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The Service Industries Journal

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Uncovering Dimensionality
in the Servicescape: Towards
Legibility
a
Andrew J. Newman
a
Manchester Business School, University of
Manchester , Booth Street West, Manchester, United
Kingdom, M15 6BP, UK E-mail:
Published online: 25 Jan 2007.

To cite this article: Andrew J. Newman (2007) Uncovering Dimensionality in the

Servicescape: Towards Legibility, The Service Industries Journal, 27:1, 15-28, DOI:
10.1080/02642060601038601

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02642060601038601

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 Uncovering Dimensionality in the Servicescape:
Towards Legibility

ANDREW J. NEWMAN
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The type and level of service offered in the service sector is relatively
homogenous, and notoriously difficult to distinguish. Company
servicescapes are important differentiators and indicators of quality
vis-à-vis image and competence. The paper develops an exploratory and
conceptual framework that delineates the dimensions of service environ-
ments, emphasising those factors that can be successfully manipulated by
management. Fieldwork examined a dynamic service environment and
analysis revealed that the legibility of the setting (e.g., clear signage and
spatial appearance) influenced peoples’ moods generally. Analysis
suggested that general layouts and legible signage help to induce positive
moods, and therefore positive images of the service providers.

BACKGROUND

The intangible nature of services renders the consumer experience a major factor
determining the assessment and subsequent evaluation of the product or products.
This is because service offerings cannot be ‘tried out’ or evaluated prior to consumption
[Milgrom and Roberts, 1986; Wernerfelt, 1988] and so consumers tend to draw on the
experiential component as reinforcement of quality. It is for this reason that services
have been classified as ‘experience’ products [see Nelson, 1974], and a dearth of
academic research has necessarily pivoted on service quality, and in particular the
service encounter [Gronroos, 1984; Lehtinen and Lehtinen, 1991; Parasuraman et al.,
1985, 1988], as a means of differentiation and image enhancement. With services in
particular, it is important for managers to identify measures that optimise consumers’
overall perception of quality and value [Olshavsky, 1985; Olson and Jacoby, 1972].
This becomes especially important because products and services consist of many
different evaluative measures (or attributes) and consumers tend to base their overall
perception of quality on relatively few [Olshavsky, 1985; Zeithaml, 1988].
Conceptualisation and measurement in these areas have mainly dwelt on the
relationship between service quality and a range of consumer behavioural intentions
[Zeithaml et al., 1996]. Theoretically, this stems from the consumer’s use of cues or

Andrew J. Newman, Manchester Business School, University of Manchester, Booth Street West, Manche-
ster, United Kingdom, M15 6BP, UK. E-mail: anewman@man.mbs.ac.uk
The Service Industries Journal, Vol.27, No.1, January 2007, pp.15–28
ISSN 0264-2069 print=1743-9507 online
DOI: 10.1080=02642060601038601 # 2007 Taylor & Francis
 16 THE S ERVICE INDUS TRIES JOURNAL

store-related attributes to guide evaluation and quality assessments. A number of

dichotomous classifications have been extended, the most useful of which are
intrinsic or extrinsic [Olson and Jacoby, 1972], as these offer important managerial
implications [Zeithaml, 1988] for services in particular.
For example, the use of extrinsic cues to enhance image and imbue dimensions of
service quality with the help of tangible components (such as the appearance and
design of buildings, layouts and signage) play a vital role when consumers attempt
to predict service quality prior to consumption [Bitner, 1990; Parasuraman et al.,
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1985; Zeithaml, 1988]. It is surprising, therefore, that service settings have received
less consideration than social interactions between customers and service employees
as determinants of service quality and measurement. This is noteworthy as the service
encounter is when consumers tend to rely more heavily on extrinsic cues from their
immediate environments; this is especially so when quality is difficult to evaluate
[Sawyer et al., 1979] and other visual indicators are sought.

Image and the Service Setting

Images that form the experience mainly flow from visual and to a lesser degree aural,
olfactory, tactile senses [Blackwell, 1995]. An overall impression or image of the
organisation can exist at either corporate or lower levels. Theoretically, this compo-
site view consists of a multifarious range of attributes, expressed by Boulding [1957:
111] as a single holistic image (or gestalt). A similar abstraction takes place when
branded artefacts such as artwork and expensive furnishings in a corporate headquar-
ters convey to customers a statement about the organisation.
In services, customers and employees derive meaning from cues which make
statements about the retailer or service provider. Internal layouts are significantly
more meaningful, and generally more powerful, as they can make clear and
distinguishing visual statements about the standard and quality to expect. This
physical evidence is highly important and unquestionably guides consumers’
decision-making and evaluative processes [Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996: 519]. At
first glance, the customer utilizes the physical surroundings to gather the vital cues
which inform their expectations prior to contact with service personnel. As Bateson
[1995: 220] asserts, the visible part of the organisation is highly likely to shape
behaviour crucially in the run-up to the service encounter. Given this influence, it
is clearly important for marketing management to appreciate how service
environments may elicit positive and upbeat images. This paper seeks to explore
empirically what has been described in the literature as the ‘inanimate environment’,
and frequently expressed in a unidimensional and non-specific manner in service
modelling [see, for example, Bateson, 1985: 49 –75].

AN EXPLORATORY FRAMEWORK

Work in consumer research has produced many studies that have sought to establish
the importance of cues in service environments [Newman et al., 1994a]. Music, for
example, has been shown to affect people in service settings [see Baker et al.,
1994: 330]. Warm colours (such as red and yellow) have been stressed in retail
 DIMENSIONALITY IN THE SERVICESCAPE 17
FIGURE 1
THE INFLUENCE OF STIMULI ON BEHAVIOUR
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interiors as a means of drawing customers into the setting [Bellizzi et al., 1983]. This
paper draws on such studies for its initial inspiration but attempts to make the connec-
tion between broad dimensions of stimuli and consumers’ emotional states or moods.
The intention is thus to establish a working definition of unambiguous and stimulating
service environments, and to explore the dimensionality of the psychological arousal
(feeling in a good mood) that may result. The framework in Figure 1 was constructed
to explore and test taxonomy development.
In the search for a reliable taxonomy of cues, environmental psychology approaches
have been used with some success [see Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Mehrabian and
Russell, 1974; Sherman and Smith, 1987, and more recently Donovan et al., 1994;
Foxall and Greenley, 2000]. There is convincing evidence to show that people evaluate
places (and situations) differently according to their moods (or emotional states). Osten-
sibly, positive moods enhance the chance of various behaviours being performed
[Underwood et al., 1973], and people in good or positive moods tend to develop a stron-
ger attitude towards their surroundings – a factor that is reflected in their evaluations
[see Galizio and Hendrick, 1972; Isen and Simmonds, 1978]. In addition, mood
states and behaviour are apparently linked both directly and indirectly. An illustration
of a direct link may involve associations in memory which tie specific moods to certain
types of behaviours, e.g., a conditioned response [Bugelski, 1982].
In the main, mood state research stems from general psychology [Belk, 1975]. An
extensive study of the mood state literature by Gardner [1985] demonstrated the
relationship between peoples’ evaluations, their mood states, and their purchasing
behaviour. In essence, this work supports the notion that positive moods in shoppers
at the point of purchase can increase the likelihood of greater spend. In services, we
are reminded that the behaviour of contact personnel is likely to contribute signifi-
cantly to customers’ mood states, thereby deciding the outcome of service encounters
 18 THE S ERVICE INDUS TRIES JOURNAL

[Bateson, 1995: 128]. Hence, mood is a critical component that can shape the
perceived effectiveness of encounters [Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996: 64]. Interestingly,
the earlier work of Gardner [1985] endorsed the assumption that positive moods, and
outcomes, may be induced by a combination of interaction with the service providers
and the physical settings in which the encounter took place. This is a reminder that the
physical setting could conceivably influence moods sufficiently to alter behaviours.
Environmental psychologists Mehrabian and Russell [1974] produced seminal
work on mood state research embracing the stimulus – organism – response paradigm.
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This approach assumes that stimuli in the setting impacts on peoples’ emotional states
thereby eliciting responses, as illustrated in Figure 1. Mehrabian and Russell’s work
provided intervening variables represented by Approach or Avoidance behaviour
toward and within any environment [Mehrabian and Russell, 1974; also see
Donovan et al., 1994]. These scholars described this as the degree to which
persons feel they wish to remain in the setting, or in various situations. Three
emotional states of Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance (PAD) mediate Approach–
Avoidance behaviours. Later work by Donovan and Rossiter [1982], Sherman and
Smith [1987], Donovan et al. [1994], and notably Foxall and Greenley [1999] verified
the theoretical link between the PAD variables and Approach and Avoidance. This
later work also helped to establish the importance of identifying suitable stimulus
taxonomies, or types of cues, and the difficulty of exploring categories of stimuli
geared to consumer marketing contexts.
In the search for tangible cues and influencers of behaviour we find that buildings,
and the settings within them, can create certain expectations about how people should
act [Wells, 1965]. Moreover, the scale of these settings eases or restricts the amount of
‘personal space’ [see Sommer, 1969; 1974]. In modern terms we may refer to this as a
comfort zone. A sense of roominess or compactness within a setting equates to the
degree to which the layout of the setting impinges on users’ life space (for work on
territoriality see Hediger, 1961; Sommer, 1969, and on crowding in retail settings
Harrell et al., 1980; Markin et al., 1976]. This has greater relevance for situations
such as waiting or seating areas where spatial factors can play a decisive role in
signifying behaviour. For example, sales encounters with customers or the ability
to routinely find the customer service or cash desk in a complex store design.
Of special importance is the amount of allocated space in settings where
interaction is an important function [Sommer, 1969: 25, 12 – 13]. For example,
recent work on environmental stressors suggests that peoples’ reactions towards
each other may be determined by spatial factors [Aylott and Mitchell, 1998]. A
further example of this is where the degree of social interaction is crucial (e.g., the
service encounter) and designed spaces are unable to facilitate this communication
[Wells, 1965]. Here, excessive open space can appear impersonal and unfriendly.
In settings where conditions are cramped people may be coerced into a stressed
and uncomfortable emotional state, and in extreme situations may behave
aggressively [Hediger, 1961; Sommer, 1969]. Indeed, work by Epstein et al.
[1981] which found that individuals experiencing higher levels of density
(or crowding) became more physiologically aroused supports this presumption. The
opposite was the case for persons experiencing low-density environments. Hence,
 DIMENSIONALITY IN THE SERVICESCAPE 19

exploring the relative importance of space would seem to be critical for customer-
centric service businesses.
As with spatial density, the layout or schematic of the service setting may assist, or
impede, consumer behaviours such as browsing or transit through a setting. Design
characteristics, e.g. the clarity of the layout or signage (orienting factors) can ostensibly
assist consumers to find their way to an exit, for example. Work by Lynch [1960]
emphasised the importance of points in the landscape (here landscape is used to
describe the internal dimensions of a building), which he termed districts, for people
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to exploit as particular frames of reference. Thus, a setting that is visually organised

with readily identifiable features is more likely to conform to this model. Lynch
[1960] theorised that very definite patterns or features existed to guide behaviour, com-
prising paths, landmarks, edges, nodes, and districts, and a gridiron format (a matrix
system of paths similar in structure to a supermarket layout). Later work has demon-
strated that use of these environmental signposts help to avoid lostness [Newman,
1995] and enhance peoples’ orientation considerably. To help explain this it is useful
to introduce everyday situations, and discuss the way in which people find their way
round often complex and indistinguishable surroundings.
Here, internal design characteristics such as central passageways and meeting
areas help to make sense of spaces such as airport buildings, hospitals and
universities. These servicescapes are frequently characterised by poor legibility
(where there is no organised or coherent pattern), and few available features that
provide points of reference. Features help people to feel more readily and quickly
at home in new surroundings, reducing unfamiliarity. Indeed ownership and sense
of emotional attachment, such as ‘I know and like this store best’, is sometimes
displayed for unambiguous settings with recognizable and familiar features [Lynch,
1960]. Where legibility is poor this has a tendency to make users feel disorientated
and at times uneasy, manifesting in frustration and even desperation. Moreover, a
service setting which offers poor legibility can often lead to consumer delays,
anger, and therefore uncertainty about the service offering [Bitner, 1992]. Given
the importance of the service encounter [Shostack, 1985], and the relative importance
of the servicescape as a measure of service quality, it is reasonable to assume that
legibility is a vital component of the offering.
Drawing on the exploratory framework in Figure 1 and the preceding debate, it is
possible to extend the following research propositions:

P1 Legibility expressed as signage and spatial features may demonstrate

dimensionality.

P2 Consumers’ emotional responses towards a service setting may be expressed

in terms of Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance.

P3 Consumers’ desire to dwell or remain in the setting can be expressed as

Approach or Avoidance behaviours towards and within.

The ensuing field study attempted to explore the manner in which latent dimensions
or factors emerged to support or refute these propositions.
 20 THE S ERVICE INDUS TRIES JOURNAL

THE FIELDWORK

Of major consideration here is the work of Mehrabian and Russell [1974] in environ-
mental psychology, and the work of similar scholarly research designs in servicescape
contexts. Building on this research necessitated an empiricist approach, orientation
and survey design used previously with some success in comparable situations
[i.e., in service settings, Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Foxall and Hackett, 1994;
Sherman and Smith, 1987, and place evaluations, Hackett and Foxall, 1994]. The
semantic differential instrument approach is well supported [e.g., Baker et al.,
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1994; Barclay, 1964; Dickson and Albaum, 1977; Foxall and Hackett, 1994;
Harrell et al., 1980; Osgood et al., 1957], and is especially apt in studies which
attempt the measurement of human emotions and environmental psychology issues.
As discussed, this study used a classic survey instrument; however, the research
that this paper reports is both exploratory and unique in terms of stimulus scale
development. Although aligned to the seminal mood state measurement techniques
validated by the Mehrabian and Russell [1974] work, this study departed theoretically
from Donovan and Rossiter [1982], Sherman and Smith [1987] and Baker et al.
[1994] with the introduction of novel stimulus taxonomy. The survey design thus
explores empirically the usefulness of this taxonomy in terms of its dimensionality
and the development of suitable items. Scales rated specific variables depending on
the relative importance they possessed [Kelley and Stephenson, 1967].
The self-administered instrument comprised 54 questions, 18 of which supported the
three mood state scales: PAD. The inversion of three scales in the instrument ensured
reliability and commonality with the Mehrabian and Russell [1974: 217] work. Other
items explored the additional constructs (outcomes, wayfinding and space). Where poss-
ible, individual variables were shaped for their adaptability and use in any environment
(e.g. ‘signposting was very clear throughout’ and ‘the entrances or exits are easy to
find’), and care was taken to communicate item statements in a context and style that
targeted respondents were likely to comprehend. Demographic segments contained stan-
dard questions to ascertain age and gender.
At this stage the intention was to explore and initially investigate the research
dimensions (see Figure 1) with an opportunity sample (n ¼ 100). No attempt was
made at this stage of the investigation to establish a specific sampling frame due to
the uncertain nature of the population. Respondents were selected arbitrarily in the
departure waiting areas of two (domestic and international) airport terminal buildings.
Fifty questionnaires were distributed in each location. The sampling reflected a broad
range of age groupings and male versus female split.
The choice of modern international airport was deliberate and carried two main
advantages: Airport terminals present potentially arousing situations [Newman
et al., 1994b] and consumers were likely to have the time on their hands to reflect
and recall their evaluations.

Data Analysis
After adjustments had been made for spoiled questionnaires, a total of 100 cases were
available for data analysis. Table 2 illustrates the age and sex profile of the
 DIMENSIONALITY IN THE SERVICESCAPE 21
TABLE 1
PAD, WAYFINDING, SPACE AND APPROACH-AVOIDANCE ITEMS

P A D
Pleasure – arousal – dominance Fact 1 Fact 2 Fact 3

unhappy – happy .78

depressed – contented .80
despairing – hopeful .67
unsatisfied – satisfied .82
frustrated – pleased .82
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bored – relaxed .71 .41

unstimulated – stimulated .52 .56
calm – excited .62
lethargic – frantic .66
gloomy – fidgety .60
sleepy – wide-awake .45
uncrowded – jam-packed –.45 .57
flexible – stubborn –.48 .58
guided – independent .84
restricted – free to act .75
controlled – in control .67
unimportant – important .57 .41
Approach/avoidance items
I enjoy shopping in this Airport Terminal .88
Generally, I like this shopping atmosphere .83
I would happily spend extra time browsing .79
I’m inclined to spend more money in these shops .48
I avoid coming in to these shops .89
I avoid browsing around these shops .87
I avoid talking to people in this setting .64
Spatial items
The terminal seating was well spaced out .69
The food and drink areas were uncrowded .85
Plenty of space was available inside the shops .81
Lots of space is provided for shopping .69 .52
The main meeting areas were uncrowded .58 .57
There was plenty of room in the terminal .76
The entrances or exits were uncrowded .92
Wayfinding items
The entrances or exits are easy to find .79
The shops are clearly marked .68
Signposting was very clear throughout .67
All paths around the terminal look different .72
The shape of the building helps you navigate .69
Colours in the building help you find your way round .68
Once inside, features stand out clearly .47

PC analysis and examination of the component rankings and scree plot suggested a three-factor solution.
Varimax rotation converged in eighteen iterations. Loadings less than 0.4 suppressed.

respondents, which is relatively representative. SPSS version 11.5 was used for data
analysis. As with prior work of this type, this study employed a large number of items
and the principal aim was to explore the constructs and to identify the most salient
factors. Exploratory factor analysis searches the field to uncover new dimensions
 22 THE S ERVICE INDUS TRIES JOURNAL

and constructs [Spearman, 1904], and was therefore ideally suited [see Hackett and
Foxall, 1994: 168]. The ultimate objective of the analysis was thus to reduce and
summarise the variables so as to identify a relatively small number of latent factors
that represented relationships among interrelated variables.
The 45 scaled items were subjected to Principal Components Factor Analysis, with
the remaining demographic items retained for later analysis. This analysis was
conducted in three distinct phases to test the propositions: P1 Legibility, P2 Consumer-
s’emotional responses and P3 Consumers’ desire to dwell. These are discussed below.
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An orthogonal Varimax rotation facilitated the identification of a simple but meaningful

structure of factors, which suited the research goals. Based on Hair et al. [1998], and
given the sample size (n ¼ 100), a factor loading of .32 and below was considered
to be poor, .40 significant, and loadings of .60 or greater as very significant. The
decision was thus taken to prune items with secondary loading lower than .40 to
help identify a clear factor structure. Cronbach alpha scores were computed on the
items to indicate the level of internal consistency and so reliability.
Commencing with the PAD variables, this revealed the presence of five components
all of which achieved eigenvalues greater than one and explained a total of 69 per cent of
the variance. It was noted that Principle Component Analysis (PCA) can overestimate
the number of factors to draw on [Cattell and Schuerger, 1978], and that the variance
accounted for is also a function of the instrument’s scale items/wording. Hence, the
study drew on the computation of total variance explained and a Scree test1 as verifica-
tion of this cut-off point (the point at which the slope of the line changes) when determin-
ing the number of factors to rotate [see Hackett and Foxall, 1994: 164]. Based on these
observations a three-factor model emerged, the results of which are illustrated in Table 1.
The first of these PAD dimensions (factor 1) consisted of nine items, of which seven
were primary (Cronbach alpha ¼ .91). In all, seven pleasure items loaded significantly
and as expected, with the exception of one primary and two secondary items that loaded
negatively. The primary item unstimulated–stimulated, which loaded on factor 2
(Arousal), was a cross-loading and was therefore dropped and the more significant
loading on arousal retained. The second factor (Arousal) comprised eight primary
loaded items (Cronbach alpha ¼ .72), with two negative secondary loadings on factor

TABLE 2
DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE BY AGE AND SEX

Sex

male female Total

Age 0–15 2 2 4
16–24 12 16 28
25–34 18 11 29
35–44 8 6 14
45–55 8 6 14
55–64 5 2 7
65þ 3 1 4
Total 56 44 100
 DIMENSIONALITY IN THE SERVICESCAPE 23

1. Two of these primary items (flexible–stubborn and unim-portant–important) loaded

in the dominance dimension; however, no significance is attached to this.
Factor three (Dominance) comprised five items, of which three were primary
(Cronbach alpha ¼ .66). Two secondary loadings (unimportant – important and
bored – relaxed) formed cross-loadings and lacked significance. It is important to
note the emergence of this dimension as it aligns with the original Mehrabian and
Russell [1974] research in an environmental psychology context. Moreover, this
result does tend to counter the argument later extended by Russell and Pratt
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[1980], who suggested a two-dimensional (Pleasure –Arousal) measurement of

mood states or affective responses. Their recommendation to remove the dominance
dimension stemmed from the lack of factoral support. In this work, however,
dimensionality was evident using a similar item approach.
The remaining groups of variables (Approach –Avoidance, Wayfinding, Spatial)
were factor analysed to ascertain dimensionality and the usefulness of the items.
Table 1 reveals the rotated factor solution for the two dimensions of Approach–
Avoidance and as such illustrates the characteristic model. Primary loadings on the
Approach (Cronbach alpha ¼ .83) and Avoidance (Cronbach alpha ¼ .79)
dimensions were retained, and one secondary item depicting the tendency to spend
more money than expected was dropped from the analysis.
Spatial density produced a factor solution that formed two unmistakable categories
(Table 1). Loadings were impressive and appeared to cluster round socially important
personal space (Cronbach alpha ¼ .75), such as the refreshment facilities and seating
areas, and the more general and broader spatial characteristics of the building (Cronbach
alpha ¼ .73) (i.e. perceived level of crowding in the terminal). This represents a
relatively useful and straightforward conceptualisation of user space, which greatly
enhances the opportunity for management to target very spatial layouts rather than
taking non-specific and overall measures. The primary cross-loadings relating to
space in shopping and meeting areas were dropped from the analysis.
Wayfinding items were treated in a similar manner to the spatial items and pro-
duced a two-factor solution after rotation. Factor structure and loadings seem to
support the dimensionality and the measurement of this construct. However, alpha
scores were much weaker for the items loading on factor 1 (Cronbach
alpha ¼ .63), and factor 2 (Cronbach alpha ¼ .56). Interestingly, factors 1 and 2
can be seen to form two categories that help to differentiate the legibility of the
setting. These comprised general signage such as text-based ceiling placards, and
hard architectural features such as the shape and direction of rooms (here the term
is used to describe vast spaces) and pathways. This result would seem to denote
that these respondents drew on two levels or categories of evaluation when
determining how easy the spaces were to navigate.

DISCUSSION

This study attempted to deconstruct some of the more accessible elements of the
servicescape for use by service management to enhance customer experiences.
 24 THE S ERVICE INDUS TRIES JOURNAL

Respondents’ appraisals of their immediate surroundings were reported as they took

place rather than asking people to engage in retrospective recall. Prior work in the
field has shown that such appraisals play an important part in the process by which
actual and potential customers measure the standing of a service organisation, in rela-
tive terms [e.g. Bitner, 1990; Parasuraman et al., 1985; Zeithaml, 1988]. The work
reported in this paper has demonstrated that a series of discrete and interpretable
dimensions exist in service settings, the use of which may lead to greater legibility.
Hence, all three research propositions (P1 þ P2 þ P3) extended by this paper were
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retained. These broad dimensions are now discussed in the context of consumer
situations.
The wayfinding (or signage) and spatial arrangements, defined in this paper as
legibility and expressed as a function of the arrangements of the servicescape, are
likely to alter behaviours towards and within settings. It can, for example, be inferred
that the amount of time a person wishes to remain in a setting (Approach – Avoidance)
may be determined (although not exclusively) by the ease with which they are able to
navigate or find their way round. Here, one may hypothesise that a busy shopping
mall could benefit greatly from a legible arrangement of walkways and main
concourse spaces, as defined in the research instrument used in this study. Indeed,
a service setting with legible arrangements may conceivably result in positive
consumer moods, thus impacting on the relative spend during, for example, the
lunch period.
Equally, the arrangements of space (both public and personal) in a setting can also
impact on expectations, and hint at service quality. Of great benefit here is the work of
Sommer [1969], who asserted that less crowded conditions (although not to the point
of denying social interaction) connotes a pleasurable atmosphere, which can result in
positive mood states leading to a good image. Indeed, this notion was established
qualitatively during the research that this paper reports. It was clear, for example,
that apart from encouraging or denying human interaction, space generally created
difficulties due to social discomfort to the point of alienation. For example, tight
spaces in waiting areas or coffee lounges can force users into non-designated parts
of the servicescape. In spaces such as airport terminals, this can impact on the
perceived standard and competence of the operator’s management. Moreover, the
overflow of passengers into less spacious areas, and the crowding and discomfort
it creates, reflects on the image of the airport and airline alike. While this research
was being conducted delayed and stranded passengers happily verbalised their
views regarding the lack of space, and the ineffectual management of the setting.
The majority of these presumptions can be successfully applied to other more
generic consumer situations such as health care and the hospitality sector. For
example, a customer/patient may arrive at a medical centre or hospital in plenty of
time for their appointment, but due to poor layouts and signage (integral and specific)
be unable to perform immediate tasks (such as finding the right department). In a
similar situation one might also expect that the amount of available space, i.e., the
crowding and denseness of the surroundings, will positively (or negatively) impact
on peoples’ moods (this supports the work of Gardner [1985] and Snodgrass and
 DIMENSIONALITY IN THE SERVICESCAPE 25

Russell [1988]). The link to consumer mood states is vitally important and forms the
second proposition (P2) extended by this study.
The services marketing literature clearly establishes the importance of customer
moods arising from the ‘visible inanimate environment’ [Bateson, 1995: 218;
Bateson, 1985: 49 –75]. Indeed, research by Babin and Darden [1996] and Gardner
[1985] suggests that positive moods (and outcomes) can result from this constant
interaction with the physical setting. Apparently consumers continually scan their sur-
roundings for physical evidence in an attempt to establish an overall impression. So
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fabricating or creating the right sort of cues is the key to controlling customers’ moods
and behaviour. It is these visual arrangements in settings that direct peoples’ evalua-
tive processes [Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996: 519], and help them to form a distinct view
or belief about a place or the organisation it represents. Visual evidence creates an
instantaneous association with the organisation’s image. Past research has indicated
that the aspect or gestalt of the surroundings can bias peoples’ moods and
consequently behaviour [e.g., Swinyard, 1993].
To use airports or hospitals as an illustration, the complexity of layouts or impact of
crowding on the atmosphere of the servicescape is likely to influence consumer moods.
The Donovan and Rossiter [1982] work established that pleasant atmospheres generate
greater levels of arousal leading to increased approach behaviour. Approach behaviour
can be likened to consumers’ desire to remain in the setting. The importance of this in
marketing communications terms can be linked to company image. For example,
spaces or servicescapes that lack user friendliness due to bad signage and crowding
impact negatively on organisational image. Servicescapes are important icons and
make clear statements about the purpose of the setting and those who manage it.
Clearly, this also implies that, for service organisations in particular, the legibility of
the service setting can improve the standing of an organisation.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Former discussion supports the notion that servicescapes provide critical data for
consumers’ evaluative processes. In a variety of contexts, consumers use these data
to construct (mental) images about places, and the organisations associated with
them. Several dimensions have emerged which can be strategically targeted by
management. It is essential, however, to conduct more detailed work surrounding
construct validity before the framework can be considered to possess universal
application. Ideally, the refinement of variables could lead to the development of
an instrument germane to inquiries that take place outside the study environment.
Despite the considerable amount of work done on servicescapes in retail contexts,
little work has been undertaken to investigate the role of ‘built’ environments in
image building. The research presented in this paper suggests that legible and pleasant
surroundings probably help to establish favourable incidents and/or interactions,
which the literature links to feelings of reassurance about the service provider. This
fact is allied to the way in which stakeholder groups view (the brand image of)
service organisations generally.
 26 THE S ERVICE INDUS TRIES JOURNAL

Because service organisations sell experiences, building brands is a formidable

task as they are less easy to standardize than tangible products. For many businesses
the success of their brand can hinge on the interaction between customers and staff,
rather than the more traditional product attributes and advertising messages [Mitchell,
1997]. Customers who experience favourable encounters are more likely to embrace
positive moods. However, managing moods does require an intimate knowledge of
the various components at work in a setting, and a degree of control over these
factors [Curren and Harich, 1994]. For example, improved service access will
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undoubtedly assist and encourage interactions, resulting in enhanced consumer

perceptions of the service offering per se [LeBlanc and Nguyen, 1996]. Whilst it
has been recognised that people and processes are highly important image
components, an equally forceful component is the (consumer) setting, which is a
vital extension of a company’s corporate brand [Love and Roberts, 1997]. Large
corporate brands aimed at customers, as well as staff, are increasingly important
for companies who wish to target the modern service-oriented consumer.

NOTE

1. The Scree test is used to identify the optimum number of factors that can be extracted before the amount
of unique variance begins to dominate the common variance structure (Cattell, 1966). A cut-off point or
the point at which the slope of the line changes illustrated this graphically.

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