CATENA Vol.

7, 251-263 Braunschweig 1980

GROUNDWATER-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS

A. Herrmann, Braunschweig & W. Stichler, Neuherberg

SUMMARY
Stable ~nvironmental isotope (2H, lSO) techniques were applied to an Alpine watershed
of 18.7 km" and 670-1801 m a.s.1. From this example some insights into the runoff
generation in a natural hydrologic system are developed.
Isotopic hydrograph separations into direct and indirect runofffractions, based on these
techniques, show that the indirect component contributes dominantly to the total runoff.
Contributions of 70-80% are frequent even during peak discharge from rainstorms or snow-
melt events. The subsurface reservoir spontaneously responds to an input impetus. This
effect has been ascribed to rapid dislocations of the subsurface pressure head. The indirect
component describes distinct hydrographs substantially similar to total discharge hydro-
graphs. Further differentiations of the indirect component are restricted to special cases, and
they involve increased experimental efforts. The isotope-discharge relationships occasional-
ly give more detailed informations. The most reliable approximations to reality by two-
coInponent separations are limited to snowmelt periods with almost homogeneous isotope
inputs from the melting snow covers.
The long-term isotope studies, that yielded sinusoidal input and distinctly damped out-
put functions, enable us to make in combination with hydrological basic data and specific
modeling procedures assessments of the turnover dynamics in the subsurface system. The
average contribution of the indirect component is 2/3 of the runoff during the observation
period of 3 years. This then corresponds to an annual infiltration rate of 1000 mm.
The traditional concept ofrunoffgeneration dominated by the surface respectively over-
land flow should in any case be fundamentally revised.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Am Beispiel eines 18,7 km 2 grotSen alpinen Einzugsgebietes (670-1801 m) werden
Vorstellungen tiber .0en Abflu6mechanismus in nattirlichen hydrologischen Sy~temen
~jatwickelt. Zu ihrer Uberprtifung werden Messungen der stabilen Umweltisotope "H und
'°O herangezogen.
Ganglinienseparationen nach dem Zwei-Komponenten Modell in direkte und
indirekte AbfluBanteile lassen den dominanten Einflul3 der indirekten Komponente erken-
nen. Sie kann selbst bei Spitzenabfltissen bis zu 70-80% des Gesamtabflusses ausmachen.
Der unterirdische Wasserk/Srper reagiert spontan auf einen Inputimpuls. Als Ursache wird
Drucktibertragung angefiihrt. Die indirekte Komponente beschreibt ausgepr~i~te Gang-
linien, deren Verlauf dem Hydrograph weitgehend ~ihnelt. Eine weitere Differenzlerung der
indirekten Komponente ist nur in speziellen F~illen m/Sglich und mit erheblichem ex-
perimentellen Mehraufwand verbunden. Eine Isotopen-AbfluB-Beziehung gibt fallweise
n~ihere Auskunft. Sicherste N~iherungen tier tats~ichlichen Verh~iltnisse werden durch die
Zwei-Komponenten Separation w~ihrend tier Schneeschmelzperioden erreicht, wenn
l~ingerfristig ein weitgehend homogener Isotopeninput aus den schmelzenden Schnee-
decken erfolgt.
Langfristige Beobachtungen der Isotopengehalte im Niederschlag und Abflul3, die
sinus~ihnliche Input- sowie charakteristisch ged~impfte Outputfunktionen lieferten, gestat-
ten in Verbindung mit den hydrologischen Grunddaten und spezifischen Modellrech-
252 HERILMANN & STICHLER

nungen Absch/itzungen der unterirdischen Umsetzungsdynamik. Der mittlere Anteil der

indirekten Komponente betrug w~ihrend der 3j~ihrigen Beobachtungsperiode 2/3 des Ab-
flusses, entsprechend einer j~ihrlichen Infiltrationsrate von 1000 mm.
Vorrangig sollte die traditionelle Konzeption der Dominanz des Oberfl~ichenabflusses
bei Abflul3bildungen grtindlich revidiert werden.

1. OUTLINE OFTHE PROBLEM

Conventional hydrologic balances of catchment areas yield some basic information

about the general quantitative behaviour of a natural hydrologic system. But further investi-
gations are necessary for getting progressive insight into the dynamics of basin reservoirs,
including qualitative characterizations of runoff waters. The identification of substantial
water qualities such as their origin (i.e. distinct sources or stores) and their age (i.e. residence
or transit times) must, therefore, be a task of priority. The scientific background for this
demand can be summarized under the caption of 'synthetic hydrograph analysis', which
involves a wide range of applications up to stormwater prediction and management
(WANIELISTA 1978). The methods used derive their legitimation from numerous quan-
titative results, which are more or less satisfactory. Traditional graphical runoff component
separations on hydrographs (GRAY 1970, MENDEL & UBELL 1973, FREEZE 1974) can
certainly not explain the dynamic processes in a given hydrologic system, because of prin-
cipal methodical limitations.
Since several years, the isotope technique proves to be a useful tool for identifying the
true role of subsurface water in storm and snowmelt runoff. The isotopical study of storm
and snowmelt hydrographs seems to offer an adequate way for first insights into the runoff
mechanisms and subsurface storage dynamics of natural hydrologic systems.

2. PROCEDURE

Appreciable progress towards realistic solutions of the above-mentioned problem is

due to the use of environmental isotopes. Tritium (3H), deuterium (2H) and oxygen-18 (180)
are components of the water molecule, thus representing ideal tracer elements in the
hydrologic cycle. The fundamental assumption for hydrological applications of environmen-
tal isotopes is a natural variation of the isotope contents of the input via precipitation, which
are effected by fractionation processes (DROST et al. 1974). Under these conditions it is pos-
sible to distinguish waters of different isotope contents originating from different sources in
space and/or time.
Different waters in the hydrologic cycle have been discriminated by the use of the
radionuclide tritium (CROUZET et al. 1970, DINNER et al. 1970, MARTINEC 1975) and of
stable isotopes as well (MOOK et al. 1974, FRITZ et al. 1976). In the present study the greater
expediency of stable isotope measurements in comparison to tritium measurements allows
more detailed evaluations to be done.
From the changing isotope concentrations in the total runoffofa basin, it should be pos-
sible to evaluate the proportions of the participating components, and to study their
interrelations. The water and tracer fluxes through runoff are described by the following
steady-state mass balance equations:
 GROUNDWATER-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS 253

Rt =

and

Rt = YCnRn

where R is the discharge and c the tracer ( = isotope) concentration, t refers to the total runoff
and n to the different runoff components. The number of runoff components to be investi-
gated depends on the number of reservoirs, that contributes to the total runoff. For the solu-
tions (n-l) tracers, which are independent in their hydrological behaviour, must be at dis-
posal. Furthermore, several main postulates must be fulfilled in order to carry out reasonable
evaluations:
(1) The isotope concentration of the input from rain and meltwater is significantly dif-
ferent from that of the subsurface reservoirs which contribute to runoff.
(2) The isotope content variations of the input are known in space and time.
(3) The isotope input is sufficiently separated from pre- and post-event isotope
inputs.
Finally, the applicability and the accuracy of environmental isotope techniques depend
on spatial inhomogeneities of physical basin parameters such as orography, substrate and
vegetation. The principal assumption, however, is a distinct absolute difference betweSn the
isotope contents of the components to be studied. In case of a difference of 5%0 for 82H, the
accuracy of the resulting mixing ratio is 30%. For a 30%0 difference, it amounts to 5%. All
limitations considered, the application of environmental isotope techniques in hydrology
should be restricted to sufficiently instrumented research areas, whose physical structures
are as simple as possible.

3. RESULTS

The two-component separation represents the most feasible hydrological application

of stable environmental isotopes in runoffstudies. It allows to distinguish two components
in total runoff: pre-event waters (indirect component) and event waters from actual rain or
snowmelt (direct component) according to the equations

Btt = 8dd + 8ii

and
t=d+i

where (5 is the isotope content in ~0

t is the total runoff
d is the direct component
i is the indirect component.

With

~d = 8p
254 HERRMANN & STICHLER

the direct component is defined to have the isotope content of precipitation p and of melt-
water input respectively. It means overland flow and/or waters with rapid passage through
the upper soil layer. 8i may be determined from springs, groundwater boreholes, and from
pre- and post-event runoff. The indirect component means subsurface waters in the case
of a two-component system.
This separation method has been successfully practised in the Lainbach catchment area,
situated at the Northern edge of the Bavarian Alps at about 60 km south of Munich. The fol-
lowing basin characteristics are of interest here (for more detailed information see HERR-
MANN et al. 1973):
The surface area of 18.7 km 2 is almost square and covers an altitude range from 670 m to
1801 m a.s.1. 80% are covered with timber; spruces are dominating. The annual precipitation
rate amounts to approximately 2000 mm, with a snow portion of 1/3. The mean snow cover
duration may be assessed to 170 days in open areas, and to 130 days in forest stands. The
mean annual air temperature is 4.6°C. The petrological situation is characterized by Triassic
limestones, Cretaceous sandstones, and by extended argillaceous Pleistocene glacial
deposits in the center of the basin. The latter are at most 160 m thick, hardly permeable and,
therefore, heavily eroded. The pedological situation is dominated by shallow soils with
average depths of 0.3-0.5 m, where gleysols and rendzinas prevail by 2/5 each.
In this area the first environmental isotope studies date back to 1972. During an
observation period of 3 years (1975-78) precipitation, snow covers and snow cover outflow,
springs and areal runoff have been sampled systematically. Some selected results derived
from these isotope investigations will prove the dominant role of subsurface waters in storm
and snowmelt runoff generation.

3.1. STORM RUNOFF

The hydrograph of the storm runofftraced in Fig. la was actuated by 45 mm of average

areal rainfall within 1 1/2 days, that has been calculated from the records of 15 pluviographs.
The mean areal deuterium content of the rain decreased from -31.2~0 at the onset to
-44.4~0 at the end of the rainfall event. This heavy-isotope depletion might be ascribed to
the amount-effect (DROST et al. 1974) or to an change of the precipitating air-mass
(STICHLER & HERRMANN 1978a).
The deuterium curve of the Lainbach Creek sensitively reacts upon the discharge
variations. Startin~ from an isotopical baseflow value of d2H = -80.1~o, the absolute iso-
tope peak of-64.5~/o0 corresponds to the frst peak discharge, when the runoffis fed by direct-
ly rainwaters by about 30%. Subsequently, the isotope contents of the runoff generally de-
crease in spite of the strongly increasing discharge, because of the gradual deuterium de-
pletion in the precipitation. But secondary discharge peaks are still accompanied by distinct
isotopical enrichments. Repeated heavy rainfalls on July 21 prevent the final decrease of the
isotope concentrations towards the pre-event values.
The admixture of actual rainwater to runoff is additionally verified by records of the
electrical conductivity. In the rainwater it is about 30/~S. In the course of this event the electri-
cal conductivity of the discharge diminishes from the baseflow value of 510~S to a minimum
of 290/~S, which coincides with the peak discharge. Separations of runoff components by
means of the electrical conductivity result in similar direct runoffproportions as those gained
through isotope techniques. But electrical conductivity as an integral term for complexe ionic
effects during runoffevents leads to another definition of the direct runoffas the one used for
 GROUNDWATER-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS 255

62H(%,: L
300 .-60
a,

400 .- ?0

8
8
500 -80
1

R (rn3/s) R (rn3/s b

10' .10
b.

5.

I I )
17 18 19 20
July 1978

Fig. 1: Storm runoffhydrograph of the Lainbach Creek, July 17-20, 1978.

a. Deuterium content (8) and electrical conductivity (o) curves.
b. Direct and indirect runoff components, calculated from d-values.

isotopical separations. Nevertheless, there are found several hydrochemical assessments of

runoff components, which have been separated by means of selected major ions (FRITZ et
al. 1976, BLAVOUX 1978). The continuous records of the electrical conductivity in Fig. la
confirms the isotope content curve which partly fluctuates close to the measurement
accuracy. If important discharge changes during a single event need to be taken into account,
automatical runoff sampling proportional to discharge and not to time (STICHLER &
HERRMANN 1978b) is recommended from these experiences.
Even at times of peak discharge the indirect component constitutes a major fraction in
storm runoff according to Fig. lb. The average contribution of the indirect component for
this event is 23 %. This proportion resembles the mean subsurface water contributions to
about 10 storm runoff events that have been analysed, and where the indirect component
describes a characteristic hydrograph. This experimental result verifies theories that hydro-
geologists maintain more or less intuitively for some time (see UNESCO 1975), whereas
potamologists still overestimate overland flow resp. surface runoff. The following analyses
ofsnowmelt hydrographs enable some fundamental insight into the turnover mechanism
that will be discussed finally in Section 4.
 256 HERRMANN & STICHLER

3.2. SNOWMELT RUNOFF

Fig. 2 illustrates the discharge and the deuterium content curves of the Lainbach Creek
during the first part of the ablation period 1978. The increase of discharge is caused by melt-
waters exclusively. It starts in jerks, thus putting an abrupt end to the winterly baseflow
values, which are 0.1 m3/s and O2H = -80.7~0. This melting period was stopped by the
advection of cold air-masses. The hydrological and isotopical characteristics of this snow-
melt event can be evaluated as the quick-motion reproduction of a whole seasonal ablation
period.
During the initial increase of the runoff, its deuterium content describes already typical
diurnal variations, whose regularity consolidates with continuous meltwater production in
the basin. The diurnal fluctuation range of the deuterium content ofrunoffis 2~0, that of the
discharge amounts to 0.75 m3/s. This evolution reflects the sensitive reactions of areal
discharge fed with snowmelt waters to the regular short-term variations of the energy input
in this lower to mid-high Alpine region. Precipitation waters, which have markedly lower
isotope contents than the groundwater reserve of the basin (cf. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4) are stored in
the snow cover. Since the total runoff receives a certain direct fraction from the actual melt-
waters during snowmelt periods, its isotope contents lie permanently on the isotopically ligh-
ter side, rainfall in melting snow covers excluded.

R (nd3/s) d (°/.) '~

82H(%0) ~,
t 20
10

- 90
o.O ~ ~,
/'' ~ ~ ' o

3 • ! ° *"o"* o, ,..o,, J "o. ;,'0 o . 6ZH

-85

- 80
I I I I J I I I I I I I
23 2/, 25 26 27 28 1 2 3 /, 5 6 ? 8
February 1978 March 1978

Fig. 2: Snowmelt hydrograph ofthe Lainbach Creek, February 23 - March 8, 1978, with deuterium
content (d), indirect runoff (Ri ) and direct runoff proportion (d) curves.

For the determination of the meltwater and isotope inputs into the runoff system two
recording snow lysimeters of 25 m 2 each have been brought out, which are equipped with
water sampling devices (HERRMANN 1978). The lysimeters are arranged in an open area
 GROUNDWATER-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS 257

and in a nearby spruce stand at the mean area altitude of 1030 m a.s.1, almost in the center of
the basin. Thus, evaluations of the mean isotope inputs should be possible according to the
experiences of STICHLER & HERRMANN (1978a). Furthermore, the use of the outflows
from snow covers instead of snow core samples to ascertain the isotopic input helps to over-
come isotope content changes in the snowpack by fractionation and exchange (HERR-
MANN et al. 1978). These changes could otherwise complicate the separation procedure.
The results of the two-component separation by means of the mixing formula are
demonstrated in Fig. 2, where the direct runoff portion has been plottet separately. During
snowmelt periods, subsurface water contributes dominantly to total runoff by 70-85%.
These limits harmonize with a distinct increase from the onset of the melting period to the
time-interval of maximum meltwater production, when the deepest parts of the basin are
already free of snow and the dynamic input-output system is quantitatively well-poised.
This development is superimposed by the diurnal rhythms of the runoff portions, in which
the two components well coincide. Within a fluctuation range of 5%, discharge peaks corres-
pond to an increase of direct runoffin the late afternoon, whereas maximum fractions of the
indirect component are observed at times of minimum discharge in the early morning.
A remarkable result derived from isotopical snowmelt hydrograph studies is the follow-
ing fact: The subsurface reservoir obviously responds spontaneously to intensity variations
of the input impulse induced by snow cover outflow. As a consequence, the indirect com-
ponent describes distinct hydrographs, which considerably differ from conventional'snow-
melt hydrograph separations (VIESSMAN 1970). The hydraulic mechanism that could
produce the pulsation of the subsurface water contributions to runoff is proposed in Sec-
tion 4.

3.3. INPUT-OUTPUT VARIATIONS

The principal supposition for the application of environmental isotopes in hydrology,

that is natural variations in the isotope contents of precipitation, is shown in Fig. 3. Accor-
ding to STICHLER & H E R R _ ~ (1978a) these data represent the average isotope input
into the Lainbach system.
With regard to practical operations (cf. Section 5), the sinusoidal character of the iso-
topic input function may be stated explicitly. During the course of a year higher summer tem-
peratures accord to isotope enrichments, whereas lower winter temperatures move the peaks
to minor isotope concentrations. Frequent exceptions from this principle must be ascribed to
large-scale atmospheric influences on the distribution of precipitable air-masses
(STICHLER & H E R R ~ 1978a). The annual fluctuation range of the deuterium con-
tents of single precipitation events dependent on temperature amounts to 200~0
approximately. Taking into account occasional isotope variations during individual events of
up to 25~0, the fluctuation might even be wider. The weighted monthly means varywithin
an interval of about I00~0. Isotope contents between subsequent events can differ within
the same order.
The seasonal variations of the deuterium contents of the Lainbach Creek in Fig. 4 con-
stitute a reduced reproduction of the sinusoidal isotopic input situation. Nevertheless, the
corresponding isotopi~ output function involves some instructive details that are caused by
specific subsurface system properties. The phenomenological evidences are:
(1) Isotope content peaks in precipitation are identified in total runoff but distinctly
clipped. The original fluctuation range has been considerably constricted to about 45~0 for
 258 HERRMANN & STICHLER
0 iI 62H {%o) 62H(%o)

- 50 -50

-100
s -I00

-150 -150

- 200 -200

11 12 i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ~ I 2 3 /, 5 G 7 8 9 10 11 12 z I 2 3 /, 5 6 7 8 9 10
1975 1976 1977 1978
Fig. 3: Seasonal variations of the deuterium contents of precipitation with weighted monthly means
(Station Eibelsfleck, 1030 m a.s.l.).

,I, 6ZH (%0) 62H (%*}

60 ,| I - 60

-70 ¸ - 70

-80 - 80

-90 ¸ - 90

-100 -100

11 12 i I 2 3 /. 5 6 '7 8 9 10 11 12 t 1 2 3 L. '5 6 ? 8 9 10 11 12 z 1 2 3 /. 5 6 '7 8 9 10

1975 1976 1977 1978

Fig. 4: Seasonal variations of the deuterium contents ofthe Lainbach Creek with weighted monthly
means.
 GROUNDWATER-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS 259

individual runoff events, and to 30%0 for the monthly means. The amplitude of the sinu-
soiclal basic wave of the isotopic input function reappears importantly attenuated in the iso-
topic output function. The attenuation can reach a factor 9.
The main hydrological consequence from these statements is: Only small fractions of
the precipitation waters leave the basin via runoff immediately. For seasonal variations see
Table 1. This conclusion is valid only under the assumption that direct runoff is defined to
have the isotope content of precipitation.
(2) Prominent time lags can be found between the isotopic inputs and outputs up to
approximately 1/4 year. Additional delays originate from precipitation storage in temporary
snow covers.
A hydrological reason for this fact is: Certain portions of rainwaters are undoubtedly
stored before leaving the basin. (1) and (2) lead to the conclusion that apart from the special
case of surface storage in snow covers important portions of precipitation waters are tran-
siently stored in subsurface reservoirs in default of significant surface stores. During single
storm and snowmelt runoff events certain fractions of these subsurface waters leave the
catchment area in jerks as proven by Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
Finally, an isotope balance over the total observation period of 3 years allows some
evaluation of the quality of the used isotope data. The difference between the mean isotope
input of-83.2~0 and the output of-79.9~0 is rather close and may be assessed to:
(1) serious lacunae in water sampling, that have been subjectively minimized;"
(2) the fact that the observation period is too short, as far as valuable results from direct
comparisons between input and output data can be expected. (This aspect is supported by
thcmean model age or residence time of the runoffwaters of about two years (HERRMANN
& STICHLER 1981);
(3) isotope enrichments in the snow covers (HERRMANN et al. 1978). This factor
should be taken into consideration, because then the runoffbecomes isotopically heavier as
the original isotope concentration resulting directly from precipitation.

Tab. 1: MEANDEUTERIUM CONTENTS ~2H (~0) OF RUNOFF AND PRECIPITATIONWITH

CALCULATED PROPORTIONS d (%) OF THE DIRECT RUNOFF COMPONENT FOR
DIFFERENT SEASONS
82H (~/00) "d2H (%0) d (%)
Period Runoff Precipitation
Winter 1975-76 -81.6 - 92.2 14
Summer 1976 -72.6 - 64.3 47
Winter 1976-77 -89.1 -115.0 26
Summer 1977 -76.0 - 68.6 35
Winter 1977-78 -87.8 -108.4 28
Summer 1978 -74.1 - 67.1 45

On the average, the greater proportion of precipitation and snowmelt waters infiltrates
according to Table 1, thus maintaining the quantitative balance between the input and the
output of the basin. The mean contribution of the direct component to runoffover the whole
observation period is 1/3, with a minor fraction of about 1/4 in the cold season, where melt-
water runoff is included, in comparison to 2/5 in the summer period.
260 HERRMANN & STICHLER

4. DISCUSSION

Two-component separations by means of environmental isotope techniques must take

into account the pre-event conditions; for natural hydrologic subsurface systems are com-
posed of an indefinite number of reservoirs. In this context, special attention should be
drawn to the fact that antecedent precipitaton, which is transiently stored in the unsaturated
zone, influences the isotope content of actual storm or snowmelt runoff.
SKLASH & FARVOLDEN (1979) propose to isolate the effects ofpre-event rainwaters
by plotting the isotope contents of runoff versus discharge. From that a two-component
mixture of groundwater and rain should result in collinear d-discharge curves for the rising
and falling limbs of a hydrograph. Important admixtures of so-called "vadose" waters
produce a significant shift, in the respective limbs, towards the isotope contents of these
waters. According to the results of SKLASH & FARVOLDEN (1979) from an experimental
watershed in Quebec, Canada, significant contributions ofvadose waters to total runoffare
restricted to the recession limb of a hydrograph.

6180 ( % , )

x x -"---'--"~ x ~ x -'~x
-10.5

-ll.O / 00/o ~t 8ram! \

Fig. 5:
8180 vs. discharge during
It. 15 July 16 storm runoff, Lainbach
R ( m3/s}
t / I I I I I I )
Creek, July 14-16, 1977.
1 2 3 4 S 6 ? 8

Fig. 5 represents an alternative version. The d-discharge relations are plotted for a
stormflow hydrograph, that was generated by showers producing a mean areal isotope input
of d]80 = -7.45%0. The distinct flexion in its rising limb can reflect the following
reasons:
(1) The mixture is composed of at least three principal components: direct runoff
waters, indirect runoffwaters of longer residence time ( = groundwater), and indirect runoff
waters of shorter residence time ( ~-- soilwater);
(2) The input was isotopically inhomogeneous.
Support for (2) can be derived from the occurence of two separate rainstorms (cf. Fig. 5)
and from the isotope contents of the antecedent rains (cf. Fig. 3). During two months before
this eventtheyhadasimilarmeanisotopecontent(d]80 = -8.0%0) as the rainstorm waters,
and they were isotopically even much heavier than the baseflow waters (d]80 = -11.25%o).
Strikingly, the interval of two months coincides with the mean residence time of younger
subsurface waters that has been calculated from specific modeling procedures (HERR-
MANN & STICHLER 1981). On the other side, there is found no hydraulic reason why
 GROUNDWATER-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS 261

single subsurface reservoirs should be excluded from quick responses to an input impulse as
proven by Fig. 2. As a consequence, the calculated average runoff portion of 12% for this
event would be an overestimation of the real proportions assuming homogeneous isotopic
input conditions. This assumption would indirectly confirm SKLASH & FARVOLDEN
(1979), that the vadose water contributions to stormflow runoff are negligible.
The recession limb of the d-discharge relation in Fig. 5 is equivalent to the mixing line
of at least two main components, where the subsurface water contribution predominates by
90% and more. The evaluation of all stormflow events analysed in the same way leads to the
conclusion, that the effects of soilwater contributions on the isotope contents of total runoff
can hardly be detected by isotope input and output measurements alone. The main reasons
are frequent, insufficient isotopic differences between subsequent rainfalls and isotopic
inhomogeneities within a single rainfall event, thus simulating soilwater contributions to the
runoff. But as a matter of fact, the influence of soilwater obviously does not principally
detoriate the quality of two-component separations, only because of minor contributions to
the storm runoff.
Also during snowmelt periods serious complications by soilwater influence are not to
beexpected, according to the results of field experiments with snow lysimeters, and to cold-
storage chamber experiments with snow columns, where melting processes have been simu-
lated (HERRMANN et al. 1978). The meltwater outflow carries offthe isotopically lightest
fractions first. The initial difference between the deuterium contents of the meltwaters and
the remaining snowpack can amount to 15-20%0. In the course of the melting process the
isotope concentrations approach each other till a small final difference is left. It originates
froha isotope fractionations, due to evaporation and condensation processes.
As a consequence of this mechanism, isotopical two-component separations of snow-
melt hydrographs always result at the upper limit of possible direct runoff proportions,
because of the minor isotope contents of prior infiltration waters. Furthermore, the mean
areal isotope input is now much more homogeneous than if originating from subsequent
rain. These conditions are well performed during the advanced ablation period 1978 traced
in Fig. 6. The d-discharge relations move on a straight line in the case of pure meltwater
input. The ratios of the groundwater and the actual meltwater components change charac-
teristically through the superposition of diurnal rhythms and of long-term trends of the

,82H (%,)

R{m3/sl
5 taln

-85 0o* 0 I 3 5 ?
""
9 April

o ~X ~ ~ ~
~ X
/
6:
-90
o\ x / /
/
Fig.
H vs. discharge during
snowmelt runoff with rain
R(m3~)
influence (x), Lainbach
i ( I t I i Creek, March 31 - April 10,
1 2 3 /. 5 6 7 1978.
262 HERRMANN & STICHLER

groundwater contributions to the total discharge (as discussed in Section 3.2.). Frequent ex-
ceptions from this principle are mainly due to rainwaters with higher isotope contents, that
percolate the melting snow covers. According to the t~-pathway in Fig. 6, considerable quan-
tities of young meltwaters are mobilized by this input impetus. Finally, the d-discharge
relation rejoins the original mixing line.
Environmental isotope analysis of snowmelt hydrographs most evidently enables fun-
damental insights into the dynamics ofrunoffgeneration during storm and snowmelt events.
The subsurface reservoirs are identified to play a dominant role in peak discharge formation.
The mechanism to be deduced from these experiments substantially coincides with those
that have been derived from other isotope tracer studies since CROUZET et al. (1970) and
DINt~ER et al. (1970) and have been summarized by HERRMANN et al. (1978). The discre-
pancy between the small subsurface flow velocities and the spontaneous response of the
groundwater reservoir to an input impulse by rain or meltwater is due to a rapid dislocation
of the subsurface pressure head. This process has been recently discussed by SKLASH &
FARVOLDEN (1979). The above-mentioned experimental results prove that this theory is
also valid in Alpine areas. There, even significant deficiency could be observed in the water
balance of a single storm runoff event (STICHLER & HERRMANN 1978b), caused by the
extraordinary groundwater contribution.
As an important consequence of the dominant role of groundwater in total runoff, the
resulting infiltration rates amount to a remarkable magnitude. It can be evaluated from Table
1, which implies the following mean annual subsurface recharge quantities of the Lainbach
system: First we can assume an evaporation loss of 500 ram, which is undoubtedly at the
upper limit. Then an infiltration rate of 1000 mm is calculated from the precipitation of 2000
mm and the mentioned direct runoff portion of 1/3.

5. PROSPECTS

The experimental results from environmental isotope studies in small catchment areas
lead to the opinion that the traditional concept of runoff generated chiefly by the surface flow
should be revised. For further verifications of the proposed runoff mechanisms, where the
groundwater contributions play a dominant and active role, improved sampling techniques
are necessary. Special attention should be paid to pre-event precipitation waters. They are
transiently stored in the unsaturated zone, whose contribution to total discharge is still
problematic.
Appreciable progress should be expected from a regionally wide-spread series of single
event hydrograph investigations. Long-term research programs enable further insights into
the dynamic turnover mechanisms in natural hydrologic systems; for the application of spe-
cific modeling procedures can provide some information about mean residence times and
recharge rates of subsurface reservoirs. Several assessments concerning this problem are
made by HERRMANN & STICHLER (1981).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank Prof. Dr. H. Moser, Institut fiir Radiohydrometrie der Gesellschaftfiir Strahlen-
und Umweltforschung (GSF) Mfinchen, for commenting on the manuscript.
The obliging help of the research group SFB 81, TP A2 - Prof. Wilhelm at the Institut fiir Geographie der
Universit~t MiJnchen in placing the required hydrometeorological data at our disposal, is ack-
nowledged with appreciation.
 G R O U N D W A T E R - R U N O F F RELATIONSHIPS 263

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Anschrift der Autoren:

A. Herrmann, Lehrstuhl for Physische Geographie und Landschaftstikologie der Technischen Univer-
sit, t, Langer Kamp 19c, D-3300 Braunschweig
W. Stichler, Institut ftir Radiohydrometrie der Gesellschaft for Strahlen- und Umweltforschung (GSF)
Miinchen, Ingolst~dter Landstr. 1, D-8042 Neuherberg