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General characteristics of Algae: The term algae is

derived from a Latin word “Alga” which means “Sea weed”. In Greek Phycos
is used for algae. Algae is a collective term which is used for all those
photosynthetic organisms who has thallus like body. Algae is represented by
about 1800 genera and about 30, 000 species. The study of algae is known as
Phycology (Algology) and the scientist who studies algae is called Phycologist
(Algologist).
Habitat: Most of the algae are aquatic and they are found both in fresh
water and salt water. However few species are terrestrial and are found on
moist shady places, moist rocks, tree trunks etc. They may be free swimming,
free floating or growing attached to the substratum, edges of lakes and
oceans. Some grow on other plants (epiphytes) or inside the plants
(endophytes). Some are present in symbiotic association with fungi and
bryophytes.
Organization of thallus: Algae exhibit a variety of thallus
organization. The simplest are unicellular, motile or non-motile e.g.
Chlamydomonas, Chlorella. In others large number of cells aggregate to form
motile or non-motile colonies e.g. Volvox. In some algae the cells arrange
themselves into branched or unbranched filaments e.g. Nostoc, Spirogyra,
Oedogonium etc. In some filamentous form, the filaments are of
heterotrichous habit i.e. consists of prostrate system and projecting system
e.g. Ectocarpus, Coleochaete etc. In some algae thallus consists of non-
septate filaments which are called Siphonaceous e.g. Vaucheria
Structure of algal cell: The cells constituting the algal thalli
are basically of two kinds, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic.
i. Prokaryotic cell: Cyanobacteria have prokaryotic cell.
Prokaryotic cells are without organized nucleus. Circular DNA is present as
nuclear body in the central region called nucleoid. Photosynthetic pigments
are organized in membranous sacs called thylakoids. Cell wall is
peptidoglycan in nature and form conjugated molecules called murein.
Cellular organelles are absent.
ii. Eukaryotic cell: These cells have well organized nucleus and
are surrounded by cellulose cell wall. In most cases cell wall consists of an
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outer gelatinous layer formed of mucilaginous soluble carbohydrates and

insoluble pectic substances. Cytoplasm is viscous and is surrounded by
plasma membrane. All cellular organelles are present along one or two
vacuoles.
Algal pigments: Colour of the algal thallus varies in different
Divisions due to the presence of different light absorbing chemical
compounds called pigments. Main algal pigments are chlorophylls,
carotenoids and phycobilins.
i. Chlorophylls: There are different types of chlorophylls such as
chlorophyll a, b, c, d, e, f. These are fat soluble green pigments which are
present in the members of chlorophyta and charophyta. Chlorophyll a has
universal occurrence and are found in all photosynthetic plants and algae.
Other form of chlorophylls has restricted distribution. Chlorophyll e and f are
present in photosynthetic bacteria and are also called Bacteriochlorophylls.
ii. Carotenoids: It is a group of a bout 60 different kinds of yellow,
brown, orange and red pigments. They are fat soluble pigments and are
divided into two main groups.
a. Carotenes: They are fat soluble unsaturated hydrocarbons
(C40H56). So for five different kinds of carotenes have been recognized i.e.
alpha carotene, beta carotene, e, y and Lycophene etc. They provide
characteristic colour to the members of Bacillariophyta and Rhodophyta.
b. Xanthophylls: These are yellow to brown coloured oxygen
containing long chain fat soluble hydrocarbons (C 40H56O). Common
xanthophylls found in algae are fucoxanthene, myxoxanthene, lutein etc.
iii. Phycobilins: These are water soluble blue (Phycocyanin) and
red (Phycoerythrin) pigments found in Cyanophyta and Rhodophyta.
Nutrition and food reserve: Algae are autotrophic
organisms as they contain chlorophyll. They manufacture their own
carbohydrate food from carbon di oxide and water through the agency of
sunlight. In algae surplus photosynthate is used to synthesize food reserve.
The food materials which accumulate as food reserves in the form of
polysaccharides, however, vary from group to group and thus provide useful
data for classification of algae. True starch is stored in the division
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Chlorophyta and Charophyta. The two other kinds of characteristic starches

are the Cyanophycean starch and Floridean starch which is stored as reserve
food material in the Cyanophyta and Rhodophyta respectively. The other
important polysaccharides which accumulate as reserve food are Laminarin
found in brown algae, paramylum found in Euglenoids and Leucosin found in
Xanthophyta, Bacillariophyta and Chrysophyta. Besides carbohydrates fats
also occur as reserve food material in the members of Xanthophyta,
Bacillariophyta and Chrysophyta. Mannitol which is a Polyhydroxy alcohol is
also present in some Rhodophyta.
Algal flagella: The motile cells of algae are provided with fine,
protoplasmic thread like structures called flagella. There are two main types
of flagella i.e. whiplash and tinsel. The whiplash flagellum has smooth surface
and tinsel flagellum bears longitudinal rows of fine hairs called flimmers. The
position, number and kind of flagella on motile cells is constant in each
division but differs from division to division and thus forms an important
taxonomic feature for primary classification of algae. Flagella may occur
singly or in pairs, rarely in many numbers. They may be terminal or lateral in
position. The two flagella may be of equal length or may be unequal.
Reproduction: In algae vegetative, asexual and sexual
reproduction takes place.
A. Vegetative reproduction: A type of reproduction
during which a cell or group of cells detach from parent thallus and develops
into new individual is known as vegetative reproduction. In algae vegetative
reproduction takes place through the following methods.
i. Fission or cell division: This method of reproduction is
shown by unicellular individuals of Cyanophyta and Chlorophyta. During this
method a cell divides by simple process of mitosis into two cells or large
number of cells.
ii. Fragmentation: Fragmentation is shown by filamentous algae.
The filaments may break into many pieces called fragment. Each fragment
develops into a new thallus.
iii. Adventitious branches: In Chara some adventitious
branches are produced which on detachment develops into new Chara.
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iv. Tubers: Tubers are small rounded structures which have large
amount of food reserve and are produced during unfavourable conditions. At
the approach of favourable conditions, they germinate to produce new
individual. Tubers are produced in Chara and some other algae.
B. Asexual reproduction: It is a method of reproduction
during which a new individual is produced without fertilization. Asexual
reproduction in algae is carried out by the production of specialized
structures called spores. The spores are produced either in ordinary cell or in
a specialized modified cell called sporangia. Following are the different kinds
of spores produced in algae.
i. Zoospores: Motile flagellated spores are called zoospores which
are produced during favourable conditions from the contents of
zoosporangium. They are produced in variable numbers in each
zoosporangium.
ii. Aplanospores: The non-motile spores are called aplanospores.
These are produced during unfavourable conditions. During favourable
conditions, they come out from the cell and develop into new individual.
iii. Akinete: In comparatively dry situation, some cells of the algae
store food material, become enlarge and secrete thick wall around
themselves. These spores are called akinete or resting spores. They take rest
during unfavourable conditions and at the approach of favourable
conditions; they germinate into a new alga or produces zoospores.
iv. Hypnospore: When a thick wall is formed around
aplanospores, it is termed as hypnospore. It takes rest for long time and
produces new individual at the approach of favourable conditions.
v. Autospores: Sometimes the resting spores are changed into cells
which resemble to their parents but they are smaller in size. They are called
autospores.
vi. Pamella stage: During unfavourable conditions, the
protoplasm of a cell divides into large number of daughter cells. These
daughter cells lie embedded in a jelly like mucilaginous matrix formed by the
gelatinization of parent cell wall. This assemblage of cells is known as
Pamella stage. On the approach of favourable conditions, each individual cell
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changes into zoospores and comes out from the mucilaginous matrix and
develops into new individual.
vii. Cyst formation: In some algae the protoplasm of cells
divides into many small bodies which are surrounded by thick coverings.
They are called cysts. During favourable conditions they change into new
individual e.g. Vaucheria.
C. Sexual reproduction: A method of reproduction during
which a new individual is produced by fusion of gamete. Gametes are
specialized haploid cells which are produced in special structures called
gametangia. Gametangia are unicellular. Sexual reproduction occurs during
unfavourable conditions. Gametes fuse with each other to form zygote which
secretes a thick wall and become zygospore. Zygospore germinates during
favourable conditions. In algae the sexual reproduction may of the following
two types.
i. Isogamy: When the gametes are similar in shape and size, they are
called isogametes and their fusion is called isogamy.
ii. Heterogamy: When gametes are different from each other
morphologically then their fusion is called heterogamy. It has two types.
a. Anisogamy: When gametes are of similar shape and structure
different in size then their fusion is called anisogamy. The smaller active
gamete is called male gamete and the larger less active gamete is called
female gamete.
b. Oogamy: When gametes are different from each other according
to the size, structure and form, their union is called oogamy. The small motile
gamete is called male gamete and the large non-motile gamete is called
female gamete. Male gametes are produced gametangium called
antheridium and female gametes are produced in oogonium.
Classification of Algae:
The history of classification of algae starts from Carolus Linnaeus. He in 1754
placed all the algae along with lichens in Kingdom Plantae as its 25 th Class
Cryptogamia. After that many Phycologist attempted to classify algae. The
most authentic and comprehensive account of the classification of algae was
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proposed by renowned Phycologist F.E. Fritsch in 1935. He classified algae

into 11 classes.
In 1955 G. M. Smith classified the algae into seven divisions and these
divisions were further divided into classes. The names of the seven divisions
are given below:
1. Chlorophyta 2. Euglenophyta 3. Pyrrophyta 4. Chrysophyta
5. Phaeophyta 6. Cyanophyta 7. Rhodophyta
But today most of the Phycologists follow the classification system proposed
by V.J.Chapman and D.J. Chapman. They in 1973 divided the algae into two
groups i.e. Prokaryota and Eukaryota which were further subdivided into
divisions and classes. An outline of this classification is given below:
A. Prokaryota: In this group all those algae were placed which are
made up of prokaryotic cell. This group is further divided into single division
Cyanophyta with a single class Cyanophyceae.
B. Eukaryota: All those algae which are made up of eukaryotic cell
were placed in this group. This group is divided into following ten divisions.
i. Rhodophyta: Has a single class Rhodophyceae
ii. Chlorophyta: Has three classes i.e. Chlorophyceae, Prasimophyceae and
Charophyceae
iii. Euglenophyta: Has single class Euglenophyceae
iv. Chloromonadophyta: Has single class Chloromonadophyceae
v. Xanthophyta: Has single class Xanthophyceae
vi. Bacillariophyta: Has single class Bacillariophyceae
vii. Chrysophyta: Has two classes i.e. Chrysophyceae and Haptophyceae
viii. Pyrrophyta: Has two classes i.e. Dinophyceae and Desmophyceae
ix. Cryptophyta: Has single class Cryptophyceae
x. Phaeophyta: Has single class Phaeophyceae
Economic Importance of Algae: Although the use of
algae as food is very old, as even mentioned in the poetric literature of the
Chinese about 600 BC, but they are still considered less economically
important than fungi and bacteria. Phycologists in different parts of the
world are exploring continuously the beneficial aspects of these tiny,
adventurous and wonderful organisms of the beautiful nature. But it does
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not mean that they are only beneficial. In some aspects they are detrimental
too. Some of their major beneficial and harmful aspects are discussed below:
A. Beneficial aspects: The algae are of importance in the
fields of agriculture and industry. In addition, they are used as food, fodder
and manure.
1. Role in industry: Algae are useful source of many
commercial products. The four major products derived commercially from
them are agar-agar, alginic acid, carrageenin and diatomite.
i. Agar-agar: It is a jelly like material obtained from the members of
Rhodophyta. The genera which yield agar-agar are Gelidium, Gracilaria,
Hypnea, Chondrus etc. It is used as culture medium for the growth of
bacteria, fungi and algae in laboratory. It is also used in packing canned food,
in treatment of constipation and in cosmetic, leather, textile and paper
industry. It is also used as laxative.
ii. Alginic acid: Algin is a carbohydrate which is found in the cell
wall of many brown algae. The insoluble extract is alginic acid. The salts of
the alginic acid found in the cell wall of these sea weeds are called alginates.
The alginates are used as thickeners in food industry (ice creams), cosmetic
and in textile industry as printing pastes. They are also used in rubber
industry and in the production of plastic and artificial fibers. Alginic acid is
also used to stop bleeding effectively.
iii. Carrageenin: It is a cell wall polysaccharide which is obtained
from the red algae Chondrus crispus. It is used as a component of tooth
pastes, cosmetics, paints and deodorants. It is also used in food, textile,
pharmaceutical, leather and brewing industries. It is also use as blood
coagulant and as remedy of cough.
iv. Diatomite: It is a rock like deposit formed from the death and
decay of the past diatoms that has collected over many millions of years on
the floors of seas to form oceanic sediment. Diatomaceous earth is a whitish
substance, firm but usually soft and light. It is highly porous but insoluble. It
is chemically inert, highly absorbent and fire proof. Because of these
properties it is used in many industries. It is used as filter for oils and other
solutions (sugar industry) and for clearing solvents. It is used in insulation of
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refrigerators, boilers, hot and cold pipes, hollow tile bricks for construction of
constant temperature rooms, sound proof rooms, insulation for furnaces, in
the manufacture of dynamite, a constituent of tooth pastes, bleaching
powders, in metal and silver polishes etc.
v. Source of minerals: Large number of Kelps and other sea
weeds are used as source of minerals. The most important minerals which
are obtained from algae are Iodine, Soda, Potash, Bromine, copper, Zinc,
Boron etc.
vi. Funori: It is a type of glue obtained from red alga Gleopeltis
furcata. It is used as an adhesive as well as a sizing agent in paper and cloth.
2. Role in Agriculture: Many members of the Cyanophyta are
capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and ammonia and thus
they increases the soil fertility. Some of the important nitrogen fixing blue
green algae are Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Spirulina, Nostoc etc. Another
important use of blue green algae is in the reclamation of barren alkaline
soils. Successive crops of these algae neutralize the alkalinity and increase
fertility of the soil. Because of the presence of potassium, phosphorus and
some trace elements, the sea weeds are also used as fertilizers in many
coastal areas. They are either mixed with some other organic material or are
allowed to rot in the field as such.
3. Algae as food: The most important use of algae is that they
are the primary producers of organic matter in aquatic environment because
of their photosynthetic activity. Thus they are the primary source of food for
fishes, aquatic Amphibia, mammals and other animals. On the other hand
algae by their photosynthetic activity continuously oxygenate their
surrounding aquatic environment and this Oxygen is used by all living
organisms in the process of respiration. Further more, in different parts of
the world more than 100 species of algae are also used as food by man.
These algae belong mainly to the divisions Chlorophyta, Rhodophyta and
Phaeophyta. The common genera which are used as food are Laminaria,
Sargassum, Chondrus, Chlorella, Ulva etc.
4. Algae as fodder: Norway, U.S.A, France, Denmark and New
Zealand are the countries where it is a common practice to use sea weeds as
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fodder for the cattle. In England and France Kelps are chopped for sheep and
chickens. The milk yielding capacity of the cattle is enhanced when dried sea
weeds such as Pelvetia forms an ingredient in cow feed.
5. Role of Algae in medicine: Many sea weeds contain a
high percentage of Iodine content and thus are used in the preparation of
various goiter medicines. Antibiotic Chlorellin is obtained from Chlorella.
Agar-agar is used in the manufacture of pills and ointments. Carrageenin
extract and alginic acid acts as blood coagulant and stops bleeding.
B. Harmful aspects of algae: Some of the harmful
aspects of algae are described below:
1. Algae grow luxuriantly in water reservoirs meant for domestic water
supply. They give bad taste to the drinking water and also interfere with the
filtration process of the water.
2. Algae decay and decayed by products are toxic to many fishes and other
animals. Some of the algae liberate toxic chemical substances in water
making it unfit for the inhabiting animals.
3. Sometimes the endotoxin of many algae is harmless for fishes but when
these fishes are eaten by man, it causes death of the human beings. Besides
this, gastric troubles, respiratory disorders and skin infections are also seen
by drinking water having certain algae.
4. Some the algae are parasites on plants and animals.
5. Sometimes algae grow to such an extent that they completely discolor the
water. This is known as algal bloom. Besides causing suffocation to the
animals living in that area, they also emit foul smell.