REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Function of the Male Reproductive System b. Conveys sperm from seminiferous tubules
to efferent ductules
A. Production of sperm cells c. Site sperm maturation
B. Sustaining and transfer of the sperm cells to d. Conveys sperm from the epididymis to
the female urethra
C. Production of male sex hormones
Spermatogenesis
Functions of the Female Reproduction System

A. Production of the female sex cells

B. Reception of the sperm cells from the male
C. Nurturing the development and providing
nourishment for the fetus
D. Production of the female sex hormones

Parts of the Male Reproductive System

A. Scrotum – temperature 3 degrees below

body temperature
B. Penis
C. Testes
D. Seminal Vesicles PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
E. Prostate SYSTEM
F. Cowper’s Gland
External Features
G. Urethra
1. Mons Pubis
2. Labia Majora
3. Labia Minora
4. Clitoris

Internal Structures

A. Vagina
B. Uterus
C. Fallopian Tube
D. Ovariea

Oogenesis

STRUCTURES OF THE TESTIS

A. Seminiferous Tubules
B. Rete Testis
C. Efferent Ductules
D. Epididymis
E. Duct of Epididymis
F. Ductus Deferens/ Vas Deferens
a. Spermatogenesis takes place
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
PELVIC CONTENTS PECULIAR TO MALE

Prostate

- Fibromuscular organ that surrounds the

prostatic urethra.
- Lies between the neck of the bladder above
and the urogenital diaphragm below.
- Function: Production of a thin, milky fluid
containing citric acid and acid phosphatase
which is added to the seminal fluid at the
time of ejaculation.

RELATIONS OF THE PROSTATE

A. Superiorly
- The base of the prostate is continuous with
the neck of the bladder. The urethra enters
the base of the prostate
B. Inferiorly
- The apex of the prostate lies on the upper
surface of the urogenital diaphragm
C. Anteriorly
- The anterior surface of the prostate is
related to the symphysis pubis, separated
from it by the extraperitoneal fat in the
retropubic space (cave of Retzius).
- The fibrous sheath of the prostate is
connected to the posterior aspect of the
pubic bones by puboprostatic ligaments
which are condensations of the pelvic fascia.
D. Posteriorly
- Posterior surface of the prostate is closely
related to the anterior surface of the rectal
ampulla and is separated from it by the
rectovesical septum (fascia ofDenonvillier)
E. Laterally
- The lateral surface of the prostate are
embraced by the anterior fibers of the
levator ani muscles as they run posteriorly
from the pubis

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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
C. Posterior lobe
- Situated behind the urethra and below the
ejaculatory ducts and also contain glandular
tissue
D. Right and left lateral lobes
- Lie on either side of the urethra and are
separated from one another by a shallow
vertical groove on the posterior surface of
the prostrate; Contains many glands

Covering of the Prostate

- Enveloped in a thin but firm fibrous capsule,

distinct from the sheath derived from the
Blood Supply of the Prostate
pelvic fascia, the latter containing a plexus
of veins. - The arteries supplying the prostrate are
- The capsule is firmly adherent to the derived from the internal pudendal, inferior
prostrate and structurally continuous with vesical and middle rectal arteries.
the median septum in the urethral crest.
- The capsule is also continuous with the Venous Drainage of the Prostate
numerous fibromuscular septa which
- Its veins form a plexus around the sides and
enmesh the glandular tissue.
base of the gland. They receive in front the
LOBES OF THE PROSTATE deep dorsal vein of the penis and end in the
internal iliac veins.
- The prostate gland is incompletely divided
into 5 lobes Lymphatic Drainage of the Prostate
A. Anterior Lobe
- The prostatic vessels terminate chiefly in
- Lies in front of the urethra and is devoid of
the internal iliac and sacral nodes. A trunk
glandular tissue
from the posterior surface passes with the
B. Median lobe
lymph vessels of the bladder to the external
- Wedge of gland situated between the
iliac nodes.
urethra and the ejaculatory ducts. Its upper
surface is related to the trigone of the
bladder; It is rich in glands

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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Prostatic Venous Plexus Seminal Vesicle

- The veins form a plexus around the sides

and base of the gland.
- The prostatic venous plexuses lies behind
the arcuate pubic ligament and lower part
of the symphysis pubis and in front of the
bladder and prostrate.
- Valveless venous communications between
the prostatic plexus and the extradural
venous plexuses have been shown to be a
normal feature and to be probably an
important factor in the metastasis of
prostatic cancer to the vertebral bodies.

Communications of the Prostatic Venous Plexus

- Its chief tributary is the deep dorsal vein of
the penis but it also receives tributaries
from the front of the bladder and prostrate.
- It communicates with the vesical plexus and
internal pudendal vein, and drains into the
vesical and internal iliac veins. The veins of
the plexus are embedded in the lateral part
of the fascial sheath of the prostrate.
Seminal Vesicle
- Two lobulated organs about 5cms long lying
on the posterior surface of the bladder. On
the medial side of each vesicle lies the
terminal part of the vas deferens.
RELATIONS OF THE SEMINAL VESICLE
A. Anterior
- The anterior surface is in contact with the
posterior surface of the bladder, extending
from near the termination of the ureter to
the base of the prostrate
B. Posterior
- Rectum from which it is separated by the
rectovesical fascia. The vesicles diverge
from each other superiorly, and are related
to the deferent ducts and the termination of
the ureters
C. Medial
- Ampulla of the deferent duct

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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
D. Lateral
- Veins of the prostatic plexus pass
posteriorly to join the iliac vein

Secretion of the Seminal Vesicle

- To produce a secretion that is added to the

seminal fluid.
- Secretion contains substances that are
essential for the nourishment of the
spermatozoa.
- The thick mucus like secretions of the
seminal vesicles contain the sugar fructose
and other nutrients that provide Vas Deferens
nourishment to the sperm cells.
- It also contains proteins that weakly - Also called ductus deferens. It is the
coagulate and enzymes that are though to continuation of the duct of the epididymis.
help destroy abnormal sperm cells. - Commencing at the tail of the epididymis, it
- Prostaglandins which can cause is at first tortuous, but becoming gradually
contractions of the female reproductive straighter, it ascends along the posterior
tract help transport sperm cells through the border of the testis and the medial side of
female reproductive tract. the epididymis.
- From the superior pole of the testis it runs
Blood Supply of Seminal Vesicles upwards in the posterior part of the
spermatic cord and traverses the inguinal
- Derived from the inferior vesical and
canal to the deep inguinal ring.
middle rectal arteries

Venous Drainage of Seminal Vesicles

- Accompany the arteries

Lymphatic Drainage of Seminal Vesicles

- Internal and external iliac nodes

Termination of the Seminal Duct

- A short duct extends from the seminal

vesicle to the ampulla of the ductus
Describe the Ejaculatory Duct
deferens.
- The duct from the seminal vesicle and the
ampulla of the ductus deferens join the
prostate gland to form the ejaculatory duct.
- Each ejaculatory duct extends into the
prostate gland and ends by joining the
urethra within the prostate gland.
- The ejaculatory ducts are formed by the
union of the duct of the seminal vesicle with
the terminal part of the deferent duct
- They commence at the base of the prostate,
runs anteroinferiorly between the median
and the right or left lobes, pass along the
sides of the prostatic utricle and end on the
colliculus seminalis in a slit-like orifices on,
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
or just within, the margins of the opening of
the utricle.
Blood Supply of the Vas Deferens
- is supplied by an accompanying artery
(artery of vas deferens). This artery
normally arises from the inferior vesical
artery, a branch of the internal iliac artery.
(SNELL)
- Superior vesical artery, Artery of the ductus
deferens (GRAY’S ANATOMY)
Venous Drainage of the Vas Deferens
- Superior or inferior vesical veins draining
into internal iliac veins
Lymphatic Drainage of the Vas Deferens
- External iliac lymph nodes, internal iliac
lymph nodes
PELVIC CONTENTS PECULIAR TO FEMALE
Uterus
- Hollow, thick walled pear-shaped muscular
organ normally located in the lesser pelvis
between the urinary bladder in front and
the rectum behind.
- It measures about 7.5cms in length, 5cms in
its widest diameter and nearly 2.5cms in
thickness. It weighs 30-40gms.
RELATIONS OF THE UTERUS
A. Anteriorly
- The body of the uterus is related anteriorly
to the uterovesical pouch and the superior
surface of the bladder.
- The supravaginal cervix is related to the
superior surface of the bladder.
- The vaginal cervix is related to the anterior
fornix of the vagina
B. Posteriorly
- Related posteriorly to the rectouterine
pouch (Pouch of Douglas) with coils of the
ileum or sigmoid colon
C. Laterally
- The body of the uterus is related laterally to
the broad ligament and the uterine artery
and vein.
- The supravaginal cervix is related to the
ureter as it passes forward to enter the
bladder. The vaginal cervix is related to the
lateral fornix of the vagina.
- The uterine tubes enter the superolateral
angles of the uterus, and the round
ligaments of the ovary and of the uterus are
attached to the uterine wall just below this
level.
POSITION OF THE UTERUS
A. Anteversion
- In most women, the long axis of the uterus
is bent forward on the long axis of the
vagina
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
B. Anteflexion Parts of the Uterus
- Long axis of the body of the uterus is bent
forward at the level of the internal os with - The uterus is divisible into two regions:
the long axis of the cervix A. Corpus Uteri
C. Retroverted - Part above the internal os
- The fundus and the body of the uterus are B. Cervix Uteri
bent backward on the vagina so that they lie - The part below the internal os
in the rectouterine pouch (Pouch of
Douglas)
D. Retroflexed
- Body of the uterus is in addition bent
backward on the cervix
E. In the erect position, with the bladder
empty, the uterus lies in an almost
horizontal position

PARTS OF THE UTERUS

A. Fundus
- The part of the body of the uterus which lies
above a plane passing through the points of
entrance of the uterine tubes
B. Body
- Part of the uterus that lies below the
entrance of the uterine tubes
C. Cervix
1. Supravaginal
2. Vaginal

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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
LAYERS OF THE UTERINE WALL Uterine Veins

A. Serous Layer
- Also called parametrium; it is the
peritoneum which posteriorly covers the
body and supravaginal part of the cervix,
but in front covers the body only
B. Muscular Layer
- Also called the myometrium; Forms most of
the substance of the uterus
C. Mucous Membrane
- Endometrium

Blood Supply of the Uterus

Lymphatic Drainage of the Uterus
- Two uterine branches of the internal iliac
A. Paraaortic lymph nodes at L1 vertebra
artery.
− Lymph vessels from the fundus
- These vessels anastomose superiorly with
B. Internal and external iliac nodes
the ovarian and inferior with the vaginal
− Body and cervix
arteries.
C. Superficial inguinal lymph nodes
- The uterine arteries anastomose
− Round ligament of the uterus
extensively with each other across the
midline by small branches. Innervation of the Uterus
Uterine Arteries − The uterine nerves arise from the
inferior hypogastric plexus

LIGAMENTS OF THE UTERUS

1. Transverse Cervical (Cardinal)

Ligaments (of Mackenrodt)
- Fibromuscular condensations of pelvic
fascia that pass to the cervix and the upper
end of the vagina from the lateral walls of
the pelvis. It is located at the base of the
broad ligament of the uterus. Importantly, it
contains the uterine artery and uterine vein.
2. Pubocervical Ligaments
- Consist of two firm bands of connective
tissue that pass to the cervix from the
Venous Drainage of the Uterus posterior surface of the pubis. They are
- Uterine veins are arranged similar to that of positioned on either side of the neck of the
the arteries bladder, to which they give some support.
3. Sacrocervical Ligaments
- Consist of two firm bands of pelvic fascia
that pass to the cervix and upper end of the
vagina from the lower end of the sacrum.

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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
They form two ridges, one on either side of Round Ligament of the Uterus
the rectouterinepouch
4. Round Ligament of the Uterus
- Represents the lower half of the
gubernaculum, extends between the
superolateral angle of the uterus, through
the deep inguinal ring and inguinal canal, to
the subcutaneous tissue of the labium
majus. It helps keep the uterus anteverted
and anteflexed but is considerably streched
during pregnancy

Ligaments of the Uterus

Broad Ligament

- Two layered folds of peritoneum that

extend across the pelvic cavity from the
lateral margins of the uterus to the lateral
pelvic walls.
- The ovary is attached to the posterior layer
by the mesovarium.
- That part of the broad ligament that lies
lateral to the attachment of the mesovarium
forms the suspensory ligament of the ovary.
- The part of the broad ligament between the
uterine tube and mesovarium is called the
mesosalpinx.

Ligament of the Uterus

- Broad ligament of the uterus is the wide

fold of peritoneum that connects the
sides of the uterus to the walls and floor
of the pelvis.

THE BROAD LIGAMENT MAY BE DIVIDED INTO

THREE SUBCOMPONENTS:

1. Mesometrium
- The mesentery of the uterus; the largest
portion of the broad ligament
2. Mesosalpinx
- The mesentery of the fallopian tube
3. Mesovarium
- The mesentery of the ovaries.

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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
THE CONTENTS OF THE BROAD LIGAMENT
INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:
1. Reproductive
- Fallopian tube
- ovary (some sources consider the ovary to
be on the broad ligament, but not in it.)
2. Vessels
- ovarian artery (in the suspensory ligament)
- uterine artery
3. Ligaments
- ovarian ligament
- round ligament of uterus
- suspensory ligament of the ovary (Some
sources consider it a part of the broad
ligament while other sources just consider
it a "termination" of the ligament.)
Broad Ligament of the Uterus
Ovary
- is an ovum-producing reproductive organ.
Ovaries in females are homologous to
testes in males, in that they are both
gonads and endocrine glands.
- The ovary is located in the lateral wall of
the pelvis in a region called the ovarian
fossa.
Location of the Ovary
- They are located on each side of the uterus
close to the lateral wall of the lesser pelvis
and attached to the posterosuperior aspect
of the broad ligament uterus.
- The position of the ovary is subject to a
wide variation in women who have borne
children because it is displaced in the first
pregnancy and probably never returns to
its original position.
RELATIONS OF THE OVARY
A. Anteriorly
- Obliterated umbilical artery
B. Posteriorly
- Ureter and internal iliac artery
C. Superiorly
- External iliac vessels
LIGAMENTS OF THE OVARY
A. Mesovarium
- Ovary is attached to the back of the broad
ligament
B. Round Ligament of the Ovary
- Represents the remains of the upper part
of the gubernaculum connects the lateral
margins of the uterus to the ovary
C. Suspensory Ligament of the Ovary
- Part of the broad ligament extending
between the attachment of the
mesovarium and the lateral wall of the
pelvis
Blood Supply of the Ovary
- The ovarian artery from the abdominal
aorta
Venous Drainage of the Ovary
- Ovarian veins drains into the IVC on the
right and left renal vein on the left
Lymphatic Drainage of the Ovary Innervation of
the Ovary
- Lymph vessels follow the ovarian artery
and drain into the para-aortic nodes at L1
vertebra
Innervation of the Ovary
- Aortic plexus at L1 vertebra
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The blood supply, lymph and nerve supply of the
ovary pass the lateral end of broad ligament, part
known as the suspensory ligament of the ovary

Fallopian Tube

- also known as oviducts, uterine tubes, and

salpinges (singular salpinx) are two very
fine tubes lined with ciliated epithelia,
leading from the ovaries into the uterus,
via the utero-tubal junction.
- Transmits ova from the ovaries to the
cavity of the uterus and are situated in the
upper margins of the broad ligaments.
COMMUNICATIONS OF THE FALLOPIAN TUBE
A. Abdominal Ostium
- Opening into the peritoneal cavity
B. Opening to the Uterus
- Uterine part of the tube or
intramural
PARTS OF THE FALLOPIAN TUBE
A. Infundibulum
- Funnel shaped lateral end that projects
beyond the broad ligament and overlies
the ovary. The free edge of the funnel has
several fingerlike processes known as
fimbriae
B. Ampulla
- Widest part of the tube; Most common site
of fertilization
C. Isthmus
- Narrowest part of the tube and lies just
lateral to the uterus
D. Intramural Part
- Segment that pierces the uterine wall
Blood Supply of the Fallopian Tube
- The uterine artery from the internal iliac
artery and the ovarian artery from the
abdominal aorta
Venous Drainage of Fallopian Tube
- Corresponds to the artery
Lymphatic Drainage of the Fallopian Tube
- The lymph vessels follow the
corresponding arteries and drain into the
internal and para-aortic nodes
Innervation of the Fallopian Tube
- Inferior Hypogastric plexus
Tubal Ligation
- Is a permanent voluntary form of birth
control (contraception) in which a
woman's fallopian tubes are surgically cut
or blocked off to prevent pregnancy.
- Is performed in women who want to
prevent future pregnancies. It is frequently
chosen by women who do not want more
children, but who are still sexually active
and potentially fertile, and want to be free
of the limitations of other types of birth
control.

11
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Circumcision
- is a surgical procedure in which part of or
the entire prepuce is removed. It is usually
performed several days aft er birth, and is
done for social, cultural, religious, and
(more rarely) medical reasons.
Ovarian Cysts
- are fluid-filled sacs in or on an ovary. Such
cysts are relatively common, are usually
noncancerous, and frequently disappear on
their own. Cancerous cysts are more likely
to occur in women over 40.
- Ovarian cysts may cause pain, pressure, a
dull ache, or fullness in the abdomen; pain
during sexual intercourse; delayed, painful,
or irregular menstrual periods; abrupt
onset of sharp pain in the lower abdomen;
and/or vaginal bleeding.
Uterine Prolapse
- A condition called uterine prolapse
(prolapse = falling down or downward
displacement) may result from weakening
of supporting ligaments and pelvic
musculature associated with age or
disease, traumatic vaginal delivery, chronic
straining from coughing or difficult bowel
movements, or pelvic tumors.
Hysterectomy
- the surgical removal of the uterus, is the
most common gynecological operation.
Episiotomy
- A perineal cut between the vagina and
anus made with surgical scissors to widen
the birth canal.
Breast Augmentation
- Technically called augmentation
mammaplasty, is a surgical procedure to
increase breast size and shape.
- It may be done to enhance breast size for
females who feel that their breasts are too
small, to restore breast volume due to
weight loss or following pregnancy, to
improve the shape of breasts that are
sagging, and to improve breast appearance
following surgery, trauma, or congenital
abnormalities.
Breast Reduction
- Or reduction mammaplasty is a surgical
procedure that involves decreasing breast
size by removing fat, skin, and glandular
tissue.
Fibrocystic Disease
- The most common cause of breast lumps in
females, one or more cysts (fluid-filled
sacs) and thickenings of alveoli develop.
- The condition, which occurs mainly in
females between the ages of 30 and 50, is
probably due to a relative excess of
estrogens or a deficiency of progesterone
in the postovulatory (luteal) phase of the
reproductive cycle (discussed shortly).
Amenorrhea (a-men-ō-RĒ-a; a- = without; -men-
= month; -rrhea = a flow)
- Is the absence of menstruation. The most
common causes of amenorrhea are
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
pregnancy and menopause. In female
athletes, amenorrhea results from reduced
secretion of gonadotropin-releasing
hormone, which decreases the release of
LH and FSH.
- As a result, ovarian follicles fail to develop,
ovulation does not occur, synthesis of
estrogens and progesterone wanes, and
monthly menstrual bleeding ceases.
- Most cases of the female athlete triad occur
in young women with very low amounts of
body fat. Low levels of the hormone leptin,
secreted by adipose cells, may be a
contributing factor.
Chronic Prostatitis
- Is one of the most common chronic
infections in men of the middle and later
years. On examination, the prostate feels
enlarged, soft, and very tender, and its
surface outline is irregular.
Erectile Dysfunction
- Previously termed impotence, is the
consistent inability of an adult male to
ejaculate or to attain or hold an erection
long enough for sexual intercourse.
Premenstrual Syndrome
- Is a cyclical disorder of severe physical and
emotional distress. It appears during the
postovulatory (luteal) phase of the female
reproductive cycle and dramatically
disappears when menstruation begins.
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
- Is a more severe syndrome in which PMS-
like signs and symptoms do not resolve aft
er the onset of menstruation. Clinical
research studies have found that
suppression of the reproductive cycle by a
drug that interferes with GnRH
(leuprolide) decreases symptoms
significantly.
Endometriosis
- Is characterized by the growth of
endometrial tissue outside the uterus.
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis
- Is a yeastlike fungus that commonly grows
on mucous membranes of the
gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts.
Ovarian and Cervical Cancer
- Is the sixth most common form of cancer in
females, it is the leading cause of death
from all gynecological malignancies
(excluding breast cancer) because it is
difficult to detect before it metastasizes
(spreads) beyond the ovaries.
Cervical Cancer
- Is a carcinoma of the cervix of the uterus
that affects about 12,000 females a year in
the United States with a mortality rate of
about 4,000 annually.
Chlamydia
- Is a sexually transmitted disease caused by
the bacterium
Chlamydia trachomatis (chlamy- = cloak).
- This unusual bacterium cannot reproduce
outside body cells; its “cloaks” itself inside
cells, where it divides. At present,
chlamydia is the most prevalent sexually
transmitted disease in the United States.
Trichomoniasis
- Is a very common STD and is considered
the most curable. It is caused by the
protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis, which is
a normal inhabitant of the vagina in
females and urethra in males.
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Gonorrhea
- Or “the clap” is caused by the bacterium
Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
- Discharges from infected mucous
membranes are the source of transmission
of the bacteria either during sexual contact
or during the passage of a newborn
through the birth canal.
Syphilis
- Caused by the bacterium Treponema
pallidum, is transmitted through sexual
contact or exchange of blood, or through
the placenta to a fetus. The disease
progresses through several stages.
Genital Herpes
- Is an incurable STD. Type II herpes simplex
virus (HSV-2) causes genital infections,
producing painful blisters on the prepuce,
glans penis, and penile shaft in males and
on the vulva or sometimes high up in the
vagina in females.
Genital Warts
- Typically appear as single or multiple
bumps in the genital area and are caused
by several types of human papillomavirus
(HPV). The lesions can be flat or raised,
small or large, or shaped like a cauliflower
with multiple fingerlike projections.
Castration (kas-TRA-shun = to prune)
- Removal, inactivation, or destruction of the
gonads; commonly used in reference to
removal of the testes only.
Colposcopy (kol-POS-kō-pē; colpo- = vagina; -
scopy = to view)
- Visual inspection of the vagina and cervix of
the uterus using a culposcope, an
instrument that has a magnifying lens
(between 5× and 50×) and a light. The
procedure generally takes place aft er an
unusual Pap smear.
Culdoscopy (kul-DOS-kō-pē; -cul- = cul-de-sac; -
scopy = to examine)
- A procedure in which a culdoscope
(endoscope) is inserted through the
posterior wall of the vagina to view the
rectouterine pouch in the pelvic cavity.
Dysmenorrhea (dis-men-ōr-E
-a; dys- = diff icult or painful)
- Pain associated with menstruation; the
term is usually reserved to describe
menstrual symptoms that are severe
enough to prevent a woman from
functioning normally for one or more days
each month. Some cases are caused by
uterine tumors, ovarian cysts, pelvic
inflammatory disease, or intrauterine
devices.
Dyspareunia (dis-pa-ROO-nē-a; dys- = diff icult;
-para- = beside; -enue = bed)
- Pain during sexual intercourse. It may
occur in the genital area or in the pelvic
cavity, and may be due to inadequate
lubrication, inflammation, infection, an
improperly fitting diaphragm or cervical
cap, endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory
disease, pelvic tumors, or weakened
uterine ligaments.
Endocervical curettage (kū-re-TAHZH; curette =
scraper)
- A procedure in which the cervix is dilated
and the endometrium of the uterus is
scraped with a spoon-shaped instrument
called a curette; commonly called a D and C
(dilation and curettage).
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Fibroids (FI-broyds; fibro- = fiber; -eidos =
resemblance)
- Noncancerous tumors in the myometrium
of the uterus composed of muscular and
fibrous tissue. Their growth appears to be
related to high levels of estrogens. They do
not occur before puberty and usually stop
growing aft er menopause. Symptoms
include abnormal menstrual bleeding and
pain or pressure in the pelvic area.
Hermaphroditism (her-MAF-rō-dı¯t-izm)
- The presence of both ovarian and
testicular tissue in one individual.
Hypospadias (hı¯′-pō-SPA -dē-as; hypo- = below)
- A common congenital abnormality in
which the urethral opening is displaced. In
males, the displaced opening may be on the
underside of the penis, at the penoscrotal
junction, between the scrotal folds, or in
the perineum; in females, the urethra
opens into the vagina. The problem can be
corrected surgically.
Leukorrhea (loo′-kō-RE-a; leuko- = white)
- A whitish (nonbloody) vaginal discharge
containing mucus and pus cells that may
occur at any age and aff ects most women
at some time.
Menorrhagia (men-ō-RA-jē-a; meno- =
menstruation; -rhage = to burst forth)
- Excessively prolonged or profuse
menstrual period. May be due to a
disturbance in hormonal regulation of the
menstrual cycle, pelvic infection,
medications (anticoagulants), fibroids
(noncancerous uterine tumors composed
of muscle and fibrous tissue),
endometriosis, or intrauterine devices.
Oophorectomy (ō′-of-ō-REK-tō-mē; oophor- =
bearing eggs)
- Removal of the ovaries.
Orchitis (or-KI-tis; orchi- = testes; -itis =
inflammation)
- Inflammation of the testes, for example, as
a result of the mumps virus or a bacterial
infection.
Ovarian cyst.
- The most common form of ovarian tumor,
in which a fluidfilled follicle or corpus
luteum persists and continues growing.
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
- A collective term for any extensive
bacterial infection of the pelvic organs,
especially the uterus, uterine tubes, or
ovaries, which is characterized by pelvic
soreness, lower back pain, abdominal pain,
and urethritis.
- Often the early symptoms of PID occur just
aft er menstruation. As infection spreads,
fever may develop, along with painful
abscesses of the reproductive organs.
Salpingectomy (sal′-pin-JEK-tō-mē; salpingo =
tube)
- Removal of a uterine (fallopian) tube.
Smegma (SMEG-ma) the secretion,
consisting principally of desquamated
epithelial cells, found chiefly around the
external genitals and especially under the
foreskin of the male.
Male Reproductive System
- The male structures of reproduction include the
testes (2), epididymidis (2), ductus (vas)
deferens (2), ejaculatory ducts (2), seminal
vesicles (2), urethra (1), prostate (1),
bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands (2), and penis
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
(1). The scrotum is a sac that hangs from the
root of the penis and consists of loose skin and
underlying subcutaneous layer; it supports the
testes. The temperature of the testes is
regulated by the cremaster muscles, which
either contract to elevate the testes and move
them closer to the pelvic cavity or relax and
move them farther from the pelvic cavity. The
dartos muscle causes the scrotum to become
tight and wrinkled.
- The testes are paired oval glands (gonads) in
the scrotum containing seminiferous tubules, in
which sperm cells are made; sustentacular cells,
which nourish sperm cells and secrete inhibin;
and interstitial (Leydig) cells, which produce
the male sex hormone testosterone. The testes
descend into the scrotum through the inguinal
canals during the seventh month of fetal
development. Failure of the testes to descend is
called cryptorchidism.
- Secondary oocytes and sperm, both of which
are called gametes, are produced in the gonads.
Spermatogenesis, which occurs in the testes, is
the process whereby immature spermatogonia
develop into sperm. The spermatogenesis
sequence, which includes meiosis I, meiosis II,
and spermiogenesis, results in the formation of
four haploid sperm (spermatozoa) from each
primary spermatocyte. Mature sperm consist of
a head and a tail. Their function is to fertilize a
secondary oocyte
- At puberty, gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) stimulates anterior pituitary secretion
of FSH and LH. LH stimulates production of
testosterone; FSH and testosterone stimulate
spermatogenesis. Sertoli cells secrete
androgen-binding protein (ABP), which binds
to testosterone and keeps its concentration high
in the seminiferous tubule. Testosterone
controls the growth, development, and
maintenance of sex organs; stimulates bone
growth, protein anabolism, and sperm
maturation; and stimulates development of
masculine secondary sex characteristics.
Inhibin is produced by sustentacular cells; its
inhibition of FSH helps regulate the rate of
spermatogenesis.
- The duct system of the testes includes the
seminiferous tubules, straight tubules, and rete
testis. Sperm flow out of the testes through the
efferent ducts. The ductus epididymis is the site
of sperm maturation and storage. The ductus
(vas) deferens stores sperm and propels them
toward the urethra during ejaculation.
- Each ejaculatory duct, formed by the union of
the duct from the seminal vesicle and ampulla
of the ductus (vas) deferens, is the passageway
for ejection of sperm and secretions of the
seminal vesicles into the first portion of the
urethra, the prostatic urethra.
- The urethra in males is subdivided into three
portions: the prostatic, intermediate, and
spongy urethra.
- The seminal vesicles secrete an alkaline, viscous
fluid that contains fructose (used by sperm for
ATP production). Seminal fluid constitutes
about 60% of the volume of semen and
contributes to sperm viability. The prostate
secretes a slightly acidic fluid that constitutes
about 25% of the volume of semen and
contributes to sperm motility. The
bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands secrete mucus
for lubrication and an alkaline substance that
neutralizes acid. Semen is a mixture of sperm
and seminal fluid; it provides the fluid in which
sperm are transported, supplies nutrients, and
neutralizes the acidity of the male urethra and
the vagina.
- The penis consists of a root, a body, and a glans
penis. Engorgement of the penile blood sinuses
under the influence of sexual excitation is called
erection.
Female Reproductive System
- The female organs of reproduction include the
ovaries (gonads), uterine (fallopian) tubes or
oviducts, uterus, vagina, and vulva. The
mammary glands are part of the integumentary
system and also are considered part of the
reproductive system in females.
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- The ovaries, the female gonads, are located in
the superior portion of the pelvic cavity, lateral
to the uterus. Ovaries produce secondary
oocytes, discharge secondary oocytes (the
process of ovulation), and secrete estrogens,
progesterone, relaxing, and inhibin.
- Oogenesis (the production of haploid secondary
oocytes) begins in the ovaries. The oogenesis
sequence includes meiosis I and meiosis II,
which goes to completion only aft er an
ovulated secondary oocyte is fertilized by a
sperm cell.
- The uterine (fallopian) tubes transport
secondary oocytes from the ovaries to the
uterus and are the normal sites of fertilization.
Ciliated cells and peristaltic contractions help
move a secondary oocyte or fertilized ovum
toward the uterus.
- The uterus is an organ the size and shape of an
inverted pear that functions in menstruation,
implantation of a fertilized ovum, development
of a fetus during pregnancy, and labor. It also is
part of the pathway for sperm to reach the
uterine tubes to fertilize a secondary oocyte.
Normally, the uterus is held in position by a
series of ligaments. Histologically, the layers of
the uterus are an outer perimetrium (serosa), a
middle myometrium, and an inner
endometrium.
- The vagina is a passageway for sperm and the
menstrual flow, the receptacle of the penis
during sexual intercourse, and the inferior
portion of the birth canal. It is capable of
considerable stretching.
- The vulva, a collective term for the external
genitals of the female, consists of the mons
pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris,
vestibule, vaginal and urethral orifices, hymen,
and bulb of the vestibule, as well as three sets of
glands: the paraurethral (Skene’s), greater
vestibular (Bartholin’s), and lesser vestibular
glands.
- The perineum is a diamond-shaped area at the
inferior end of the trunk medial to the thighs
and buttocks.
- The mammary glands are modified sweat
glands lying superficial to the pectoralis major
muscles. Their function is to synthesize, secrete,
and eject milk (lactation).
- Mammary gland development depends on
estrogens and progesterone. Milk production is
stimulated by prolactin, estrogens, and
progesterone; milk ejection is stimulated by
oxytocin.
The Female Reproductive Cycle
- The function of the ovarian cycle is to develop a
secondary oocyte; the function of the uterine
(menstrual) cycle is to prepare the
endometrium each month to receive a fertilized
egg. The female reproductive cycle includes
both the ovarian and uterine cycles.
- The uterine and ovarian cycles are controlled
by GnRH from the hypothalamus, which
stimulates the release of FSH and LH by the
anterior pituitary. FSH and LH stimulate
development of follicles and secretion of
estrogens by the follicles. LH also stimulates
ovulation, formation of the corpus luteum, and
the secretion of progesterone and estrogens by
the corpus luteum.
- Estrogens stimulate the growth, development,
and maintenance of female reproductive
structures; stimulate the development of
secondary sex characteristics; and stimulate
protein synthesis. Progesterone works with
estrogens to prepare the endometrium for
implantation and the mammary glands for milk
synthesis.
- Relaxing relaxes the myometrium at the time of
possible implantation. At the end of a
pregnancy, relaxing increases the flexibility of
the pubic symphysis and helps dilate the
uterine cervix to facilitate delivery.
- During the menstrual phase, the stratum
functionalis of the endometrium is shed,
discharging blood, tissue fluid, mucus, and
epithelial cells.
- During the preovulatory phase, a group of
follicles in the ovaries begins to undergo final
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
maturation. One follicle outgrows the others
and becomes dominant while the others
degenerate. At the same time, endometrial
repair occurs in the uterus. Estrogens are the
dominant ovarian hormones during the
preovulatory phase.
- Ovulation is the rupture of the mature
(graafian) follicle and the release of a secondary
oocyte into the pelvic cavity. It is brought about
by a surge of LH. Signs and symptoms of
ovulation include increased basal body
temperature; clear, stretchy cervical mucus;
changes in the uterine cervix; and abdominal
pain.
- During the postovulatory phase, both
progesterone and estrogens are secreted in
large quantity by the corpus luteum of the
ovary, and the uterine endometrium thickens in
readiness for implantation.
- If fertilization and implantation do not occur,
the corpus luteum degenerates, and the
resulting low levels of progesterone and
estrogens allow discharge of the endometrium
followed by the initiation of another
reproductive cycle.
- If fertilization and implantation do occur, the
corpus luteum is maintained by hCG. The
corpus luteum and later the placenta secretes
progesterone and estrogens to support
pregnancy and breast development for
lactation.
The Human Sexual Response
- The similar sequence of changes experienced by
both males and females before, during, and aft
er intercourse is termed the human sexual
response; it occurs in four phases; excitement,
plateau, orgasm, and resolution
- During excitement, there is vasocongestion
(engorgement with blood) of genital tissues.
Other changes that occur during this phase
include increased heart rate and blood
pressure, increased skeletal muscle tone
throughout the body, and hyperventilation.
- During the plateau phase, the changes that
began during the excitement phase are
sustained at an intense level.
- During orgasm, there are several rhythmic
muscular contractions, accompanied by
pleasurable sensations and a further increase in
blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate.
- During the resolution phase, genital tissues,
heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and
muscle tone return to the unaroused state.
Birth Control Methods and Abortion
- Birth control methods include complete
abstinence, surgical sterilization (vasectomy,
tubal ligation), non-incisional sterilization,
hormonal methods (combined pill, extended
cycle pill, minipill, contraceptive skin patch,
vaginal contraceptive ring, emergency
contraception, hormonal injections),
intrauterine devices, spermicides, barrier
methods (male condom, vaginal pouch,
diaphragm, cervical cap), and periodic
abstinence (rhythm and sympto-thermal
methods).
- Contraceptive pills of the combination type
contain progestin and estrogens in
concentrations that decrease the secretion of
FSH and LH and thereby inhibit development of
ovarian follicles and ovulation, inhibit transport
of ova and sperm in the uterine tubes, and block
implantation in the uterus.
- An abortion is the premature expulsion from
the uterus of the products of conception; it may
be spontaneous or induced.
Development of the Reproductive Systems
- The gonads develop from gonadal ridges that
arise from growth of intermediate mesoderm.
In the presence of the SRY gene, the gonads
begin to differentiate into testes during the
seventh week. The gonads diff erentiate into
ovaries when the SRY gene is absent.
- In males, testosterone stimulates development
of each mesonephric duct into an epididymis,
ductus (vas) deferens, ejaculatory duct, and
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
seminal vesicle, and Müllerian-inhibiting
substance (MIS) causes the paramesonephric
duct cells to die. In females, testosterone and
MIS are absent; the paramesonephric ducts
develop into the uterine tubes, uterus, and
vagina and the mesonephric ducts degenerate.
- The external genitals develop from the genital
tubercle and are stimulated to develop into
typical male structures by the hormone
dihydrotestosterone (DHT). The external
genitals develop into female structures when
DHT is not produced, the normal situation in
female embryos.
Aging and the Reproductive Systems
- Puberty is the period when secondary sex
characteristics begin to develop and the
potential for sexual reproduction is reached.
- The onset of puberty is marked by pulses or
bursts of LH and FSH secretion, each triggered
by a pulse of GnRH. The hormone leptin,
released by adipose tissue, may signal the
hypothalamus that long-term energy stores
(triglycerides in adipose tissue) are adequate
for reproductive functions to begin.
- In females, the reproductive cycle normally
occurs once each month from menarche, the
first menses, to menopause, the permanent
cessation of menses.
- Between the ages of 40 and 50, the pool of
remaining ovarian follicles becomes exhausted
and levels of progesterone and estrogens
decline. Most women experience a decline in
bone mineral density aft er menopause,
together with some atrophy of the ovaries,
uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia,
and breasts. Uterine and breast cancer increase
in incidence with age.
- In older males, decreased levels of testosterone
are associated with decreased muscle strength,
waning sexual desire, and fewer viable sperm;
prostate disorders are common.
✓ The gonads (testes) produce gametes (sperm)
and hormones; the ducts transport, store, and
receive gametes; the accessory sex glands
secrete materials that support gametes; and the
penis assists in the delivery and joining of
gametes.
✓ The cremaster and dartos muscles help regulate
the temperature of the testes.
✓ The tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginea are
tissue layers that cover and protect the testes.
✓ The interstitial (Leydig) cells of the testes
secretes testosterone.
✓ As a result of meiosis, I, the number of
chromosomes in each cell is reduced by half.
✓ The sperm head contains the nucleus with 23
highly condensed chromosomes and an
acrosome that contains enzymes for
penetration of a secondary oocyte; the neck
contains centrioles that produce microtubules
for the rest of the tail; the midpiece contains
mitochondria for ATP production for
locomotion and metabolism; the principal and
end pieces of the tail provide motility.
✓ Sustentacular cells secrete inhibin.
✓ Testosterone inhibits secretion of LH, and
inhibin inhibits secretion of FSH.
✓ The seminal vesicles are the accessory sex
glands that contribute the largest volume to
seminal fluid.
✓ Two tissue masses called the corpora cavernosa
penis and one corpus spongiosum penis contain
blood sinuses that fill with blood that cannot
flow out of the penis as quickly as it flows in.
The trapped blood engorges and stiff ens the
tissue, producing an erection. The corpus
spongiosum penis keeps the spongy urethra
open so that ejaculation can occur.
✓ The testes are homologous to the ovaries; the
glans penis is homologous to the clitoris; the
prostate is homologous to the paraurethral
glands; and the bulbourethral glands are
homologous to the greater vestibular glands
✓ The mesovarium anchors the ovary to the broad
ligament of the uterus and the uterine tube; the
ovarian ligament anchors it to the uterus; the
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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
suspensory ligament anchors it to the pelvic ✓ This is negative feedback, because the response
wall. is opposite to the stimulus. A reduced amount
✓ Ovarian follicles secrete estrogens; the corpus of negative feedback due to declining levels of
luteum secretes progesterone, estrogens, estrogens and progesterone stimulates release
relaxin, and inhibin. of GnRH, which in turn increases the production
✓ Most ovarian follicles undergo atresia and release of FSH and LH, ultimately
(degeneration). stimulating the secretion of estrogens.
✓ Primary oocytes are present in the ovary at ✓ The SRY gene on the Y chromosome is
birth, so they are as old as the woman. In males, responsible for the development of the gonads
primary spermatocytes are continually being into testes.
formed from stem cells (spermatogonia) and ✓ The presence of dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
thus are only a few days old. stimulates differentiation of the external
✓ Fertilization most often occurs in the ampulla of genitals in males; its absence allows
the uterine tube. differentiation of the external genitals in
✓ Ciliated columnar epithelial cells and non- females.
ciliated (peg) cells with microvilli line the
uterine tubes.
✓ The endometrium is a highly vascularized,
secretory epithelium that provides the oxygen
and nutrients needed to sustain a fertilized egg;
the myometrium is a thick smooth muscle layer
that supports the uterine wall during pregnancy
and contracts to expel the fetus at birth.
✓ The stratum basalis of the endometrium
provides cells to replace those that are shed
(the stratum functionalis) during each
menstruation.
✓ Anterior to the vaginal opening are the mons
pubis, clitoris, prepuce, and external urethral
orifice. Lateral to the vaginal opening are the
labia minora and labia majora.
✓ The anterior portion of the perineum is called
the urogenital triangle because its borders form
a triangle that encloses the urethral (uro-) and
vaginal (-genital) orifices.
✓ Prolactin, estrogens, and progesterone regulate
the synthesis of milk. Oxytocin regulates the
ejection of milk.
✓ The principal estrogen is β-estradiol.
✓ The hormones responsible for the proliferative
phase of endometrial growth are estrogens; for
ovulation, LH; for growth of the corpus luteum,
LH; and for the midcycle surge of LH, estrogens.
✓ The effect of rising but moderate levels of
estrogens is negative feedback inhibition of the
secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH.
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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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