Construction Materials and Testing

Chapter 1: Introduction
The construction of a structure requires a thorough understanding of fabrication, application,
field testing, and properties of materials. Thus, a thorough knowledge of properties and
performance of materials and construction practices are required to develop, design, and
build a safe, economical, and durable structure.

An introductory course on materials of construction or Civil Engineering is commonly set on

the following aspects:

 Physical, mechanical, and other important properties of materials

 Fabrication or method of manufacture
 Durability and long-term performance
 Specifications and Standards
 Application or methods of use
 Laboratory testing procedure
 Material testing procedures history

Civil engineering embodies professionals who design, construct, maintain, inspect, and
manage public works projects. Such as projects include characteristically diverse groups of
facilities such as:

 Railroads
 High-rise office buildings
 Sewage treatment centers

The construction maybe:

 Underground or above ground

 Offshore or inland
 Over mile deep valleys or flat terrains
 Rocky mountains or clayey soil

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROFESSION

The profession of civil engineering is of fairly recent origin [The American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), the oldest national engineering society in the United States, was founded
in 1852], civil engineering works is as old as a humankind. The most ambitious and
historically significant projects throughout the history of civilization were built to satisfy
human needs for:

 Transportation;
 Water;
 Shelter;
 And disaster control.
HISTORICAL RULERS ON CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION
1. Babylonian dynasty of King Hammurabi (about 1800 B.C), initiated sweeping
brooms and construction programs documented in historical manuscripts;
2. King in Assyria, 700 B.C, who was called a great engineer-king, built a dam across
the river Tebitu, and from the reservoir thus created, constructed many canals. The
canal walls were built from cubes of stone and the floor had a layer of concrete or
mortar under the top course of stone to prevent leakage.
3. All Mesopotamian cities found that time were paved with slabs of stone and brick;
4. The first Emperor of Chinese dynasty in China (259-210 B.C.) started the
building of the Great Wall of China for protection from the Huns.
5. The Great Roman Emperor Constantine I, after his conversion to Christianity,
built the city of Constantinople and dedicated it as his capital (A.D. 330).
6. Sumerians (around 3000 B.C.), built houses with mud bricks joined by locally
available bitumen.
7. Mesopotamians built mud-brick huts without windows which keep out the sizzling
heat of the summer sun.
8. People in Sri Lanka, had houses made of wooden frames and removable reed mat,
this type of house being cheap and practical, is still being built.
9. At Harappa, along the rich alluvial banks of the Indus River (Indian/Pakistan),
there remains two large and expertly constructed cities (3000-1500 B.C), the cities
were planned around the central citadel and constructed of good-quality burned
brick.
10. Eastern Chou dynasty in China (770-250 B.C.), a number of cities were built,
usually rectangular or square on a north-south axis and they had double walls with a
moat.
11. The Assyrians, Mesopotamia, 1100-750 B.C., knew how to construct buildings that
would not be destroyed by fire. Their buildings were made of stone, so that the fire
burned off on roof only.
12. In Babylon (King Nabopolassar, 600 B.C.) city walls were built using two walls,
one outer and one inner and filling the space between them with rubble, generally
up to the ground level.
13. The Ishtar Gate of Babylon (King Nebuchadrezzar, around 550 B.C.), was
finished with enameled bricks, blue on the towers and green and pink on the
connecting walls. The roads were paved with massive stone blocks set in asphalt.
14. The post-and-beam framing in timber owes its development to the Greeks.

The brief historical perspective of civil engineering construction shows that the materials of
construction were, for the most part, of native origin and satisfied environmental
compatibility. Thus, this statement applies to most basic materials used in today’s civil
engineering structures, but not for all.

Responsible for the introduction of materials to the construction market:

 Advances in engineering techniques

 Resource constraints
 Cost-cutting measures
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
The basics materials used in Civil Engineering applications or in construction are:

 Wood
 Concrete
 Bitumen
 Structural Clay and Concrete Units
 Reinforcing and Structural steel

These materials are sometimes called as STRUCTURAL MATERIALS.

Addition:

 Plastics
 Soils
 Aluminum

Used in civil engineering structures:

 Dams
 Bridges
 Roads
 Foundations
 Liquid-retaining structures
 Waterfront structures
 Buildings
 Retaining walls

Highway materials:

 Soils
 Aggregates
 Bituminous binder
 Lime
 Cement

Wood-derived from trees and can be used to directly as pieces of lumber obtained from the
log or as a raw material in the manufacture of various wood products.

 Plywood
 Timber
 Oriented strand board

Concrete
- Is a basic construction material made with Portland cement as a primary ingredient.
  Portland Cement (and other types of cement)- are also used in the
manufacture of many other construction materials.
- Is used in combination with other distinctly different materials to produce concrete
such as:
 Reinforcing steel bars
 Polypropylene fibers
 High strength wires

BITUMEN (comes in variety of forms)

- With combined with other raw materials in the construction of:
 Pavements;
 Roof shingles;
 Water proofing compounds.

STRUCTURAL CLAY AND CONCRETE UNITS

- Commonly called bricks and blocks
- Are the principal elements in the construction of masonry walls.

STRUCTURAL STEEL
- Used in many forms and shapes for the construction of railroad tiles, high-rise
buildings, roof trusses, and many more.

The basic materials are selected for the following:

 Properties;
 Performance;
 Availability;
 Aesthetics;
 Cost.

Note: Knowledge of this aspects is essential in selecting a suitable in a suitable material for a
particular situation.

Secondary materials of construction or the nonstructural materials:

 Sealants
 Adhesives
 Floor and wall coverings
 Fasteners
 Doors and windows

These materials are selected on the quality guidelines and aesthetic considerations.

Properties of engineering materials

Materials for Highway Bridge should have adequate strength, rough surface, and sufficient
rigidity.

Water-retaining structure can be built using materials that are impermeable, crack-free,
strong, and do not react with water.

Road surface can be built using materials that show little movement under load, are water
resistant, and are easy to repair.

Properties of materials are grouped under three major headings:

1. Physical Properties
2. Mechanical Properties
3. Chemical Properties

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

- Are those derived from properties of matter or physical structure. They include
density, porosity or voids, moisture content, specific gravity, permeability, and
structure (micro or macro).

In addition:

 Texture
 Color
 Shape

The physical properties are helpful in evaluating a material in terms of appearance, weight,
permeability, and water retention.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

- Measure the resistance of a material to applied loads or forces.

- Some reflect the strength of the material, whereas others measures the deformation
capacity or stiffness.
- Includes strength, deformation, brittleness, plasticity and ductility.

Strength- is a measure of the maximum load per unit area, and can be tension,
compression, shear, flexure, torsion, or impact.

Deformation capacity or stiffness- measured in terms of elastic modulus.

A knowledge of both strength and deformation capacity of materials is absolutely

essential in the selection of a construction material. A high-strength material need not to
possess a high deformation capacity or stiffness.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

- Pertaining to the composition and potential reaction of a material. The compounds

of composition, such as oxides and carbonates, describe the chemical nature of the
material. They explain the material behaves in a certain environment.
 Other chemical properties:

 Acidity
 Alkalinity
 Resistance to corrosion

ADDITION TO PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS:

 Thermal
 Electrical
 Magnetic
 Acoustical
 Optical, are also important in civil engineering.

Thermal properties- represent the behavior of a material under heat or temperature.

Acoustical properties- sound transmission and sound reflection that should provide sound
resistance and act as sound barriers.

Optical properties- such as color, light, transmission, and light transmission, and light
reflection are essential in determining the energy consumption capacity of a material.

Electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability- are needed in material used in electrical
works.