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Abstract
One important area of cross-cultural research identifies sets of cultural val-
ues useful in describing cultures. Resulting frameworks outline a number of
cultural dimensions that attempt to explain a significant portion of country-to-
country variance. This article highlights four such frameworks. The first is
Hofstede’s typology of cultural values, by far the most prominent approach to
cultural dimensions in marketing and advertising research. Next, two less fre-
quently applied frameworks are presented: Schwartz’s cultural values, and
Inglehart’s World Values Survey. Finally, a new, alternative cultural frame-
work – entitled GLOBE (House et al. 2004) - is examined. Drawn from organi-
zational and management science, GLOBE outlines nine cultural dimensions
and differentiates between societal values and societal practices. The GLOBE
dimensions are briefly described and their applicability to marketing and adver-
tising is addressed.
Characteristics of
nations/cultures
Objective Subjective
criteria criteria
a wide range of attitudes and values are reflected in just two major dimensions –
the polarization between traditional values and secular-rational values; and the
polarization between survival values and self-expression values. The final
framework – entitled GLOBE – offers a new alternative. Drawn from organiza-
tional and management science, GLOBE outlines nine cultural dimensions and
differentiates between societal values and societal practices. Each of these
frameworks will be addressed briefly.
Figure 2: Country map based on two of Hofstede’s dimensions: Power Distance and
Uncertainty Avoidance (Source: Geert Hofstede (1990), Institute for Research on Inter-
cultural Cooperation, Maastricht, the Netherlands)
The GLOBE study – applicability for cross-cultural marketing and advertising research 425
Of late, however, Hofstede’s work has come under some scrutiny. The de-
scription of countries on a mere four or five dimensions is seen as insufficient,
with several important dimensions missing. Hofstede (1980, p.313f.) himself
admitted: “it may be that there exist other dimensions related to equally funda-
mental problems of mankind which were not found ... because the relevant
questions simply were not asked”. Further, Hofstede has been criticized regard-
ing measurement of his dimensions, equivalence of the meaning of his values in
each of the cultures as well as the age of his data, which was primarily collected
between 1968 and 1972. Because Hofstede measured work-related behaviors
and values among employees in large multinational organizations, a transfer of
his results to other groups (e.g., consumers) or other areas (e.g., marketing or
advertising) and the usage of his results to discriminate national cultures in
general, are speculative. Hofstede stated: “The values questions found to dis-
criminate between countries had originally been chosen for IBM´s internal pur-
poses. They were never intended to form a complete and universal instrument
for measuring national cultures” (Hofstede 2001, p. 493).
Figure 4: Schwartz’s map of countries ((Source: Schwartz (1999) (Note: Based on data
from 44 nations))
vior, gender roles, family values and ecological concerns. More importantly, by
conducting the survey in waves (the first in 1981 – named the European Values
Survey, the second in 1990/1991, the third in 1995/96, the fourth in 1999/2001),
WVS charts how values are changing and examines how modernization and
tradition interact to shape those changes. A worldwide network of social scien-
tists cooperated in developing the questionnaire and conducting the survey. The
entire set of data collected between 1981 and 2001 from representative national
samples in 81 societies -- containing 85 percent of the world’s population, and
based on over 250,000 interviews -- is currently available in Inglehart and Wel-
zel (2005). Data on publics of up to 120 societies (collected in 2005/2006) is
expected to be available in 2007.
According to the WVS, there are two basic, broad cultural dimensions,
which characterize nations. One dimension is survival values versus well-being
values. Inglehart, Basañez and Moreno (1998) note that in post-industrial soci-
ety, “historically unprecedented levels of wealth and the emergence of welfare
states have given rise to a shift from scarcity norms, emphasizing hard work and
self denial, to post-modern values emphasizing the quality of life, emancipation
of women and sexual minorities, and related post-materialistic priorities, such as
emphasis on self-expression.” The second dimension is traditional authority
versus secular-rational authority. The authors note that this dimension reflects
an emphasis on “obedience to traditional authority (usually religious authority)
and adherence to family and communal obligations, and norms of sharing, or,
on the other hand, a secular worldview in which authority is legitimated by
rational-legal norms, linked with an emphasis on economic and individual
achievement.” The data reveals that the basic values and beliefs of populations
in advanced nations differs significantly from those found in less developed
nations.
Figure 5: Map of countries, based on the WVS (Source: Inglehart and Welzel (2005))
When compared with the work of Hofstede or Schwartz, the World Values
Survey has been the typology least often applied to marketing and advertising.
Clearly, the theoretical foundation based on social and political science, the
magnitude of empirical data and the longitudinal character of the analyses pre-
sented are impressive. However, with regard to its applicability for marketing
and advertising, there are some limitations to the WVS framework, when com-
pared with those of Hofstede, Schwartz or GLOBE. The two basic dimensions
of survival values versus self-expression values and traditional authority versus
secular-rational authority used to describe different cultures are quite broad.
The GLOBE study – applicability for cross-cultural marketing and advertising research 431
The first six GLOBE dimensions are based on Hofstede’s (1980) work.
GLOBE scales measuring uncertainty avoidance, power distance and collectiv-
ism dimensions were designed to reflect Hofstede’s (2001) dimensions of un-
certainty avoidance, power distance, and individualism. However, factor analy-
ses conducted by GLOBE researchers revealed that the dimension of
collectivism could effectively be divided into two sub-dimensions: institutional
collectivism and in-group collectivism. Whereas in-group collectivism, reflect-
ing the degree to which individuals have pride and loyalty in their families, is
similar to the dimension of collectivism as typically understood in literature (for
instance, Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Triandis, 1989, 1995), institutional collectiv-
ism, which reflects the degree to which laws, social programs, or institutional
practices are designed to encourage collectivistic behavior, is a form of collec-
tivism that has received limited attention to date (House and Javidan, 2004).
Further, because Hofstede’s masculinity dimension was seen to be confounded
by numerous factors judged irrelevant to the concept, and was also seen to be
lacking in face validity, GLOBE researchers introduced two new cultural di-
mensions: gender egalitarianism and assertiveness.
Future Orientation has its origins in Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s (1961)
past, present, future orientation dimension, which reflects the temporal orienta-
tion of the majority of the population in the society. This dimension has some
similarities with, but also some distinctions from Hofstede’s (2001) long-term
orientation (Ashkanasy et al., 2004). Performance orientation has its roots in the
construct of need for achievement (McClelland, 1961). Finally, humane orienta-
tion is derived from Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s (1961) dimension of human
nature as good vs. human nature as evil, as well as from work by Putnam (1993)
and McClelland (1985).
methodology in great detail (for instance, pilot studies, double translations and
bias testing, bias elimination). Similarly, reliability and validity measures are
tested using multitrait, multimethod approaches (Hanges 2004). In addition,
over 170 GLOBE researchers from different cultural backgrounds worked to-
gether on construct definition, construct conceptualization and on the measure-
ment of the constructs. In most countries/cultures analyzed in the GLOBE
project, data collection was carried out by natives of the country or by research-
ers with extensive experience in those markets.
GLOBE provides data on the societal level and explicitly differentiates be-
tween societal values and societal practices. The distinction between cultural
values and cultural practices was incorporated to correspond with Schein’s
(2004) concepts of artifacts vs. espoused values as two unique levels of culture
(House and Hanges, 2004). Artifacts are the visible products, processes and
behaviors of a culture. They mainly reflect the “as is” and, therefore, the cul-
tural practices. Espoused values are the individuals’ or society’s sense of what
ought to be, as distinct from, what is. They primarily reflect the “should be”
and, therefore, the cultural values. The distinction made between values and
practices is similar to DeMooij’s (2005) distinction between “desirable” and
“desired” values. The desirable refers to social norms that are held in a culture
and by an individual (corresponding to the “should be” or the GLOBE values),
whereas the “desired” refers to individuals' choices (corresponding to the “as is”
or the GLOBE practices). Both, values and practices (the desirable and the
desired) are often contradictory in a culture and are therefore seen as paradoxi-
cal values, which are found in many cultures. An example provided by De-
Mooij (2005, p.2) may clarify this distinction: “We don’t want to be fat, we
should eat healthy food, yet we do eat chocolate or drink beer, and we get fat.”
For instance, the GLOBE data reveal a slightly negative correlation between
societal values and societal practices for the dimension of assertiveness (r = -
0.26, p < 0.05) (Den Hartog, 2004). This negative correlation is in line with the
reflections outlined above. It suggests that countries scoring higher on asser-
tiveness practices tend to value assertiveness to a lesser extent while countries
scoring lower on assertiveness practices tend to value assertiveness more
strongly.
Given the fact that values and practices in a society may be inconsistent and
sometimes even contradictory, it is a major strength that GLOBE clearly distin-
guishes between both levels of cultures. Hofstede (1980, 2001), in particular,
often confused values and behaviors (practices) in his dimensions, which is a
further weakness of his framework.
434 Ralf Terlutter, Sandra Diehl and Barbara Mueller
While GLOBE provides data on the societal level, it does not do so on the
individual level. The items used in the GLOBE project are designed to reflect
societal values and practices, not individual values and practices.
However, as individuals are socialized through values that are held and be-
haviors that are practiced in their cultures, it is very likely that they adopt values
and practices that are shared among members of their society (Markus and Ki-
tayama, 1991). The values held and practices shown by members of a culture
influence individual values and practices, as they enable the individual to be-
have according to social norms and rules and in a manner that is rewarded by
other members of that group.
A major limitation of the GLOBE study is its relatively small sample, with
an average of only about 250 subjects per culture. GLOBE researchers report
that the number of respondents ranged from 27 to 1,790, though more than 90%
of the cultures investigated had sample sizes of 75 respondents or greater.
While 17,300 total respondents is indeed a large figure, it is still a small sample
for describing societal values and practices in 62 different cultures. The previ-
ously discussed frameworks are all based on significantly larger samples.
A second serious limitation is that respondents were middle managers in
corporations. As with the Hofstede study (where IBM employees were sur-
veyed) or the Schwartz investigation (where teachers and students were ana-
lyzed), a single group within each culture was analyzed in the GLOBE project,
as well. Transfer to other groups (for instance, consumers) remains speculative
and requires empirical testing. With regard to the sampling of respondents,
only Inglehart’s World Values Survey has a more representative sample of the
cultures analyzed.
The GLOBE study – applicability for cross-cultural marketing and advertising research 435
Terlutter, Mueller and Diehl (2005) surveyed subjects from Germany, U.S.,
France and England, four countries that differed in their societal values and
practices in terms of assertiveness, according to GLOBE. Results revealed that
the perception and evaluation of a standardized advertisement incorporating an
assertive appeal differed in the four countries, suggesting that such differences
can be attributed to the level of assertiveness in a given culture. Advertisers
attempting to achieve a specific level of assertiveness in their campaigns will
thus need to adapt advertisements to various countries. In assertive markets,
stronger assertive cues may be required if consumers are to perceive the ads as
assertive in nature. In less assertive countries, more subtle cues may be suffi-
cient to obtain the same level of perceived assertiveness.
Terlutter, Mueller and Diehl (2005) concluded that the GLOBE framework
proved useful to their investigation. Future examinations of the dimension of
assertiveness are encouraged. Investigators should explore a larger number of
markets. In particular, it would be worthwhile to explore the reaction of eastern
cultures to assertive appeals. Gender differences may also play a relevant role
in the evaluation of assertive appeals. Assertiveness should also be analysed in
the context of ads for a wider variety of products (e.g., for both high and low
involvement goods), as well as for services. In addition to the dimension of
assertiveness, the GLOBE framework offers additional dimensions deserving of
analysis, for instance performance orientation, humane orientation, future orien-
tation and gender egalitarianism.
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