of two types, when we speak we talk of someone,
i.e. a subject. We either speak what the subject does or what has been done to the subject.
We have learnt a verb to be of two types
What a person or thing does:
He kicks the ball.
Subject verb object
What is done to a person or thing:
Mohan is beaten.
The book is spoiled.
Subject verb

In the first there is an object whereas in the second there is no object. In the first the
action transfers to the object whereas in the second the action does not transfer. The first
type of verb constitutes the Active Voice and the second The Passive Voice.

A rule can be deduced here straight off that a verb without an object cannot be turned into
Passive that is only Transitive verbs can be written in passive Voice.

Conversion

Active: He kicks the ball.

Passive The ball is kicked by him.

Agent of passive

Rules:
1. The object of Active becomes the subject of Passive.
2. The subject of Active becomes the object of Passive.
3. Main Verb is transferred to its third form.
4. Tense does not change.
5. The word by is added to the Passive, it is called the agent of Passive.

Object less Passive

A sentence without a subject can be converted to Passive as:
Active: Catch the thief
Passive: The thief is caught (by Police).
Dative case or the indirect object case
Sentences like:
He teaches us English
Which have two objects can be converted by converting the direct object into
subject of passive like:
English is taught to us by him.
 P a g e | 132

Conversion of verbs
Tense Active Pasive
Simple Present plays is played
Present continuous Is playing is being played
Present Perfect has played has been played
Present Perfect has been playing -
Continuous
Simple Past played was played
Past continuous was playing was being played
Past Perfect had played had been played
Past Perfect Continuous Had -
Future Indefinite Will play will be played
Future Perfect Will have played will have been played

Sentences with infinitive and clause objects

Sentences have infinitives or clauses as their objects. These cannot normally
become the subjects of passive sentences.
John hoped to meet her.
(NOT –To meet her was hoped by John.)
I felt that he was the right man for the job.
(NOT-That he was…………felt by us)
However, passive structures arc often possible if it is used as a preparatory
Subject for a clause.
It was thought that she was a spy.
It was felt that he was the right man for the job.
It is said that his company is the trouble.

Object complements
Note that with say the infinitive structure is only possible in the passive.
His company is said to be in trouble.
(BUT NOT They say his company to he in trouble.)
In some other cases, the infinitive structure is more common in the passive than
in the active

Infinitives without to
Hear, see, make and help can be followed, in active structures, by object 1
infinitive without to. In passive structures to-infinitives are used Compare:
They made him tell them everything.
He was made to tell them everything.

With some verbs (e.g. say, think, feel, report, presume, understand), the passive
structure is possible with there as a 'preparatory subject'.
There are thought to be more than 3,000 different languages in the NOT (=
It is thought that there are...) .
There was said to be disagreement between the Prime Minister and the Home
Secretary.
 P a g e | 133

Perfect, progressive and passive infinitives

A passive verb can be followed by a perfect, progressive or passive infinitive
He is believed to have crossed the frontier last night.
I was told to be waiting outside the station at 6 o'clock.
The hostages are expected to be released today.

Exceptions: wanting and liking

Verbs that refer to wanting, liking and similar ideas cannot usually be use
passive structures with following infinitives.
Everybody wanted Doris to be the manager.

Finished-result verbs
Some verbs refer to actions that produce a finished result. The past participles of
finished-result verbs, and some of their passive tenses, can have two meanings,
they can refer to the action, or they can describe the result (rather like
adjectives),
The theatre was closed by the police on the orders of the mayor,
(refers to the state of being shut - the result of the action) Because of this, for example, present passive forms can have
similar meanings to present perfect passives.
Active or Passive?
Millions of pound worth of damage __________________(cause) by the storm which _________________(sweep)
across the north of England last night. The river Ribble ______________(burst) its banks after heavy rains. Many people
_____________________(rescue) from the floods by the fire fighters, who ________________________(receive)
hundreds of calls for help. Wind speeds _______________________(reach) ninety miles an hour in some places. Roads
___________________________(block) by fallen trees, and electricity
lines_______________________(bring)down, leaving thousands of homes without electricity. ‘Everything possible
__________________________(do) to get things back to normal,’ a spokesman said.
 P a g e | 134

Prepositions
The book is on the table. He lives in Delhi Prepositions are words used to
show position, or relation between things, persons or places. They are usually
placed in front of nouns or pronouns (forming adjectival or adverbial phrases).
Most of the prepositions in English are single-word prepositions, They are
called simple prepositions.
Here are some prepositions in common use
After, about, above, across, against, around, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond,
but, by, for, from, in, into, of, off, on, over, since, through, till, towards, under, until,
underneath, up upon, with, within, without.

Use of Some Prepositions

In, within:
I shall reach home in two hours (i.e. at the end of two hours).
I shall reach home within two hours (i.e. before two hours end).
At, in:
He will come back at 3 o’clock. (at denotes a point of time)
He will come back in a few hours. (in denotes a portion of time).
He lives at Badarpur in Karnal district, (at is used for small towns and
villages).
He lives in Delhi. (in is used for cities, states, countries, continents).
On, by:
He met me on Sunday.
He comes back from his office by 8 o’clock.
In, Into:
Let us go into the house. (into implies from outside to inside).
He is sitting in the house. (in implies position inside).
He was already in the room when we went into it.
On, upon:
He sat on the chair. (on is used to denote things at rest)
He sprang upon the bicycle. (upon refers to things in motion)
For, since:
It has been raining for two hours. (for denotes a portion time).
It has been raining since morning. (since denotes some points of time.)
By, with:
He cut his finger with a knife. (with denotes the instrument).
He was murdered by Mohan. (by denotes the doer of actions)
He was walking by the sea. (by denotes nearness)
He was walking with two friends. (with denotes accompaniment)
Among, between:
Sweets were distributed among the students, (among is used for three or more persons)
Divide this between Ram and Sham. (between is used for two things or
persons)
Beside, besides:
The king sat beside the Queen, (beside means by the side of)
besides a car, he owns two trucks. (besides means in addition to)
At, towards:
Throw a stone at the dog. (at has the idea of aim)
 P a g e | 135

He went towards the god. (towards has the sense of directions)

From, off:
He started from Bombay. (from is used with the point of origination)
He fell off his horse. (off has the meaning of down from)
Out of, into:
Let us get out of the cave. (out of means from the interior)
Let’s go into the forest. (into is the opposite of ‘out of’)
Above, over:
The stars seem to move above our heads. (above means ‘higher than’)
At noon the sun is directly over us. (vertically above)
 P a g e | 136

Conditional Sentences:

Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and
what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if.

Conditional If clause
Usage Main clause verb tense
sentence type verb tense
Simple
Zero General truths Simple present
present
A possible and its probable Simple
Type 1 Simple future
condition result present
Present conditional or
A hypothetical and its probable
Type 2 Simple past Present continuous
condition result
conditional
An unreal past and its probable
Type 3 Past perfect Perfect conditional
condition result in the past
An unreal past and its probable
Mixed type Past perfect Present conditional
condition result in the present

The zero conditional

The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always and the situation
is real and possible. The zero conditional is often used to refer to general truths. The tense in both
parts of the sentence is the simple present. In zero conditional sentences, the word "if" can usually
be replaced by the word "when" without changing the meaning.

If clause Main clause

If + simple present simple present
If this thing happens that thing happens.
If you heat ice it melts.
If it rains the grass gets wet.

Type 1 conditional

The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation is real. The
type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. In these sentences the if
clause is in the simple present, and the main clause is in the simple future.

If clause Main clause

If + simple present simple future
If this thing happens that thing will happen.
If you don't hurry you will miss the train.
If it rains today you will get wet.

Type 2 conditional

The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that is
unreal. These sentences are not based on fact. The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a
 P a g e | 137

hypothetical condition and its probable result. In type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the
simple past, and the main clause uses the present conditional.

If clause Main clause

If + simple past present conditional or present continuous conditional
that thing would happen. (but I'm not sure this thing will happen) OR
If this thing happened
that thing would be happening.
If you went to bed earlier you would not be so tired.
If it rained you would get wet.
If I spoke Italian I would be working in Italy.

Type 3 conditional

The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary
to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The type 3 conditional
is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. In type 3 conditional
sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.

If clause Main clause

If + past perfect
If this thing had happened
If you had studied harder
If it had rained
If I had accepted that
promotion
perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional
that thing would have happened. (but neither of those things really
happened) OR
that thing would have been happening.
you would have passed the exam.
you would have gotten wet.
I would have been working in Milan.

Mixed type conditional

The mixed type conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is
ongoing into the present. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The
mixed type conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the
present. In mixed type conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause
uses the present conditional.

If clause Main clause

If + past perfect or simple
present conditional or perfect conditional
past
that thing would happen. (but this thing didn't happen so that thing
If this thing had happened
isn't happening)
If I had worked harder at
I would have a better job now.
school
If we had looked at the map we wouldn't be lost.
If you weren't afraid of
you would have picked it up and put it outside.
spiders