CASINGS

Casings are steel pipes. They are lined on the walls of a drilled hole. Casing also means the act of
installing steel pipes in a well.

Figure 1: Casings
Functions of Casing
The most important functions of casings are
1. To prevent caving of the hole
2. To prevent contamination of fresh water
3. To exclude water from the producing formation
4. To confine production to the wellbore because it defines the size of the hole
5. To provide a means for controlling pressure
6. To facilitate installation of the subsurface equipment
7. To provide a means of producing petroleum
Types of Casing String
A casing string is a combination of casings of equal outside diameter, grade, thickness and joint
type run in the well in one single operation. A casing string containing more than section is
called a combination string. Available types are based on their primary functions. They are

1
 1. Surface String
Protects the fresh water sands. It cases off the weak surface sands. It is sometimes called the
stove pipe. It is hammered to refusal to install it.
2. Intermediate or Protection String
It prevents caving and facilitates drilling
3. Oil or Production String
It offers the well for completion, production and control. They are sometimes called liners.
Each string has its upper end at the surface.

Surface casing string

Intermediate casing string

Production casing string

Figure 2: Types of Casing Strings Set in Hole

Classification of Casing

2
Casing is classified according to the following properties:
1. Outside diameter, O.D.
2. The wall thickness
3. The grade of the material of construction
4. The type of joint
5. The length
6. Unit weight (determined by O.D. and thickness)
Casing String Design
Casing is the most expensive single investment on a well. The selection of the most
economical grades and weight of casing which will withstand, without failure, the three
forces to which the casing will be subjected is called casing string design. These forces are
1. External pressure or collapse pressure
2. Internal pressure or burst pressure
3. Tensional force.

Figure 3: A Casing String

External pressure tends to collapse the casing. Internal pressure tends to burst the casing.
Tensional forces caused by longitudinal or axial loading tend to pull the casing apart and
reduce the casing resistance against collapse. All these forces vary in magnitude with depth.
Hence a combination string design gives the best design.
In casing string design, the most expensive grades and weights are reserved for those sections
with the severest forces. A good design is the economical design.
Grades of Casing
Casing is graded on the basis of its minimum yield strength. API grades are shown below:
Casing grade Minimum yield strength, psi
F-25 25,000
H-40 40,000
J-55 55,000
N-80 80,000

3
 P-110 110,000

N.B. Students to copy Table 2.3, page 103 to 105

Casing Threads and Couplings
Casings normally have threaded couplings at their ends. These couplings also have their
grades and their properties are equal to the casings they join. Couplings are classified
according to
1. O.D. of casing
2. Thickness of casing
3. Casing lengths, either as short, or long.
Make-up Loss per Joint of Casing
When casing has threads and couplings, the length of casing is the overall length of pipe plus
length of coupling. The overall length of a casing string is usually less than the sum of the
lengths of the individual casings because of the make-up loss at the couplings.
Lj = 0.5Lc-J 1
L = length of casing and attached coupling
J = distance from end of casing to center of coupling
Lj = make-up loss
Lp = length of pipe
Home Work 1
1. Calculate the make-up loss per joint for 7-in, 26-Ib/ft casing with short threads and
couplings. Also, calculate the loss per thousand feet of casing and the casing required per
thousand feet of made-up string for each case of length of casing of 22ft, 29ft and 38ft.
2. Repeat no. 1 for (a) 9000ft string of 5-1/2-in LTC (Long thread and coupling), (b) 4000ft
string of 9-5/8-in 40Ib J-55 STC.
Joint Strength
This is the axial tension load which can be supported at a casing joint. When casing is run,
the couplings forming the joints in the upper sections are in tension because of the weight of
the casings suspended below them. The joints must be strong enough to resist deformation
and tensional failure.
Joint strengths of casings are read from Table 2.9.

Special Casing Joints

4
A number of special casing joints are available that are useful where higher strength, leak
resistance, or clearance is needed than that provided by the standard API round thread,
buttress-thread, or extreme-line casing joints. These joints obtain their improved properties
by various means, such as (1) couplings or box end with seal rings of teflon, etc.; (2) special
thread profiles, such as Acme; (3) torque shoulders; (4) metal-to-metal seals; (5) internal
upsets; (6) external upsets; (7) integral joints and (8) flush joints.

Burst Pressures
This is due to internal pressure being greater than the casing can withstand. As a result the
casing would burst. Burst may occur (1) as formation fluid enters the casing, or (2) in
operations that demand high pressure, such as in squeeze cementing, fracturing, perforating,
cementing, etc. The excess internal pressure at which burst failure occurs is called bursting
pressure. Bursting pressures are read from Table 2.14

Collapse Pressure.
This is due to external pressure outside the casing being greater than the internal pressure. As
a result the casing would collapse. Collapse may occur (1) as a result of fluid pressure in the
formation opposite the casing, or (2) as a result of high column of fluid in the annulus
between the hole and the casing.
The ability of casing to withstand external pressure without experiencing any deformation is
called collapse resistance. Read collapse pressures from Table 2.13.
Axial Loading
Axial loading or tension has two effects on casing: (1) tends to fail by longitudinal
deformation, and (2) lowers the resistance of casing to collapse.
Safety Factors or Design Factors
This is the ratio of maximum allowable stress to actual working stress.
Joint load safety factor = Fj/Nj 1.60 to 2.00
Axial load safety factor = Fa/Na 1.50 to 2.00
External pressure = Pcc/Nc 1.00 to 1.50
Internal pressure = Pi/Ni 1.00 to 1.75
Selection of Casing Sizes
Selection of casing sizes depends on the following factors:
1. Drilling cost. As hole diameter increases, cost of drilling increases.

5
2. Methods of production. Hole should be large to accommodate necessary production.
3. Production rates. This determines the pressure drop across the casing. Large production
rates as a result of large pressure drop. The larger the production rate the larger the size of
the casing.
4. Possibilities of multi-zone completion. Holes should be large enough to accommodate
equipment for multi-zone completion.
5. Number of intermediate strings. This reduces the number of production strings.
6. Nature of fluids produced. This determines the type of production equipment. More
downhole equipment reduces the hole size.
7. Rig limitations. Sizes of hole and casing determines rig capability.
8. Availability of casing.
9. Type of well (exploratory or development)
10. Common practice.
Bit Selection for Drilling
Bit sizes are just smaller than the preceding hole sizes. This will enable the bit enter the hole
for further drilling. Large differences between hole and bit sizes lead to large annular
capacities, which is unnecessary.
Copy Table 2.15, 2.18, and 2.19.
Demonstration Problem
The production string of a well is 7-in. Select all the minimum bit and casing sizes for all the
drilling to surface hole. Draw the hole configuration.

Design of a Combination String

A combination string is used in order to obtain a string which will satisfy the desired design
factors for with the least cost. The internal design pressure is assumed to be full with
reservoir pressure, pws, and the external pressure is assumed to be zero. The minimum
allowable internal yield strength for casing to be used in the string is
Pi = pwsNi
If the requirement for internal yield strength is met then the controlling factor in the lower
portions of the string is collapse pressure, and the joint strength in the upper section. The
setting depth of casing is limited by the collapse pressure. To obtain the collapse pressure, it
is assumed that the external pressure is that due to the external fluid column, and that the
internal pressure is zero. Collapse pressure is given as
Pc = 0.052NcLs
where Ls is setting depth, ft,  is fluid density, ppg, of external fluid column.

6
At regions close to the top of the string, the primary considerations are joint strength and
longitudinal yielding. The casing must satisfy
Fj = WNJ
and
YmAj = WNa
where W is the weight of casing suspended below the casing under consideration, and Aj is
area of thread.
Example
Design a 7-in, 8000ft combination casing string for a well where the mud weight is 12ppg
and the expected formation pressure gradient is 0.5psi/ft, using the worst possible loading
assumptions. All weights of API casing in grades J-55 and N-80 are available. The design
factors to be satisfied are 1.125 for collapse, 2.00 for joint strength, 1,25 for yield strength,
and 1.00 for internal yield.
Solution
Pws = 8000ft * 0.5psi/ft = 4000psi
The minimum internal yield for any section of the strng must be
Pi = PwsNj = 4000x1.00 = 4000psi
All grades and weights of available casings are greater than 4000psi in their internal yield
pressures. They are therefore retained for further consideration.
The lowest section should have collapse pressure of at least
Pc = 0.052NcLs
= 0.052 x 1.125 x 12 x 800
= 5620psi
This means that the lowest section should consist of 29-Ib, N-80 casing with LTC. Its joint
strength is
Wmax = Fj/Nj
= 520000/2.0
= 260000Ib
and yield strength
Wmax = YmAi/Na
= 80000 x 6.899/1.25

7
 = 442000Ib
Hence the maximum length of section 1 is 260000 Ib/29 Ib/ft = 8970ft
This is greater than the 8000ft setting depth. Hence, we have to consider another cheaper
section (Section 2) on top of Section 1. The next lighter and cheaper available casing is 26 Ib,
N-80 casing with LTC. This casing has collapse pressure of 5320psi. Therefore, its setting
depth is
Lc = pc/(0.052 Nc)
= 5320/ (0.052 x 1.125 x 12)
= 7580ft
This is first assumed depth of Section 2. Hence weight of Section 1 is
= (8000 – 7580)ft x 29 Ib/ft = 12180 Ib
As a result of the weight of Section 1 now under Section 2, the weight of Section 2 is
reduced. This has also reduced the collapse resistance of Section 2. Hence, the new collapse
resistance of Section 2 is the corrected collapse resistance given as

pc √ k 2−3 W 2−W
pcc =
K
For this axial load, the corrected collapse pressure of Section 2 is

5320❑ √ 1.646 x 1012−0.445 x 10 9−12180

pcc =
128300
= 5270psi
And the setting depth of Section 2 is
= 5270/(0.052 x 1.125 x 12)
= 7510ft
This is the second assumed depth of Section 2. Under this assumption, the weight of Section
1 is
= 29 Ib/ft x(8000-7510) = 14210 Ib
Hence

5320❑ √ 1.646 x 1012−0.606 x 10 9−14210

pcc=
128300
= 5260psi
The third assumed setting depth for Section 2 is

8
 Ls = 5260/ (0.052 x 1.125 x 12)
= 7490ft
The weight of Section 1 and the collapse pressure of Section 2 are then 14796 Ib and
5260psi, respectively. The resulting setting depth agrees with the third assumed setting depth
of 7490ft. Therefore, the correct setting depth for Section 2 is 7490ft.
Also, for Section 2 the maximum joint load is
F j 460000
= =230 , 000 Ib
Nj 2
And the maximum yield load is
Y m A j 80 , 000 x 5 .998
= =384000 Ib
Na 1 . 25
Since the weight of casing suspended below Section 2 is 14796 Ib, the maximum length of
Section 2 is

(230 , 000−14796) Ib
Ls = =8280 ft
26 Ib/ft
which is greater than the setting depth. Select Section 3 to consist of 23 Ib, N-80 casing with
LTC with pc= 4300psi. Hence, the first assumed setting depth for Section 3 is
Ls = 4300/ (0.052 x 1.125 x 12) = 6130ft
On this basis, the weight of Section 2 is
= (7490-6130) ft x 26 Ib/ft = 35,400 Ib
and the total axial load below Section 3 is
= (14790 +35400) Ib = 50200 Ib
The corrected collapse pressure for Section 3 is

4300 √ 1.281 x 1012−0.008 x 109−50200

pcc=
1132000
= 4090 psi
from which the second assumed setting depth is
Ls = 4090/ (0.052 x 1.125 x 12) = 5830ft
By continuing the trial-and-error procedure, the setting depth for Section 3 is 5780ft. for this
setting depth, the total weight of Section 1 and 2 is 59200 Ib and the collapse pressure of
Section 3 is 4060psi. the maximum allowable joint load for Section 3 is

9
 = 400000/2.0 = 200,000 Ib
and the maximum yield load is
= 80000 x 5.105/1.25 = 327,000 Ib
The maximum length of Section 3 is
= (200,000 – 59200)/ 23 Ib/ft = 6120ft
Since there are other cheaper grades than the 23 Ib/ft casing it is only economical to consider
other grades even when Section 3 could be used to the surface.
Select 26 Ib, J-55 casing with STC for Section 4. The setting is found by trial-and-error to be
5310ft. hence, the total weight of Section 1, 2, and 3 is 71400 Ib and pcis 3730psi. the maximum
allowable joint load and yield loads for Section 4 are, respectively,
= 345,000/2.00 = 172,500 Ib
and
55,000 x 5.998/1.25 = 264,000 Ib
The maximum length of Section 4 is
(172,500-71,400)/26 Ib/ft = 3890ft
Since 3890ft is less than the allowable depth of Section 4, the setting depth for more sections
will be determined by joint strength.
Section 5 will consist of 26 Ib, J-55 casing with LTC and setting depth is
(197,500 – 71,400) Ib/26Ib/ft = 960ft
The remaining maximum length of Section 4 is (5310 – 3890) = 1420ft.
For Section 5, maximum allowable joint and yield loads are, respectively,
395,000/2.00 = 197,500 Ib
and
55,000 x 5.998/1.25 = 264,000 Ib
The weight of all casings below Section 5 is
71,400 + (26x3890) = 172,500 Ib
and maximum length of Section 5
(197,500 – 172,500)/26 Ib/ft = 960ft
The maximum setting depth of Section 6 is
1420 – 960 = 460ft

10
 Section 6 must consist of casing with a joint strength greater than that of Section 5. No
weight of J-55 casing will satisfy this requirement. The 23 Ib, N-80 casing with LTC must
therefore be used. For Section 6, allowable joint and yield loads are respectively
400,000/2.0 = 200,000 Ib
And
80,000 x 5.105/1.25 = 327,000 Ib
The weight of all casings below Section 6 is
172,500 + (26x960) = 197,500 Ib
The maximum length of Section 6 is
(200,000 – 197,500) Ib/23 Ib/ft = 110ft
and the setting depth of Section 7 is
460 – 110 = 350ft
Section 7 must consist of casing with a joint strength greater than 400,000 Ib. The 26 Ib/ft,
N80 casing with LTC is the right choice. The casing has
Maximum joint load = 230,000 Ib
Maximum yield load = 384,000
Maximum length of this 26 Ib/ft casing is
(230,000 – 200,000)/26 Ib/ft = 1150ft.
The maximum length for section 7 is
Since this greater than the allowable setting depth of section 7, this section can continue
to the top of the hole.
HOME WORK
(1) Considering the make-up loss for each casing in the above example, calculate the amount
of casing to be ordered on location assuming that each casing is 29 ft long.
(2) Design the most economical long production string of casing (3sections only) given the
following data:
Well depth = 6000 ft
PPg of mud in the hole¿ 12 ppg
Formation pressure ¿ 3000 psi
5
Production casing size = 6 ∈¿
8

11
 S.F.: Tension ¿ 1.500
Collapse ¿ 1.250
Busting ¿ 1.125
All grades and weights of casings are available.
Considering the make-up los for each casing calculate the amount of casing to be ordered on
location assuming that each casing is20 ft long.
5
(3) A string of 9 ∈¿ casing is to be set to a total depth of 6500 ft (where the BHP is 3300 psi
8
) in 11 ppg mud. Design factors to be used are 1.25for collapse, 1.80for joint strength and
1.10for internal yield. All weights of API casing in grades J and N are available.
Determine the interval and the composition of each section of the combination string.

OIL AND GAS WELL CEMENTING

Cementing is the process of placing cement in the annulus between the casing and the
formations exposed to the wellbore.

12
 Cement is made from burning a blend of limestone and clay. It is a hydraulic product,
i.e., it hardens when mixed with water.
Functions of Cementing
(1) To provide zonal isolation
(2) To exclude undesirable fluids from the wellbore
(3) To protect casing from corrosion
(4) To prevent caving of the hole
(5) Provide a means for controlling pressure
(6) To provide strength to weak formation
Cement Composition
(1) Tricalcium silicate
3 CaO . Si O2 ,C 3 S – Strength contributor
(2) Bicalcium Silicate:
2 CaO . Si O2 , C 2 S Hydrates slowly, produces long term strength
(3) Tricalcium aluminate
3 CaO . Al2 O3 , C 3 Al Hydrates rapidly high heat of hydration.it contributes little to
strength development.
(4) Teracalcium aluminoferite
4 CaO . Al 2 O3 . FeO3 , C 4 F Has little effect on the physical properties of cement.

Physical Properties of Cement

The most important physical properties of cement are:
(1) Viscosity
(2) Thickening time
(3) Strength
Cement viscosity is measured in terms of its consistency. The consistency is the thickness of
cement slurry. It is measured in poise. Cement slurries do not behave as true fluids. They are
non-Newtonian fluids.
NB.:

Water Newtonian fluids

Gases Viscosity ¿ f (P ,T ) only;

Oils Shear stress ∝ shear rate

@P&T Constant

13
 Non-Newtonian fluids shear
stress is not directly proportional
Cement to shear rate @constant P&T
Mud
Fracturing fluids

The thickening-time is the length of time a cement slurry remains pumpable under given
laboratory conditions. A good cement slurry must remain pumpable long enough to be placed in
a well at depth.
The elapsed time between the initial starting of tester and the occurrence of a torque pull
of 40 oz is considered as he thickening time of the cement.
The standard Oil Company of California tester and he Halliburton cement consistometer are used
for testing cement slurry. They both utilize a paddle arrangement which stirs the slurry and
indicate the resistance to the movement of the paddle through the slurry.
A consistency of 100 poises is considered to be the limit of pumpability.

v
Torque

Figure 6: Paddle Arrangement

14
 Dry Cement

Cement Slurry Mix Water

Figure 7: A process of making slurry

API Classes of Cement
Class A For surface hole-6000ft
It has regular strength

15
 Class B For cementing surfaces to 6000ft; has moderate sulfate
resistance strength
Class C Cementing surface to 6000ft; has high sulfate resistance
strength
Class N 6000’-9000’ depth, moderate temperature and pressure
Class D 6000’-12,000’ depth; moderately high temperature and
pressure
Class E 6000’-14,000’ depth; condition of temperature and pressure
Class F 10,000’-16,000’ depth; extremely high temperature and
pressure conditions

Factors Affecting Selection of Cement Class

(1) Depth: Slurry should remain pumpable before TD is reached
(2) BHP
(3) Possibility of lost circulation zones up to the hole
(4) Temperature range
(5) Placement time

Temperature Change in a Well

4.2 ℉ /100 ft high

1.5 ℉ /100 ft Geothermal
Depth (ft) gradient
0.9 ℉ /100 ft low

Bottom hole temperature ¿ T S +0.015 D

When rotating the mud (md circulation) the bottom hole pressure tends to reduce.
Temp. ℉
0

16

Static BHT
Depth (ft)
 Cement Additives
These are used to alter cement properties to meet conditions e.g. depth temperature and pressure.
Cement additives are;
(1) Accelerators
(2) Retarders
(3) High weight additive
(4) Heavy weight additive
(5) Fluid-loss control additive

(1) Accelerators are used for depts. Less than 2000 ’ , T =90 ℉ . They make cement set set
quicker. NaCl and CaCl 2 are good accelerators. Initial strength of cement is the strength
developed after 48hours and that developed after 72 hours is the final strength.
(2) Retarders are used in deep hot wells. The most common s lignosulphates.
(3) Light weight cement. Obtained by mixing cement, water and bentonite. Used to cement
areas outside the casing joints.
(4) Heavy weight cement. Obtained by mixing cement, water and barite. (Barite S.G. ¿ 4.2
cement S.G.3.2). Used for cementing around the casing shoe and for surface hole.
(5) Fluid-loss control additives. These are added to cement to prevent the slurry from losing
water to the formation premature loss of water to the formation makes the slurry sets
before it gets to the desired depth.
Therefore, additives are used for one or more of the following purposes;
(1) Reducing or increasing density

17
 (2) Increasing volume and reduced unit cost
(3) Accelerating or retarding setting time
(4) Increasing strengths
(5) Preventing lost returns
(6) Increasing or improving the durability
(7) Decreasing the water loss
Surface and Subsurface Cementing Equipment
Oil well cementing requires various surface and subsurface equipment:
(1) Casing-cementing heads
(2) Casing guide shoe and collars
(3) Bottom and top plugs
(4) Centralizers
(5) Scratchers

(1) Casing-cementing heads: these provide the connection from cementing and rig-pump
lines to the casing string. They also provide access for insertion of the cementing plugs in
the casing.

Bottom plug Casing-cementing head

(2) Guide Shoes: These have two types-the plain guide shoe and combination float and
guide shoe. They guide the casing down the hole through any irregularities. They provide
means for the hydraulic removal of cake from the walls of the hole to allow for good
cement job. They are attached to the bottom joint of the casing.

18
Guide shoe Guide collar Float shoe
 (3) Float Collars: this is run on one or more joints above the guide shoe. They serve as a
floating equipment and seat for the wiper plugs which indicate when a cement job is
completed. The spacing of the float collar above the shoe, known as the shoe track,
controls the amount of cement left inside the casing.
(4) Stage Collars: this is a multistage cementing tool. Cementing of a long section in two or
more stages minimizes combination and reduces possibility of lost circulation resulting
from excessive hydrostatic pressure.
(5) Wiper plugs: hey are top and bottom plugs moulded from rubber and cast aluminum or
plastic. The top plug wipes casing free of mud. The bottom plug separates mud from
cement in the casing.
The bottom plug allows fluid circulation by means of a diaphragm.

Volume of cement slury=¿

Total volume of slurry required for the job ( π4 D 2

H −
π 2
4 ) π
D ce xH + d 2∫ ¿ ×h ¿
4
π
¿ ¿
4
¿ 0.0055 ¿

Where D H =¿ hole diameter, ft

Dce =¿ external diameter, ft

H=¿ deph of hole to be cemented, ft

d∫ ¿=¿¿ internal dimeter of casing, ft

h=¿ shoe tract, ft

Internal capacity of casing is
π 2
V l= d ∫ ¿× L ¿
4 ×144 c

2
¿ 0.0055 d ∫ ¿ L (ft )¿
c
3

Where Lc =¿ length of casing, ft.

19
In some cases information from calipers logs would require percentage of these volumes to be
added to the calculated volumes to cater for the washouts slurry left in the shoe tract, the dead
volume between the casing shoe and the hole and the other elemental losses in volumes
including that occupied by couplings may be calculated directly or account for b adding a faction
of the calculated volume to that calculated.
Hole Enlargement Factor
Washouts caused by mud during drilling cause enlargement of the drilled hole. Therefore, the
size of the hole has to be corrected using an enlargement factor.
Caliper logs are run to determine the actual hole enlargement.
Actual volume of slurry=theoretical volume × enlargement factor
Enlargement factor¿ 15 %-100 %
Hole size
0

100 ft

200 ft

300 ft

400 ft

Volume of annulus¿ vol. of hole ¿ caliper logs−vol. of casing

¿ vol. of hole−volume of casing
2
π
Casing capacity ¿ D cuft /ft
4 csg

2
π
Hole Capacity ¿ D cuft /ft
4 hole

π
Hole-casing capacity ¿ ¿¿¿
4
These capacities can be obtained from tables (copy tables in pages 548 and 552)
2
1 π 8.5
For 8 hole, capacity ¿ ( ) =0.3941 cuft /ft
4 4 12

20
 2
π 7
For casing 7”, capacity ( ) =0.2673 cuft /ft
4 12
1
∴ Annular capacity between 8 hole & 7 csg is
4
¿ ( 0.3941−0.2673 ) cuft /ft
¿ 0.1268 cuft /ft

Slurry density
1sack ¿ 94 lbs
Viodage vol. ¿ 0.52 cuft (containing air space)
Actual vol.=0.48 cuft (containing cement particles)
Bulk density ¿ 94 lb /cuft
94 lb lb
Absolute density ¿ =195.8
0.48 cuft cuft
195.8
S.G. of cement ¿ =3.14
62.4
Yield of cement ¿ volume of water per sack
If volume of slurry¿ 500 ft 3
500
No. of sacks ¿ =416 sacks
1.2
Yield of cement depends on the gallons of water added.it is the water-cement ratio.
Density of water ¿ 8.34 ppg=62.5 pp cuft
1 cuft=7.48 gallons
The optimum amount of water is the number of gallons that will give the slurry of 30 poises.
Calculation of Amount of water, V, Required to make a given ppgslurry
1 sx of cement ¿ 94 lbs
lb cement +lb water +lb additive
Slurry density ¿
gal cement + gal Water+ gal additive
For neat cement, no additive
1 lbwater =8.34 V ; v=¿vol. of water

21
1 sack of bentonite ¿ 100 lb
1 sack of barite ¿ 100 lb
lb of material
Absolute volume of additive, gal ¿
8.34 × specific gravity of material
gal . cement + gal . water + gal .additive
Yield¿
7.48
lb water
Percent mix ¿ ×100 %
lb cement
No . of sxs
Mixing time ¿
Truck capacity
Vol . of casing
Displacing time ¿
Pump capacity
Total cementing time ¿ Mixing time+ Displacing time
Example
Calculate the weight per cent mix and yield given
Water-cement ratio¿ 5.5 gal/sack
S.G. of cement ¿ 3.14
94 lb 5.5 gal 8.34 Ib
+( x )
sx sx gal
¿ =15.4 lb /gal
Slurry weight 94 Ib / sx 5.5 gal
+
lb sx
8.34 × 3.14
gal
94 lb
sx 5.5 gal
+
Yield 8.34 lb sx
×3.14
gal
¿ =1.215 cuft /sx
7.46 gal/cuft
94 lb
sx
Absolute volume ¿ =3.6 gal/ sx
8.34 lb
× 3.14
gal
gal lb
5.5 ×8.34
sx gal
Percent mix ¿ =48.8 %
lb
94
sx

22
Calculate the number of sxs of cement and gel (bentonite) required to obtain cement returns on
surface casing, given
5 1 cuft
Annular volume between 9 ” casing and 12 ” hole¿ 0.3469
8 2 ft
Shoe track ¿ 30 ft
gal
Water-cement ratio¿ 7.73
sx
Slurry weight ¿ 14.10 lb/gal , slurry volume ¿ 1.536 cuft /sx of cement.
Casing setting depth ¿ 1400 ft . Excess cement required ¿ 35 %
Solution

1
12
2
5
9
8

1400 ft
30 ft

cuft
Cement left in casing ¿ 30 ft × 0.4256
ft
¿ 12.77 cuft
Cement required to fill annulus ¿ 1400 ×0.3469 ×1.35=655.64 cuft
Total cement required¿ 655.64+ 12.77=668.41 cuft
668.41
Sxs of cement required ¿ =435
1.536

23
 94 lb
Pounds of cement ¿ 435 sxs× =40,890
sx
Bentonite required¿ 40890 × 4 %=1636 lb∨16.36 sxs of bentonite .

Calculate the depth to the top of the cement column in the annulus given:
3
A string of 7∈; 17 lb/ft casing is to be set in an 8 ∈. Hole at a depth of 8000 ft , using 800 sxs
4
of cement and leaving 60 ft of cement in the casing caliper survey measurements are as follows:
Well depth, ft Hole volume, cuft Average diameter, ¿
7000−8000 454 1
9
8
6000−7000 467 1
9
4
5000−6000 505 5
9
8
4000−5000 479 3
9
8

Slurry volume ¿ 1.10 cuft / sx

Enlargement factor¿ 1.15
cuft
Capacity of casing ¿ 0.2331
ft
Slurry inside casing ¿ 0.2331 ×60=14 cuft
Slurry volume ¿ 1.10 ×800=880 cuft .
Slurry in annulus ¿ 880−14=866 cuft
Theoretical annular volume ¿ d h−d e

Where d h=¿ caliper hole diameter; d e =7

Interval (ft) Theoretical Corrected annular Cumulative
annular volume, volume, cuft annular volume,
cuft volume cuft
(1)

(2) (3 ¿=1.15×(2) (3)× 1000

7000−8000 0.187 0.215 215

24
 6000−7000 0.199 0.229 244
5000−6000 0.238 0.274 718
4000−5000 0.212 0.244 962

4000 ft
7 cs 5
Unfiled annular volume at capacity of 9 and 7
8
5000 ft

Hole from
caliper

8000 ft
Unfilled annular volume below 4000 ft=962−866=96 cuft
96 cuft
∴ length of unfilled volume= =393 ft below top of 4000 ft .
0.244 cuft /ft
Therefore, top of cement is at depth of ( 4000+ 393 ) ft∨4393 ft
Assignment
(1) Assuming no caliper data are available, and an area experience factor of 1.50 is given,
calculate the depth of the top of cement.
(2) Given:
Bulk volume¿ 1.00 cuft / ft , S.G. ¿ 3.14 , water-cement ratio ¿ 5.01 gal/ sx ; calculate (a)
absolute volume (b) slurry weight (c) slurry yield (d) percent mix
Temperature Survey to Locate Top of Cement
When cement sets it gives off its heat of hydration. This raises the temperature of the adjacent
fluid so that when temperature survey is performed there is an abnormal increase in temperature
starting from the top of cement.

Temperature

Depth
Probable Top of

25
It is conducted after the initial setting of cement. This survey can also be used to detect leaks or
channeling. Gamma-ray logs can also be used.
Cement Bond Log
This is used to evaluate the integrity of cement already set. Squeeze cementing is used to correct
bad primary cementing jobs.
0 10 20 40

Bad Job

Stage Cementing
Stage cementing is necessary in the formation that is weak. Heavy cement will part the
formation. The multi-stage cementing tool is used to cement holes through weak formation or
very deep holes.
Advantages:
(1) Less cement contamination
(2) Minimizes loss circulation which may result from excessive hydrostatic pressure.
In a two-stage, cementing is carried out in two stages; bottom first and top second.
Open Hole Plugback Cementing
This is done for any of the following reasons:
1. Abandonment. Dictated by state legislation

26
 Abandoned hole

Pay

2. Whipstocking: To plug off part of a hole containing a stubborn fish. Cement creates a
base for deviation.

Side track

Fish

Pay

3. Lost Circulation: Cement is placed opposite a zone of lost circulation to stop loss of fluid
to the formation.

Lost circulation zone

(thief zone)

4. Shutting off water: Used when there is excessive water production (water cutting)

27
 Pump Pressure to Land Slurry
This is the difference in hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the annulus and the pipe.
Ph = 0.052 x slurry density x height of column of slurry
If there are several fluids in the wellbore then this calculation must be made for each, and the
hydrostatic pressure for all the fluid totaled.
Plug Balancing
For cement plugs to be balanced, the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus and in the work
string are equal at the time of placement. This prevents u-tubing and prevents cement
contamination thus producing a strong cement bond.
In practice, the cement is usually slightly under displaced from the balanced point so that
when the pipe is pulled the two columns could balance.

Slight
underdisplacement

Desired

Plug Balancing Calculations

Volume of cement Vcmt = L x Ch
where Ch = capacity of open hole, cuft/ft
L = length of column of cement in open hole

28
 V cmt
L=
C an+C tbg
Where
Can= capacity of annulus between tubing or drill pipe and openhole, cuft/ft.
Ctbg= tubing capacity or drillpipe capacity, cuft/ft
Volume of spacer behind the cement is
V sp 1 C tbg
V sp2 =
C an
Where
Vsp2 = volume of spacer ahead of the cement.
Displacement volume is

V d =Ctbg×[ D−( Lcmt + Lsp 2) ]

Where
D = depth of work string (bottom of cement plug), ft.
V sp 2
Lsp 2 =
C tbg
Lsp2 = length of spacer behind, ft.
Assignment
Given the information:
Open hole 8 -1/2in, hole capacity = 0.3941cuft/ft, drillpipe = 4in, 14 Ib/ft, pipe capacity =
0.01084cuft/ft, annular capacity = 0.0546bbl/ft. use 50% washout factor. Carry out the necessary
calculations for the job.
(Answers: volume of cement = 197.1cuft, length of balanced plug = 536.1ft, Vsp2 = 2bbl, Vd =
110.25bbl)
Read up squeeze cementing calculations
WELL CONTROL
Well control means the prevention of formation fluid from entering the wellbore. There
are two types of well control procedures. These are
1. Primary control, and
2. Secondary control.

29
The entry of formation fluid into wellbore is known as a kick. A kick occurs because the pressure
exerted by the column of drilling fluid (hydrostatic pressure) is not great enough to overcome the
pressure exerted by the fluids in the formation drilled (formation pressure). If prompt action is
not taken to control the kick or kill the well, a blowout will occur.
A blowout is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids into the atmosphere. To prevent a
threatening blowout in drilling by taking suitable preventive measures or in production
operations to stop a well from producing oil and gas so that reconditioning of the well can
proceed is referred to as well killing.
Causes of Kick
1. Insufficient mud density due to
(a) Improper mixing of mud caused by (i) improper hydration of bentonite and other
chemicals (ii) less than required proportion (iii) dirty tanks.
(b) Thermal expansion
(c) Improper conditioning of mud; poor solid control, excessive dilution.
(d) Inaccurate measurement of mud density
(e) Hitting a gas pocket due to faulty geological information.
2. Insufficient mud height due to
(a) Lost circulation
(b) Failure to keep the hole full when run in hole and pulled out of hole
(c) Swabbing which is an indirect kick
(d) Failure to have proper differential fill cementing
(e) Hitting a gas pocket.
Primary Control
Primary control involves the proper use of mud to prevent kicking. However, should primary
control fail and fluid enters into the wellbore, there is the requirement to allow influx to
discharge at the surface in a controlled manner. At this time, it is advised that only the crucial
engineers remain on the rig.
Secondary Control
Secondary control involves the use of mechanical devices to control the well when primary
control fails. The devices used are the blowout preventers hydraulic control units, called Koomey
units.

Operational Guidelines to Maintenance of Primary Control

1. Ensure maintenance of the correct mud weight. Operational factors affecting mud density
are
(a) Gas cutting, reduces mud density
(b) Solids control, excessive removal of colloidal particles by desanders
(c) Excessive dilution

30
 (d) Poor monitoring.
2. Maintenance of sufficient height of mud. Keep the hole while pulling out of hole.
Precautions While Drilling
Always keep hole full of mud. Analyze fluid regularly to ensure that the desired mud properties
are maintained. Moreso, replacement of part of mud by lighter fluid may be prevalent. Change of
mud volume in the circulating system can be identified by the following indicators:
1. High and low alarms or the pit level recorders to record the level of fluid returning to
surface.
2. Mud volume totalizers (loss or gain indicators)
3. Visual observation by derrickman, of the loss in the Possom Belly tanks especially on
land rigs (invisible on offshore)
4. Treat drilling breaks appropriately.
Precautions Before Tripping
Ensure that the well is dead (absolute control) before tripping. To achieve this
a. Circulate bottoms up to ensure that no influx has entered the well. Returns should be
monitored at surface for hydrocarbons or possibly chloride ions.
b. Make a flow check by stopping circulation and observing the annular pressure.
c. Make a wet trip by displacing a heavy slug of fluid into drill string. Then tripping can
start.
Precautions While Tripping
Hole should be filled with volume of fluid required to compensate for the fluid displacement
of the pipe removed from the hole. The Possom Belly tanks allow changes in hole volume to
be read. Finally, watch out for swabbing.
Drilling Breaks
A drilling break is a sudden increase in drilling rate. It frequently signifies the pressure of
abnormally pressured zone, i.e., geopressure zone. It is sound practice to stop drilling
immediately. Raise the Kelly above BOP and make a flow check.
Swabbing
Swabbing is a temporary operation used to determine whether or not a well can be mae to
flow. It may also occur accidentally, i.e., when flow is not desirable. The following factors
will affect the extent to which swabbing will occur:
i. The clearance between hole and drill string
ii. Speed with which the pipe is being pulled
iii. Rheological properties of the mud.
Swabbing can be detected when well fails to take anticipated volume of mud after tripping.

31
Identification and Detection of an Influx
The detection can be divided into two parts:
a. Observation within the circulatory system: crude is noticed as film, gas as bubbles in
mud, formation water leading to chloride ion concentration increase and noticeable mud
dilution.
b. Volumetric increase in the level of fluid either in the mud tank or Possom Belly tank, and
totalizers, pit gauge recorders.

32
33
34
 MWD (Measurement While Drilling)
A drilling rig is used to create borehole or wells (also called a wellbore) in the earth's sub-
surface, for example in order to extract natural resources such as gas or oil. During such drilling,
data is acquired from the drilling rig sensors for a range of purposes such as: decision-support to
monitor and manage the smooth operation of drilling; to make detailed records (or well log) of
the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole; to generate operations statistics and
performance benchmarks such that improvements can be identified, and to provide well planners
with accurate historical operations-performance data with which to perform statistical risk
analysis for future well operations. The terms Measurement While Drilling (MWD), and
Logging While Drilling (LWD) are not used consistently throughout the industry. Although,
these terms are related, within the context of this section, the term MWD refers to directional-
drilling measurements, e.g., for decision support for the smooth operation of the drilling, while
LWD refers to measurements concerning the geological formation made while drilling.

MWD typically concerns measurement taken of the wellbore (the hole) inclination from vertical,
and also magnetic direction from north. Using basic trigonometry, a three-dimensional plot of
the path of the well can be produced. Essentially, a MWD Operator measures the trajectory of
the hole as it is drilled (for example, data updates arrive and are processed every few seconds or
faster). This information is then used to drill in a pre-planned direction into the formation which
contains the oil, gas, water or condensate. Additional measurements can also be taken of natural
gamma ray emissions from the rock; this helps broadly to determine what type of rock formation
is being drilled, which in turn helps confirm the real-time location of the wellbore in relation to
the presence of different types of known formations (by comparison with existing seismic data).

Density and porosity, rock fluid pressures and other measurements are taken, some using
radioactive sources, some using sound, some using electricity, etc.; this can then be used to
calculate how freely oil and other fluids can flow through the formation, as well as the volume of
hydrocarbons present in the rock and, with other data, the value of the whole reservoir and
reservoir reserves.

An MWD downhole tool is also "high-sided" with the bottom hole drilling assembly, enabling
the wellbore to be steered in a chosen direction in 3D space known as directional drilling.
Directional drillers rely on receiving accurate, quality tested data from the MWD Operator to
allow them to keep the well safely on the planned trajectory.

Directional survey measurements are taken by three orthogonally mounted accelerometers to

measure inclination, and three orthogonally mounted magnetometers which measure direction
(azimuth). Gyroscopic tools may be used to measure Azimuth where the survey is measured in a
location with disruptive external magnetic influences, inside "casing", for example, where the
hole is lined with steel tubulars (tubes). These sensors, as well as any additional sensors to
measure rock formation density, porosity, pressure or other data, are connected, physically and
digitally, to a logic unit which converts the information into binary digits which are then
transmitted to surface using "mud pulse telemetry" (MPT, a binary coding transmission system
used with fluids, such as, combinatorial, Manchester encoding, split-phase, among others).

35
This is done by using a downhole "pulser" unit which varies the drilling fluid (mud) pressure
inside the drillstring according to the chosen MPT: these pressure fluctuations are decoded and
displayed on the surface system computers as wave-forms; voltage outputs from the sensors (raw
data); specific measurements of gravity or directions from magnetic north, or in other forms,
such as sound waves, nuclear wave-forms, etc.

Surface (mud) pressure transducers measure these pressure fluctuations (pulses) and pass an
analogue voltage signal to surface computers which digitize the signal. Disruptive frequencies
are filtered out and the signal is decoded back into its original data form. For example, a pressure
fluctuation of 20psi (or less) can be “picked out” of a total mud system pressure of 3,500psi or
more.

Downhole electrical and mechanical power is provided by downhole turbine systems, which use
the energy of the “mud” flow, battery units (lithium), or a combination of both.

Directional information
MWD tools are generally capable of taking directional surveys in real time. The tool uses
accelerometers and magnetometers to measure the inclination and azimuth of the wellbore at that
location, and they then transmit that information to the surface. With a series of surveys;
measurements of inclination, azimuth, and tool face, at appropriate intervals (anywhere from
every 30 ft (i.e., 10m) to every 500 ft), the location of the wellbore can be calculated.

By itself, this information allows operators to prove that their well does not cross into areas that
they are not authorized to drill. However, due to the cost of MWD systems, they are not
generally used on wells intended to be vertical. Instead, the wells are surveyed after drilling
through the use of multi-shot surveying tools lowered into the drillstring on slickline or wireline.

The primary use of real-time surveys is in directional drilling. For the directional driller to steer
the well towards a target zone, he must know where the well is going, and what the effects of his
steering efforts are.

MWD tools also generally provide toolface measurements to aid in directional drilling using
downhole mud motors with bent subs or bent housings.

Drilling mechanics information

MWD tools can also provide information about the conditions at the drill bit. This may include:

Rotational speed of the drillstring

Smoothness of that rotation
Type and severity of any vibration downhole
Downhole temperature
Torque and weight on bit, measured near the drill bit
Mud flow volume

36
Mud Motors
Use of this information can allow the operator to drill the well more efficiently, and to ensure
that the MWD tool and any other downhole tools, such as a mud motor, rotary steerable systems,
and LWD tools, are operated within their technical specifications to prevent tool failure. This
information is also valuable to Geologists responsible for the well information about the
formation which is being drilled.

Formation properties
Many MWD tools, either on their own, or in conjunction with separate LWD tools, can take
measurements of formation properties. At the surface, these measurements are assembled into a
log, similar to one obtained by wireline logging.
LWD tools are able to measure a suite of geological characteristics including density, porosity,
resistivity, acoustic-caliper, inclination at the drill bit (NBI), magnetic resonance and formation
pressure.

The MWD tool allows these measurements to be taken and evaluated while the well is being
drilled. This makes it possible to perform geosteering, or directional drilling based on measured
formation properties, rather than simply drilling into a preset target.

Most MWD tools contain an internal gamma ray sensor to measure natural gamma ray values.
This is because these sensors are compact, inexpensive, reliable, and can take measurements
through unmodified drill collars. Other measurements often require separate LWD tools, which
communicate with the MWD tools downhole through internal wires.

Measurement while drilling can be cost-effective in exploration wells, particularly in areas of the
Gulf of Mexico where wells are drilled in areas of salt diapirs. The resistivity log will detect
penetration into salt, and early detection prevents salt damage to bentonite drilling mud.

Roughneck
In oil fields Roughneck is a term for a person whose occupation is hard-manual labor. The term
applies across a number of industries, but is most commonly associated with the workers on a
drilling rig. The ideal of the hard-working, tough roughneck has been adopted by several sports
teams who use the phrase as part of their name or logo.
A roughneck's duties can include anything involved with connecting pipe down the well bore, as
well as general work around a rig. The crew of a land-based oil rig can be further divided into
several positions:

Toolpusher
The highest position at the drilling location, responsible for every crew. A toolpusher may stay
on location for a few days or weeks at a time during operations, whereas individual drilling
crews work only eight- or 12-hour shifts or "tours" (pronounced as "towers").

37
Driller
The head of an individual crew, responsible for controlling a rig's machinery during drilling, as
well as most other rig operations.

Derrickhand (derrick-man)
Responsible for the drilling mud, the mud pits where drilling fluids are circulated around the
system, and the mud pumps, as well as being the hand up in the derrick manipulating stands into
and out of the fingers during tripping operations. Acting as a lead for the driller who is mostly
restricted to the rig floor. In many cases the derrickman is exclusively responsible for work in the
derrick during "tripping" pipe in and out of the hole.
Pit Watcher: Responsible for the drilling mud, the mud pits, and associated pumping/circulating
of mud and various fluids through the pits, downhole and returning through the pits.

Motorman (motorhand)
Responsible for maintenance of various engines, water pumps, water lines, steam lines, boilers
and various other machinery incorporated into the rig on a daily basis. Also responsible for
movement of equipment on site. On a four-man drilling crew the motorman is also the
chainhand.
Boilerman
Though this position is now obsolete, before the mid-20th century, when most rigs were steam-
powered, the boilerman was responsible for the boilers. The boilerman also functioned as the
laundryman, steam-cleaning the last crew's greasy work clothes in the "blow barrel" and then
hanging them up to dry in the warm air near the boilers.

Chainhand (Floorhand)
This position is given to a floorhand that can also throw the chain that helps spin up the
connections, but as of 2013 with some tasks being automated on the drilling rigs is pretty much
just another floorhand that watches out for the worm and does not get as filthy.
Leadhand/Floorhand ("worm"): Usually the lowest member of the drilling crew, those in this
position are often nicknamed "worm", because this hand has the dirtiest and most physically
demanding position. The floorhand works primarily on the rig floor where he is the one actually
operating the tongs, iron roughneck, tugger, and catwalk, and doing pretty much any other job
which is asked of him.

Roustabout (leasehand)
On bigger rigs and offshore rigs, a roustabout does most of the painting and cleaning so
roughnecks can take care of other work.

38
 Drilling fluids
Drilling fluids are liquid or gas mixtures used for efficient and safe drilling of a hole. A good
drilling fluid is simple and contains a minimum number of additives. This allows easier
maintenance and control of properties. Drilling fluid additives are materials added to drilling
fluids to enhance their performance.

Drilling fluid = Liquid or gas + Additive

Functions of Drilling Fluids

The main functions of drilling fluids include:
1. Balance formation pressure (pressure control)
2. Carry cuttings and sloughings to the surface
3. Clean beneath the bit
4. Cool and lubricate bit and drill string
5. Seal permeable formations
6. Stabilize borehole
7. Corrosion control
In addition to these functions, there are several other functions with which the drilling fluid
should not interfere:
1. Formation evaluation
2. Completion operations
3. Production operations

Types of Drilling Fluids

Many types of drilling fluids are in use. Some wells require that different types be used at
different parts in the hole, or that some types be used in combination with others. The various
types of fluids generally fall into a few broad categories:

Air
Compressed air is pumped either down the bore hole's annular space or down the drill string
itself.

Air/water
This a mixture of compressed air and water to increase viscosity, flush the hole, provide more
cooling, and/or to control dust.

Air/polymer
A specially formulated chemical, most often referred to as a type of polymer, is added to the
water and air mixture to create specific conditions. A foaming agent is a good example of a
polymer.

Water
Water by itself is sometimes used. In offshore drilling sea water is typically used while drilling
the top section of the hole.

Water-based mud (WBM)

39
Most basic water-based mud systems begin with water, then clays and other chemicals are
incorporated into the water to create a homogeneous blend resembling something between
chocolate milk and a malt (depending on viscosity). The is usually a combination of native clays
that are suspended in the fluid while drilling, or specific types of clay that are processed and sold
as additives for the WBM system. The most common of these is bentonite, frequently referred to
in the oilfield as "gel". Gel likely makes reference to the fact that while the fluid is being
pumped, it can be very thin and free-flowing (like chocolate milk), though when pumping is
stopped, the static fluid builds a "gel" structure that resists flow. When an adequate pumping
force is applied to "break the gel", flow resumes and the fluid returns to its previously free-
flowing state. Many other chemicals (e.g. potassium formate) are added to a WBM system to
achieve various effects, including: viscosity control, shale stability, enhance drilling rate of
penetration, cooling and lubricating of equipment.

Oil-based mud (OBM)

Oil-based mud is a mud where the base fluid is a petroleum product such as diesel fuel
(continuous phase) and water as a contaminant (and not an element in the design of the mud).
Oil-based muds are used for many reasons, including increased lubricity, enhanced shale
inhibition, and greater cleaning abilities with less viscosity. Oil-based muds also withstand
greater heat without breaking down. The use of oil-based muds has special considerations,
including cost, environmental considerations such as disposal of cuttings in an appropriate place,
and the exploratory disadvantages of using oil-based mud, especially in wildcat wells. Using an
oil-based mud interferes with the geochemical analysis of cuttings and cores and with the
determination of API gravity because the base fluid cannot be distinguished from oil returned
from the formation.
Synthetic-based fluid (SBM) (Otherwise known as Low Toxicity Oil Based Mud or LTOBM):
Synthetic-based fluid is a mud where the base fluid is a synthetic oil. This is most often used on
offshore rigs because it has the properties of an oil-based mud, but the toxicity of the fluid fumes
are much less than an oil-based fluid. This is important when men work with the fluid in an
enclosed space such as an offshore drilling rig. Synthetic-based fluid poses the same
environmental and analysis problems as oil-based fluid.

Ester-based drilling Mud

The use of ester-based mud systems, instead of oil-based mud, helped drill difficult shales and
high-angle well sections, including one of the world's longest extended reach wells. The ester-
based muds are marginally cheaper than of oil-based muds and more environmentally friendly.
They are more stable under high temperature than oil-based mud.

Mud Circulation Process

On a drilling rig, mud is pumped from the mud pits through the drill string where it sprays out of
nozzles on the drill bit, cleaning and cooling the drill bit in the process. The mud then carries the
crushed or cut rock ("cuttings") up the annular space ("annulus") between the drill string and the
sides of the hole being drilled, up through the surface casing, where it emerges back at the
surface. Cuttings are then filtered out with either a shale shaker, or the newer shale conveyor
technology, and the mud returns to the mud pits. The mud pits let the drilled "fines" settle; the
pits are also where the fluid is treated by adding chemicals and other substances.
Mud Pit

40
The returning mud can contain natural gases or other flammable materials which will collect in
and around the shale shaker / conveyor area or in other work areas. Because of the risk of a fire
or an explosion if they ignite, special monitoring sensors and explosion-proof certified
equipment is commonly installed, and workers are advised to take safety precautions. The mud is
then pumped back down the hole and further re-circulated. After testing, the mud is treated
periodically in the mud pits to ensure properties which optimize and improve drilling efficiency,
borehole stability, and other requirements listed below.

Remove cuttings from well

Drilling fluid carries the rock excavated by the drill bit up to the surface. Its ability to do so
depends on cutting size, shape, and density, and speed of fluid traveling up the well (annular
velocity). These considerations are analogous to the ability of a stream to carry sediment; large
sand grains in a slow-moving stream settle to the stream bed, while small sand grains in a fast-
moving stream are carried along with the water. The mud viscosity is another important property,
as cuttings will settle to the bottom of the well if the viscosity is too low.

Suspend and release cuttings

Must suspend drill cuttings, weight materials and additives under a wide range of conditions.
Drill cuttings that settle can cause bridges and fill, which can cause stuck-pipe and lost
circulation.
Weight material that settles is referred to as sag, this causes a wide variation in the density of
well fluid, this more frequently occurs in high angle and hot wells.
High concentrations of drill solids are detrimental to:
Drilling efficiency (it causes increased mud weight and viscosity, which in turn increases
maintenance costs and increased dilution)
Rate of Penetration (ROP) (increases horsepower required to circulate)
Mud properties that are suspended must be balanced with properties in cutting removal by solids
control equipment.
For effective solids controls, drill solids must be removed from mud on the 1st circulation from
the well. If re-circulated, cuttings break into smaller pieces and are more difficult to remove.
Conduct a test to compare the sand content of mud at flow line and suction pit (to determine
whether cuttings are being removed).

Control formation pressures

If formation pressure increases, mud density should also be increased to balance pressure and
keep the wellbore stable. The most common weighting material is barite. Unbalanced formation
pressures will cause an unexpected influx (also known as a kick) of formation fluids in the
wellbore possibly leading to a blowout from pressured formation fluids.

Hydrostatic pressure = density of drilling fluid * true vertical depth * 0.052

If hydrostatic pressure is greater than or equal to formation pressure, formation fluid will not
flow into the wellbore.
Well control means no uncontrollable flow of formation fluids into the wellbore.
Hydrostatic pressure also controls the stresses caused by tectonic forces; these may make
wellbores unstable even when formation fluid pressure is balanced.

41
If formation pressure is subnormal, air, gas, mist, stiff foam, or low density mud (oil base) can be
used.
In practice, mud density should be limited to the minimum necessary for well control and
wellbore stability. If too great, it may fracture the formation.

Seal permeable formations

Mud column pressure must exceed formation pressure, in this condition mud filtrate invades the
formation, and a filter cake of mud is deposited on the wellbore wall.
Mud is designed to deposit thin, low permeability filter cake to limit the invasion.
Problems occur if a thick filter cake is formed; tight hole conditions, poor log quality, stuck pipe,
lost circulation and formation damage.
In highly permeable formations with large bore throats, whole mud may invade the formation,
depending on mud solids size;
Use bridging agents to block large opening, then mud solids can form seal.
For effectiveness, bridging agents must be over the half size of pore spaces / fractures.
Bridging agents (e.g. calcium carbonate, ground cellulose).
Depending on the mud system in use, a number of additives can improve the filter cake (e.g.
bentonite, natural & synthetic polymer, asphalt and gilsonite).

Maintain wellbore stability

Chemical composition and mud properties must combine to provide a stable wellbore. Weight of
the mud must be within the necessary range to balance the mechanical forces.
Wellbore instability = sloughing formations, which can cause tight hole conditions, bridges and
fill on trips (same symptoms indicate hole cleaning problems).
Wellbore stability = hole maintains size and cylindrical shape.
If the hole is enlarged, it becomes weak and difficult to stabilize, resulting in problems such as
low annular velocities, poor hole cleaning, solids loading and poor formation evaluation
In sand and sandstones formations, hole enlargement can be accomplished by mechanical actions
(hydraulic forces & nozzles velocities). Formation damage is reduced by conservative hydraulics
system. A good quality filter cake containing bentonite is known to limit bore hole enlargement.
In shales, mud weight is usually sufficient to balance formation stress, as these wells are usually
stable. With water base mud, chemical differences can cause interactions between mud & shale
that lead to softening of the native rock. Highly fractured, dry, brittle shales can be extremely
unstable (leading to mechanical problems).
Various chemical inhibitors can control mud / shale interactions (calcium, potassium, salt,
polymers, asphalt, glycols and oil – best for water sensitive formations)
Oil (and synthetic oil) based drilling fluids are used to drill most water sensitive Shales in areas
with difficult drilling conditions.
To add inhibition, emulsified brine phase (calcium chloride) drilling fluids are used to reduce
water activity and creates osmotic forces to prevent adsorption of water by shales.

Minimizing formation damage

Skin damage or any reduction in natural formation porosity and permeability (washout)
constitutes formation damage
skin damage is the accumulation of residuals on the perforations and that causes a pressure drop
through them .

42
Mud or drill solids invade the formation matrix, reducing porosity and causing skin effect
Swelling of formation clays within the reservoir, reduced permeability
Precipitation of solids due to mixing of mud filtrate and formations fluids resulting in the
precipitation of insoluble salts
Mud filtrate and formation fluids form an emulsion, reducing reservoir porosity
Specially designed drill-in fluids or workover and completion fluids, minimize formation
damage.

Cool, lubricate, and support the bit and drilling assembly

Heat is generated from mechanical and hydraulic forces at the bit and when the drill string
rotates and rubs against casing and wellbore.
Cool and transfer heat away from source and lower to temperature than bottom hole.
If not, the bit, drill string and mud motors would fail more rapidly.
Lubrication based on the coefficient of friction.("Coefficient of friction" is how much friction on
side of wellbore and collar size or drill pipe size to pull stuck pipe) Oil- and synthetic-based mud
generally lubricate better than water-based mud (but the latter can be improved by the addition of
lubricants).
Amount of lubrication provided by drilling fluid depends on type & quantity of drill solids and
weight materials + chemical composition of system.
Poor lubrication causes high torque and drag, heat checking of the drill string, but these problems
are also caused by key seating, poor hole cleaning and incorrect bottom hole assemblies design.
The main functions of a drilling mud can be summarized as follows:

Remove cuttings from well

Drilling fluid carries the rock excavated by the drill bit up to the surface. Its ability to do so
depends on cutting size, shape, and density, and speed of fluid traveling up the well (annular
velocity). These considerations are analogous to the ability of a stream to carry sediment; large
sand grains in a slow-moving stream settle to the stream bed, while small sand grains in a fast-
moving stream are carried along with the water. The mud viscosity is another important property,
as cuttings will settle to the bottom of the well if the viscosity is too low.

Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit

Hydraulic energy provides power to mud motor for bit rotation and for MWD (measurement
while drilling) and LWD (logging while drilling) tools. Available mud pump horsepower is
limited to:

(i) Pump horsepower

(ii) Pressure loss inside drillstring
(iii) Maximum allowable surface pressure
(iv) Optimum flow rate

Drill string pressure loses are higher in fluids with higher densities, plastic viscosities and solids.
Low solids, shear thinning drilling fluids such as polymer fluids, more efficient in transmiting
hydraulic energy.

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Mud Logging Activities
Mud logging is the analysis of mud samples from the wellbore.
Mud loggers examine cuttings for mineral composition, visual sign of hydrocarbons and
recorded mud logs of lithology, ROP, gas detection or geological parameters.
Wireline logging measure – electrical, sonic, nuclear and magnetic resonance.
Potential productive zone are isolated and performed formation testing and drill stem testing.
Mud helps to improve cutting transport for mud loggers to determine the depth of the cuttings
originated.
Oil-based mud, lubricants, asphalts will mask hydrocarbon indications.
So mud for drilling core is selected based on type of evaluation to be performed (many coring
operations specify a blend of mud with minimum of additives).
Control corrosion (in acceptable level)
Drill-string and casing in continuous contact with drilling fluid may cause a form of corrosion.
Dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide) cause serious corrosion problems;
Cause rapid, catastrophic failure.
May be deadly to humans after a short period of time.
Low pH (acidic) aggravates corrosion, so use corrosion coupons to monitor corrosion type, rates
and to tell correct chemical inhibitor is used in correct amount.
Mud aeration, foaming and other O2 trapped conditions cause corrosion damage in short period
time.
When drilling in high H2S, elevate the pH of the fluids and use sulfide scavenging chemical
(zinc).

Facilitate cementing and completion

Cementing is critical to effective zone and well completion.
During casing run, mud must remain fluid and minimize pressure surges so fracture induced lost
circulation does not occur.
Temperature of water used for cement must be within tolerance of cementers performing task,
usually 70 degrees, most notably in winter conditions.
Mud should have thin, slick filter cake, with minimal solids in filter cake, wellbore with minimal
cuttings, caving or bridges will prevent a good casing run to bottom. Circulate well bore until
clean.

Minimize impact on environment

Mud is, in varying degrees, toxic. It is also difficult and expensive to dispose of it in an
environmentally friendly manner.
Water based drilling fluid has very little toxicity, made from Water, Bentonite and Barite. There
are specific chemicals that can be used in water based drilling fluids that alone can be extremely
toxic, such as Hydrochloric Acid. However, when mixed into water based drilling fluids
Hydrochloric acid only decreases the pH of the water to a more manageable level. Caustic,
Anhydrous Lime, Soda Ash, Bentonite, Barite, Polymer are most common chemicals used in
water based drilling fluids. Oil Based mud and synthetic drilling fluids contain high levels of
Benzene, and other chemicals

Water Chemistry

44
A knowledge of the water chemistry of a mud is essential in diagnosing and treating a mud
problem. A mud is basically a solids dispersion in water with organic and inorganic chemical
compounds added to impart specific properties to the suspension. Clay solids are dominant in
their influence on the physical properties of a mud, and the chemical environment to which they
are exposed is critical to their performance. Other than the indirect influence on the physical
properties of a mud, water chemistry is also important to corrosion control, effects on formation
evaluation and formation damage, and detection of salt water influx. The water chemistry tests
normally made are:
1. pH and alkalinity
2. Total hardness, or calcium and magnesium
3. Chlorides

pH and Alkalinity
The pH of a solution is a measure of its hydrogen ion concentration. At each hydrogen ion (H+)
concentration, there is an equilibrium concentration of hydroxyl (OH-) ions. By measuring the
hydrogen ion concentration, we are, in effect, also measuring the hydroxyl ion concentration. In
pure water, the H+ and OH- concentrations are the same. This is the neutral point, or a pH of 7.
When acid is added to water, the pH decreases on a scale from 7 to 0. When a base (caustic) is
added to water, the pH increases on a scale from 7 to 14. The pH scale is logarithmic. This
means the hydrogen or hydroxyl ion concentration changes by a factor of ten for each unit
change in pH. In other words, a solution at pH 10 has 10 times the hydroxyl ion concentration of
a solution at pH 9.
The additional hydroxyl ions required to raise the pH of water from 7 to 9.5 is the same as is
required to raise the pH from 9.5 to 9.8. This shows that the reserve of hydroxyl ions is very
small below a pH of 9.5. The reserve is subject to rapid change if anything that will react with
hydroxyl ions, such as acid gas or clay solids, is introduced into the mud. Maintaining an
adequate pH in a mud is important for a number of reasons. 1. Corrosion rates are suppressed at a
pH above 10. 2. Hydroxyl ions neutralize the H+ ions from H2S and prevent hydrogen
embrittlement. A pH above 11 should be maintained if H2S is anticipated. 3. Organic additives
such as lignite and lignosulfonate require a pH above 9.5 in order to function effectively. 4. The
rate of thermal degradation of lignosulfonate is reduced at a pH above 10. 5. Magnesium is
precipitated from sea water at pH 10. 6. Calcium solubility is reduced as pH is increased.

Classification of drilling fluids

World Oil’s annual classification of fluid systems lists the following categories of drilling fluids,
among others:
• Freshwater systems
• Saltwater systems
• Oil- or synthetic-based systems
• Pneumatic (air, mist, foam, gas) “fluid” systems
Three key factors usually determine the type of fluid selected for a specific well:
• Cost
• Technical performance

45
 • Environmental impact
Water-based fluids (WBFs) are the most widely used systems, and are considered less expensive
than oil-based fluids (OBFs) or synthetic-based fluids (SBFs). The OBFs and SBFs—also known
as invert-emulsion systems—have an oil or synthetic base fluid as the continuous (or external)
phase, and brine as the internal phase. Invert-emulsion systems have a higher cost per unit than
most water-based fluids, so they often are selected when well conditions call for reliable shale
inhibition and/or excellent lubricity. Water-based systems and invert-emulsion systems can be
formulated to tolerate relatively high downhole temperatures. Pneumatic systems most
commonly are implemented in areas where formation pressures are relatively low and the risk of
lost circulation or formation damage is relatively high. The use of these systems requires
specialized pressure-management equipment to help prevent the development of hazardous
conditions when hydrocarbons are encountered.
Water-based fluids
Water-based fluids (WBFs) are used to drill approximately 80% of all wells. The base fluid may
be fresh water, seawater, brine, saturated brine, or a formate brine. The type of fluid selected
depends on anticipated well conditions or on the specific interval of the well being drilled. For
example, the surface interval typically is drilled with a low-density water- or seawater-based
mud that contains few commercial additives. These systems incorporate natural clays in the
course of the drilling operation. Some commercial bentonite or attapulgite also may be added to
aid in fluid-loss control and to enhance hole-cleaning effectiveness. After surface casing is set
and cemented, the operator often continues drilling with a WBF unless well conditions require
displacing to an oil- or synthetic-based system.
Low solids mud – These muds contain less than 3–6% solids by volume and weight less than 9.5
lbs/gal. Most muds of this type are water-based with varying quantities of bentonite and a
polymer.
Emulsions – The two types used are oil in water (oil emulsion muds) and water in oil (invert oil
emulsion muds).

WBFs fall into two broad categories: non-dispersed and dispersed.

Non-dispersed systems
Simple gel-and-water systems used for tophole drilling are non-dispersed, as are many of the
advanced polymer systems that contain little or no bentonite. The natural clays that are
incorporated into non-dispersed systems are managed through dilution, encapsulation, and/or
flocculation. A properly designed solids-control system can be used to remove fine solids from
the mud system and help maintain drilling efficiency. The low-solids, non-dispersed (LSND)
polymer systems rely on high- and low-molecular-weight long-chain polymers to provide
viscosity and fluid-loss control. Low-colloidal solids are encapsulated and flocculated for more
efficient removal at the surface, which in turn decreases dilution requirements. Specially
developed high-temperature polymers are available to help overcome gelation issues that might
occur on high-pressure, high-temperature (HP/HT) wells.[3] With proper treatment, some LSND
systems can be weighted to 17.0 to 18.0 ppg and run at 350°F and higher.

46
Dispersed systems
Dispersed systems are treated with chemical dispersants that are designed to deflocculate clay
particles to allow improved rheology control in higher-density muds. Widely used dispersants
include lignosulfonates, lignitic additives, and tannins. Dispersed systems typically require
additions of caustic soda (NaOH) to maintain a pH level of 10.0 to 11.0. Dispersing a system can
increase its tolerance for solids, making it possible to weight up to 20.0 ppg. The commonly used
lignosulfonate system relies on relatively inexpensive additives and is familiar to most operator
and rig personnel. Additional commonly used dispersed muds include lime and other cationic
systems. A solids-laden dispersed system also can decrease the rate of penetration significantly
and contribute to hole erosion.
Saltwater drilling fluids
Saltwater drilling fluids often are used for shale inhibition and for drilling salt formations. They
also are known to inhibit the formation of ice-like hydrates that can accumulate around subsea
wellheads and well-control equipment, blocking lines and impeding critical operations. Solids-
free and low-solids systems can be formulated with high-density brines, such as:
• Calcium chloride
• Calcium bromide
• Zinc bromide
• Potassium and cesium formate
Polymer drilling fluids
Polymer drilling fluids are used to drill reactive formations where the requirement for shale
inhibition is significant. Shale inhibitors frequently used are salts, glycols and amines, all of
which are incompatible with the use of bentonite. These systems typically derive their viscosity
profile from polymers such as xanthan gum and fluid loss control from starch or cellulose
derivatives. Potassium chloride is an inexpensive and highly effective shale inhibitor which is
widely used as the base brine for polymer drilling fluids in many parts of the world. Glycol and
amine-based inhibitors can be added to further enhance the inhibitive properties of these fluids.
Drill-in fluids
Drilling into a pay zone with a conventional fluid can introduce a host of previously undefined
risks, all of which diminish reservoir connectivity with the wellbore or reduce formation
permeability. This is particularly true in horizontal wells, where the pay zone can be exposed to
the drilling fluid over a long interval. Selecting the most suitable fluid system for drilling into the
pay zone requires a thorough understanding of the reservoir. Using data generated by lab testing
on core plugs from carefully selected pay zone cores, a reservoir-fluid-sensitivity study should be
conducted to determine the morphological and mineralogical composition of the reservoir rock.
Natural reservoir fluids should be analyzed to establish their chemical makeup. The degree of
damage that could be caused by anticipated problems can be modeled, as can the effectiveness of
possible solutions for mitigating the risks.
A drill-in fluid (DIF) is a clean fluid that is designed to cause little or no loss of the natural
permeability of the pay zone, and to provide superior hole cleaning and easy cleanup. DIFs can
be:
• Water-based

47
 • Brine-based
• Oil-based
• Synthetic-based
In addition to being safe and economical for the application, a DIF should be compatible with the
reservoir’s native fluids to avoid causing precipitation of salts or production of emulsions. A
suitable nondamaging fluid should establish a filter cake on the face of the formation, but should
not penetrate too far into the formation pore pattern. The fluid filtrate should inhibit or prevent
swelling of reactive clay particles within the pore throats.
Formation damage commonly is caused by:
• Pay zone invasion and plugging by fine particles
• Formation clay swelling
• Commingling of incompatible fluids
• Movement of dislodged formation pore-filling particles
• Changes in reservoir-rock wettability
• Formation of emulsions or water blocks
Once a damage mechanism has diminished the permeability of a reservoir, it seldom is possible
to restore the reservoir to its original condition.
Oil-based fluids
Oil-based systems were developed and introduced in the 1960s to help address several drilling
problems:
• Formation clays that react, swell, or slough after exposure to WBFs
• Increasing downhole temperatures
• Contaminants
• Stuck pipe and torque and drag
Oil-based fluids (OBFs) in use today are formulated with diesel, mineral oil, or low-toxicity
linear olefins and paraffins.
Barite is used to increase system density, and specially-treated organophilic bentonite is the
primary viscosifier in most oil-based systems. The emulsified water phase also contributes to
fluid viscosity. Organophilic lignitic, asphaltic and polymeric materials are added to help control
HP/HT (High pressure/High temperature) fluid loss. Oil-wetting is essential for ensuring that
particulate materials remain in suspension. The surfactants used for oil-wetting also can work as
thinners. Oil-based systems usually contain lime to maintain an elevated pH, resist adverse
effects of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) gases, and enhance emulsion
stability.
Shale inhibition is one of the key benefits of using an oil-based system. The high-salinity water
phase helps to prevent shales from hydrating, swelling, and sloughing into the wellbore. Most
conventional oil-based mud (OBM) systems are formulated with calcium chloride brine, which
appears to offer the best inhibition properties for most shales.

48
The ratio of the oil percentage to the water percentage in the liquid phase of an oil-based system
is called its oil/water ratio. Oil-based systems generally function well with an oil/water ratio in
the range from 65/35 to 95/5, but the most commonly observed range is from 70/30 to 90/10.
The discharge of whole fluid or cuttings generated with OBFs is not permitted in most offshore-
drilling areas. All such drilled cuttings and waste fluids are processed, and shipped to shore for
disposal. Whereas many land wells continue to be drilled with diesel-based fluids, the
development of synthetic-based fluids (SBFs) in the late 1980s provided new options to offshore
operators who depend on the drilling performance of oil-based systems to help hold down overall
drilling costs but require more environmentally-friendly fluids. In some areas of the world such
as the North Sea, even these fluids are prohibited for offshore discharge.
Synthetic-based drilling fluids
Synthetic-based fluids were developed out of an increasing desire to reduce the environmental
impact of offshore drilling operations, but without sacrificing the cost-effectiveness of oil-based
systems.
Like traditional OBFs, SBFs can be used to:
• Maximize rate of penetrations (ROPs)
• Increase lubricity in directional and horizontal wells
• Minimize wellbore-stability problems, such as those caused by reactive shales
The performance advantages of these systems include:
• High, flat gel strengths that break with minimal initiation pressure
• Significantly lower equivalent circulating densities (ECDs)
• Reduced mud losses while drilling, running casing, and cementing
All-oil fluids
Normally, the high-salinity water phase of an invert-emulsion fluid helps to stabilize reactive
shale and prevent swelling. However, drilling fluids that are formulated with diesel- or synthetic-
based oil and no water phase are used to drill long shale intervals where the salinity of the
formation water is highly variable. By eliminating the water phase, the all-oil drilling fluid can
preserve shale stability throughout the interval.

Pneumatic-drilling fluids
Compressed air or gas can be used in place of drilling fluid to circulate cuttings out of the
wellbore. Pneumatic fluids fall into one of three categories:
• Air or gas only
• Aerated fluid
• Foam
Pneumatic-drilling operations require specialized equipment to help ensure safe management of
the cuttings and formation fluids that return to surface, as well as tanks, compressors, lines, and
valves associated with the gas used for drilling or aerating the drilling fluid or foam.

49
Except when drilling through high-pressure hydrocarbon- or fluid-laden formations that demand
a high-density fluid to prevent well-control issues, using pneumatic fluids offers several
advantages
• Little or no formation damage
• Rapid evaluation of cuttings for the presence of hydrocarbons
• Prevention of lost circulation
• Significantly higher penetration rates in hard-rock formations
Specialty products
Used to prevent or mitigate costly well-construction delays. Examples of these products include:
• Lost-circulation materials (LCM) that help to prevent or stop downhole mud losses into
weak or depleted formations.
• Spotting fluids that help to free stuck pipe.
• Lubricants for WBFs that ease torque and drag and facilitate drilling in high-angle
environments.
• Protective chemicals (e.g., scale and corrosion inhibitors, biocides, and H2S scavengers)
that prevent damage to tubulars and personnel.
Lost-circulation materials
Many types of LCM are available to address loss situations:
• Sized calcium carbonate
• Mica
• Fibrous material
• Cellophane
• Crushed walnut shells
The development of deformable graphitic materials that can continuously seal off fractures under
changing pressure conditions has allowed operators to cure some types of losses more
consistently. The application of these and similar materials to prevent or slow down the physical
destabilisation of the wellbore has proved successful. Hydratable and rapid-set lost-circulation
pills also are effective for curing severe and total losses. Some of these fast-acting pills can be
mixed and pumped with standard rig equipment, while others require special mixing and
pumping equipment.
Spotting fluids
Most spotting fluids are designed to penetrate and break up the wall cake around the drillstring.
A soak period usually is required to achieve results. Spotting fluids typically are formulated with
a base fluid and additives that can be incorporated into the active mud system with no adverse
effects after the pipe is freed and/or circulation resumes.
Lubricants
Lubricants might contain hydrocarbon-based materials, or can be formulated specifically for use
in areas where environmental regulations prohibit the use of an oil-based additive. Tiny glass or

50
polymer beads also can be added to the drilling fluid to increase lubricity. Lubricants are
designed to reduce friction in metal-to-metal contact, and to provide lubricity to the drillstring in
the open hole, especially in deviated wells, where the drillstring is likely to have continuous
contact with the wellbore.

Corrosion, inhibitors, biocides, and scavengers

Corrosion causes the majority of drillpipe loss and damages casing, mud pumps, bits, and
downhole tools. As downhole temperatures increase, corrosion also increases at a corresponding
rate, if the drillstring is not protected by chemical treatment. Abrasive materials in the drilling
fluid can accelerate corrosion by scouring away protective films. Corrosion, typically, is caused
by one or more factors that include:
• Exposure to oxygen, H2S, and/or CO2
• Bacterial activity in the drilling fluid
• High-temperature environments
• Contact with sulfur-containing materials
Drillstring coupons can be inserted between joints of drillpipe as the pipe is tripped in the hole.
When the pipe next is tripped out of the hole, the coupon can be examined for signs of pitting
and corrosion to determine whether the drillstring components are undergoing similar damage.
H2S and CO2 frequently are present in the same formation. Scavenger and inhibitor treatments
should be designed to counteract both gases if an influx occurs because of underbalanced drilling
conditions. Maintaining a high pH helps control H2S and CO2, and prevents bacteria from
souring the drilling fluid. Bacteria also can be controlled using a microbiocide additive.
Factors influencing drilling fluid performance
Three factors affecting drilling fluid performance are:
The change of drilling fluid viscosity
The change of drilling fluid density
The change of mud pH

Drilling mud classification

They are classified based on their fluid phase, alkalinity, dispersion and the type of chemicals
used.

Dispersed systems
Freshwater mud – Low pH mud (7.0–9.5) that includes spud, bentonite, natural, phosphate
treated muds, organic mud and organic colloid treated mud. High pH mud like alkaline treated
muds are above 9.5 in pH.
Water based drilling mud that represses hydration and dispersion of clay – There are 4 types:
high pH lime muds, low pH gypsum, seawater and saturated salt water muds.

Mud Engineer
"Mud engineer" is the name given to an oil field service company individual who is charged with
maintaining a drilling fluid or completion fluid system on an oil and/or gas drilling rig. This
individual typically works for the company selling the chemicals for the job and is specifically

51
trained with those products, though independent mud engineers are still common. The role of the
mud engineer or more properly Drilling Fluids Engineer is very critical to the entire drilling
operation because even small problems with mud can stop the whole operations on rig. The
internationally accepted shift pattern at off-shore drilling operations is personnel (including mud
engineers) work on a 28-day shift pattern, where they work for 28 continuous days and rest the
following 28 days. In Europe this is more commonly a 21-day shift pattern.
In offshore drilling, with new technology and high total day costs, wells are being drilled
extremely fast. Having two mud engineers makes economic sense to prevent down time due to
drilling fluid difficulties. Two mud engineers also reduce insurance costs to oil companies for
environmental damage that oil companies are responsible for during drilling and production. A
senior mud engineer typically works in the day, and a junior mud engineer at night.
The cost of the drilling fluid is typically about 10% (may vary greatly) of the total cost of drilling
a well, and demands competent mud engineers. Large cost savings result when the mud engineer
and fluid performs adequately.
The mud engineer is not to be confused with mudloggers, service personnel who monitor gas
from the mud and collect well bore samples.

Mud Gas Separator

Mud Gas Separator is commonly called a gas-buster or poor boy degasser. It captures and
separates large volume of free gas within the drilling fluid. If there is a "KICK" situation, this
vessel separates the mud and the gas by allowing it to flow over baffle plates. The gas then is
forced to flow through a line and vent it to a flare. A "KICK" situation happens when the annular
hydrostatic pressure in a drilling well temporarily (and usually relatively suddenly) falls below
that of the formation, or pore, pressure in a permeable section downhole, and before control of
the situation is lost.

It is always safe to design the mud/gas separator that will handle the maximum possible gas flow
that can occur.

52
Mud Gas Separator capable of handling 1000-1500gpm

Types of Mud/Gas Separators The principle of mud/gas separation for different types of
vessels is the same.

53
54
Principle of operation
The principle behind the mud gas separator is relatively simple. On the figure, the mud and gas
mixture is fed at the inlet allowing it to impinge on a series of baffles designed to separate gas
and mud. The free gas then is moved into the flare line to reduce the threat of toxic and
hazardous gases and the mud then discharges to the shale shaker and to the tank.

Surface Mud Systems

Effective solids control can be attributed to the overall performance of all the components of the
mud systems. Conditioning the drilling fluid with the goal of dramatically lowering maintenance
cost, avoiding excessive chemical treatment and maintaining mud systems volume will decrease
the chance of equipment failure, unnecessary high mud costs, hole and drilling problems.
In the early oil industry open earthen pits were used as settling area to separate solids and mud
thereby acting as a solids control equipment. Now, with the stringent environmental regulations
and high mud costs, the economics of an effective mud system come into consideration.
Different solids control companies introduce zero-discharge systems, closed-loop systems,
"quick move" technology, screening technology, disposal options etc.

55
Different Sections of surface mud systems

Removal Section Separation of undesirable drilled solids and even gas occurs in this section.
Addition Section Commercial chemicals are being added and agitated to control and condition
the mud.
Suction and Testing Section This is the last part of the mud systems wherein evaluation and
testing procedures are conducted before re-circulating the fluid to downhole.

Major Components of Mud Systems

Mud Gas Separator
Shale shakers
Sand Trap
Desander
Desilter
56
Degasser
Mud cleaner
Decanting Centrifuge
Mud agitator
Tanks/Compartments
Mud Guns
Mixing Hopper
Centrifugal Pumps
Mud Pumps
Screw Conveyor
Mud Ditch
Trip Tank
Water Tanks
Atmospheric Degasser
Cutting Driers

Underbalanced drilling
Underbalanced drilling, or UBD, is a procedure used to drill oil and gas wells where the pressure
in the wellbore is kept lower than the fluid pressure in the formation being drilled. As the well is
being drilled, formation fluid flows into the wellbore and up to the surface. This is the opposite
of the usual situation, where the wellbore is kept at a pressure above the formation to prevent
formation fluid entering the well. In such a conventional "overbalanced" well, the invasion of
fluid is considered a kick, and if the well is not shut-in it can lead to a blowout, a dangerous
situation. In underbalanced drilling, however, there is a "rotating head" at the surface -
essentially a seal that diverts produced fluids to a separator while allowing the drill string to
continue rotating.

If the formation pressure is relatively high, using a lower density mud will reduce the well bore
pressure below the pore pressure of the formation. Sometimes an inert gas is injected into the
drilling mud to reduce its equivalent density and hence its hydrostatic pressure throughout the
well depth. This gas is commonly nitrogen, as it is non-combustible and readily available, but
air, reduced oxygen air, processed flue gas and natural gas have all been used in this fashion.

Coiled tubing drilling (CTD) allows for continuous drilling and pumping and therefore
underbalanced drilling can be utilized which can increase the rate of penetration (ROP).

Kinds of Underbalanced Drilling

There are several kinds of underbalanced drilling. The most common are listed below.

Dry Air
This is also known as dusting. Here air compressors combined with a booster (which takes the
head from the compressors and increases the pressure of the air, but does not increase the volume
of air going down hole) are used and the only fluid injected into the well is a small amount of oil
to reduce corrosion.

Mist

57
A small amount of foaming agent (soap) is added into the flow of air. Fine particles of water and
foam in an atmosphere of air bring cuttings back to the surface.
Foam. A larger amount of foaming agent is added into the flow. Bubbles and slugs of bubbles in
an atmosphere of mist bring cuttings back to the surface.

Stable foam
An even larger amount of foaming agent is added into the flow. This is the consistency of a
shaving cream.

Airlift
Slugs and bubbles of air in a matrix of water, soap can or cannot be added into the fluid flow of
air.

Aerated Mud
Air or another gas is injected into the flow of drilling mud. Degassing units are required to
remove air before it can be recirculated.

Advantages of Underbalanced Drilling

Underbalanced wells have several advantages over conventional drilling including:

Eliminated formation damage

In a conventional well, drilling mud is forced into the formation in a process called invasion,
which frequently causes formation damage - a decrease in the ability of the formation to transmit
oil into the wellbore at a given pressure and flow rate. It may or may not be repairable. In
underbalanced drilling, if the underbalanced state is maintained until the well becomes
productive, invasion does not occur and formation damage can be completely avoided.
Increased Rate of Penetration (ROP). With less pressure at the bottom of the wellbore, it is easier
for the drill bit to cut and remove rock.

Reduction of lost circulation

Lost circulation is when drilling mud flows into the formation uncontrollably. Large amounts of
mud can be lost before a proper mud cake forms, or the loss can continue indefinitely. If the well
is drilled underbalanced, mud will not enter the formation and the problem can be avoided.
Differential sticking is eliminated. Differential sticking is when the drill pipe is pressed against
the wellbore wall so that part of its circumference will see only reservoir pressure, while the rest
will continue to be pushed by wellbore pressure. As a result, the pipe becomes stuck to the wall,
and can require thousands of pounds of force to remove, which may prove impossible. Because
the reservoir pressure is greater than the wellbore pressure in UBD, the pipe is pushed away from
the walls, eliminating differential sticking.

Formation damage
Some rock formation have a reactive tendency to water. When drillmud is used the water in the
drill mud reacts with the formation (mostly clay) and inherently causes a formation damage
(reduction in permeability and porosity) Use of underbalanced drilling can prevent it

Disadvantages of Underbalanced Drilling

Underbalanced drilling is usually more expensive than conventional drilling (when drilling a

58
deviated well which requires directional drilling tools), and has safety issues of its own.
Technically the well is always in a blowout condition unless a heavier fluid is displaced into the
well. Air drilling requires a faster up hole volume as the cuttings will fall faster down the annulus
when the compressors are taken off the hole compared to having a higher viscosity fluid in the
hole. Because air is compressible mud pulse telemetry measurement while drilling tools which
require an incompressible fluid can not work. Common technologies used to eliminate this
problem are either electromagnetic MWD tools or wireline MWD tools. Downhole mechanics
are usually more violent also because the volume of fluid going through a downhole motor or
downhole hammer is greater than an equivalent fluid when drilling balanced or over balanced
because of the need of higher up hole velocities. Corrosion is also a problem, but can be largely
avoided using a coating oil or rust inhibitors.

Decanter centrifuge
A centrifuge is a device, which employs a high rotational speed to separate components of
different densities. This becomes relevant in the majority of industrial jobs where solids, liquids
and gases are merged into a single mixture and the separation of these different phases is
necessary. A decanter centrifuge separates solid materials from liquids in slurry and therefore
plays an important role in wastewater treatment, chemical, oil and food processing industries.
There are several factors that affect the performance of a decanter centrifuge and some design
heuristics to be followed which are dependent upon given applications.

Operating principle of Decanter centrifuge

The operating principle of a decanter centrifuge is based on separation via buoyancy. Naturally, a
component with a higher density would fall to the bottom of a mixture, while the less dense
component would be suspended above it. A decanter centrifuge increases the rate of settling
through the use of continuous rotation. This reduces the settling time of the components by a
large magnitude, whereby mixtures previously having to take hours to settle can be settled in a
matter of seconds using a decanter centrifuge. This form of separation enables more rapid and
controllable results.

PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUID

There are two broad categories of drilling fluids. These are thixotropic and rheological
properties.
Thixotropic Properties
Thixotropy is a time-dependent shear thinning property. Certain gels or fluids that are thick
(viscous) under static conditions will flow (become thin, less viscous) over time when shaken,
agitated, or otherwise stressed (time dependent viscosity). They then take a fixed time to return
to a more viscous state. In more technical language: some non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluids
show a time-dependent change in viscosity; the longer the fluid undergoes shear stress, the lower
its viscosity. A thixotropic fluid is a fluid which takes a finite time to attain equilibrium viscosity
when introduced to a step change in shear rate. Some thixotropic fluids return to a gel state
almost instantly, and are called pseudoplastic fluids. Others such as yogurt take much longer and
can become nearly solid. Many mud, gels and colloids are thixotropic materials, exhibiting a
stable form at rest but becoming fluid when agitated. Examples of thixotropic properties are gel
strength, yield point, etc.

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Some fluids are anti-thixotropic: constant shear stress for a time causes an increase in viscosity
or even solidification. Constant shear stress can be applied by shaking or mixing. Fluids which
exhibit this property are usually called rheopectic. They are much less common.
Rheological Properties
Rheology is the study of flow and deformation of materials under applied forces which is
routinely measured using a rheometer. Therefore, rheological property is a flow property.
Rheology is an extremely important property of drilling muds, drill-in fluids, workover and
completion fluids, cements and specialty fluids and pills. Mud rheology is measured on a
continual basis while drilling and adjusted with additives or dilution to meet the needs of the
operation. In water-base fluids, water quality plays an important role in how additives perform.
Temperature affects behavior and interactions of the water, clay, polymers and solids in a mud.
Downhole pressure must be taken into account in evaluating the rheology of muds. Examples of
rheological properties are viscocity, density, etc.

Bingham plastic model.

Fluids are described as Newtonian or non-Newtonian depending on their response to shearing.

The shear stress of a Newtonian fluid (upper left) is proportional to the shear rate. Some drilling
fluids display Bingham plastic rheological behavior (lower left), requiring a certain minimum

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stress to initiate flow. Most drilling muds are non-Newtonian fluids, with viscosity decreasing as
shear rate increases.

a) Density (Specific Gravity)

Density is defined as weight per unit volume. It is expressed either in ppg (lbs gallons) or pound
per cubic feet (lb/ft3) OR kg/M^3 or gm/cm^3 or compared to the weight of an equal volume of
water as specific gravity. Density is measured with a mud balance. One of the main functions of
drilling fluid is to confine formation fluids to their native formations or beds.

Calibration

The instrument should be calibrated frequently with fresh water. Fresh water should give a
reading of 8.33 ppg or 62.3 lb/cub.ft. or 1.00 gm/cub.cm. at 700f. (210c). If it shows wrong
reading then the balancing screw should be adjusted.

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b)Viscosity and Gel Strength
Viscosity is defined as the resistance to flow while the gel strength is the thixotropic property of
mud i.e. Mud tends to thicken up if left unagitated for some time. Viscosity is usually measured
by marsh funnel. It is the timed rate of flow and measured in seconds per quart. However funnel
viscosity does not represent the correct value of the actual viscosity of mud.
More meaningful information concerning viscosity and its control can be obtained with a
rotational viscometer. Viscosity and gel strength increase during drilling penetration of the
formations by the bit, contributes the active solids, inert solids and contaminants to the system.
This can cause increased viscosity and / or gel strength to level, which may not be acceptable. In
general, when these increases occur, water or chemicals (thinners) or both may be added to
control them.

c)Plastic Viscosity (Pv):

Plastic Viscosity is that part of flow resistance, which is caused by mechanical friction. This
friction occurs :
(1) between the solids in mud
(2) between the solids and liquids that surround them
(3) with the shearing of the liquid itself.
For practical field purpose, however the pv depends upon the concentration of mud solids.
It is measured in Centipoise.

d) Yield Point (yp)

Yield point is the second component of resistance to flow in a drilling fluid on account of the
electro-chemical or attractive forces present in mud. These forces are as a result of negative and
positive charges located on or near the particle surfaces. Yield point is a measure of these forces
under flow conditions and depends upon
(1) surface properties of the mud solids
(2) Volume concentration of solids
(3) the electrical environment of these solids (concentration and types of ions in the fluid phase
of the mud).

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Increase in the yield point may be due to several factors such as breakdown of clays particles by
grinding action of bit, introduction of inert solids and soluble contaminants such as salt, cement,
etc.
It is measured in lb/100 sq. ft.

Equipment
The following instruments are used to measure the viscosity and /or gel strength of drilling
fluids.
A. Marsh funnel
B. Direct indicating viscometer
The Marsh funnel is a simple device for measuring viscosity by observing the time it takes a
known volume of liquid to flow from a cone through a short tube. It is standardized for use by
mud engineers to check the quality of drilling mud.
The Marsh funnel time is often referred to as the Marsh funnel viscosity, and represented by the
abbreviation MF. The unit (seconds) is often omitted. Formally, the volume should also be
stated. The (quart) Marsh funnel time for typical drilling muds is 34 to 50 seconds, though mud
mixtures to cope with some geological conditions may have a time of 100 or more seconds.
While the most common use is for drilling muds, which are non-Newtonian fluids, the Marsh
funnel is not a rheometer, because it only provides one measurement under one flow condition.
However, the effective viscosity can be determined from following simple formula.
μ = ρ (t - 25)
where μ = effective viscosity in centipoise
ρ = density in g/cm³
t = quart funnel time in seconds
For example, a mud of funnel time 40 seconds and density 1.1 g/cm³ has an effective viscosity of
about 16.5 cP. For the range of times of typical muds above, the shear rate in the Marsh funnel is
about 2000

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 Fann

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Viscometer

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Marsh Funnel

Mud additives commonly used for imparting viscosity and reducing viscosity

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Apparent Viscosity:
The apparent viscosity in centipoise equals the 600 rpm reading divided by 2
[a.v. = Ø600/2 in centipoise]

Plastic Viscosity (Pv):

Friction force between two particles is known as plastic viscosity reading at 600 rpm – reading at
300 rpm.
[P.V. = Ø600 - Ø300] in centipoise

Yield Point:
300 rpm reading – plastic viscosity
[Yp = Ø300 – PV] lb/100 sq. ft

Yield point will be increased with the following

• High temperature
• Contaminants
• Over treatment of the drilling mud with lime or caustic soda
In oil-based mud the causes of increased yield point are
• Drill solid, the more the solid the more the yield point
• Treatment with CO2 in the mud with lime CaO- CaO reacts with CaCO3 which
increases yield point.
• Low temperature – in the oil base system, the low temperature will increase the
viscosity.
Operational impacts of yield point are
• Equivalent circulating density (ECD). The ECD increases when the YP increases.

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• Hole cleaning- for large diameter hole, the YP must be high in order to help hole cleaning
efficiency.

Application of Fann Viscometer

1. Determination of apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity and yield point.
2. Determination of gel strength or thixotropic properties of the drilling fluids.

e) Gel Strength
A measure of ability of mud to develop and retain a gel form. The gel strength is the shear stress
of drilling mud that is measured at low shear rate after the drilling mud is static for a certain
period of time. The gel strength is one of the important drilling fluid properties because it
demonstrates the ability of the drilling mud to suspend drill solid and weighting material when
circulation is ceased. Two values, the 10 second gel strength is known as gel-0 and the 10 minute
strength is known as gel-10. These two values can be determined as follows. Allow the mud to
stand undisturbed for 10 seconds. Then slowly and steadily rotate at 3 rpm. Allow the mud to
stand static for 10 mins. Then again slowly rotate at 3 rpm. By this calculate gel0 and gel10 in
lb/100 sq.Ft.
Reading at different times show whether the mud will greatly form the gel during an extensive
static period or not. If the mud has the high gel strength, it will create high pump pressure in
order to break circulation after the mud is static for long time. Therefore, the mud must be
treated by adding chemicals or diluting with fresh base fluid.
Causes of high gel strength are (i) bacteria (ii) drill solid (iii) salt (iv) chemical contaminants,
like gypsum, cement, and anhydrite (v) acid gases as CO2 and hydrogen sulphide H2S.
For oil based mud several factors will cause high gel strength: (i) over treatment with organic
material and buildup of fine solid particles.

f) Filtration Loss
The filtration property of a drilling fluid is indicative of the ability of the solid components of the
mud to form a filter cake and the magnitude of cake permeability. The lower the permeability,
the thinner is the filter cake and lowers the volume of filtrate from mud. Filtration property is
dependent upon the amount and physical state of colloidal material in the mud. A thick filter
cake is undesirable as it constricts the walls of the borehole and allows excessive amount of
filtrate to move into the formation resulting in further problems such as caving, tight pulls, held
ups, stuck ups etc.
Therefore a satisfactory fluid loss value and deposition of a thin, impermeable filter cake are
often the determining factors for successful performance of a drilling fluid. There are two types
of filtrations namely dynamic filtration, when the mud is circulating, and static filtration when
the fluid is at rest.
Dynamic filtration differs from static filtration in that the flow of mud by the walls of the
borehole tends to erode away the filter cake as the filtration process deposits it. The filtration
cake builds up until the rate of deposition equals the rate of erosion. When the filter cake reaches
an equilibrium thickness the rate of filtration becomes constant.

Some Chemicals Used For Controlling Fluid Loss

Chemical

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1. Carboxy methyl cellulose also kown as cmc (l.v ; h.v) :
Functions
selective flocculant,
viscosifier fluid loss,
control in fresh and brackish water,
imparts dispersing properties to salt water system.

2. Pregelatinised starch
Functions
fluid loss control in salt water system ;
calcium mud system
.

3. Carboxy methyl starch

functions
viscosities and filtration reducer.

4. Polyanionic cellulose also known as (pac)

Functions
fluid loss control in fresh and salt water system and viscosifier.
5. HT-stable resin lignite
Function
filtration control under high temperature conditions.
6. Synthetic polymers
viscosities and filtrate reducer.
7.x-c polymer
primary viscosifying polymer for all water base muds.

pH
pH Is the measurement of relative acidity or alkalinity of a liquid. MUD pH Affects the
dispersibility of clays, solubility of various products and chemicals corrosion of steel materials,
and mud rheological properties. Typical pH Range is 9.0 to 10.5; However, high pH muds can
range up to 12.5 TO 13.0. In the drilling mud, there are three main chemical components
involved in Alkalinity of drilling fluid, which are bicarbonate ions (HCO3–), hydroxyl ions
(OH–), and carbonate ions (CO3-2). The Alkalinity means ions that will reduce the acidity.
There are several methods to measure pH some of which are as follows:
1. Paper Test Strips

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Description:

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The test paper is impregnated with dyes of such nature that the colour is dependent upon the pH
of the medium in which the paper is placed. A standard colour chart is supplied in a wide range
type.
2. Glass Electrode pH meter:
Description:
The glass electrodes pH meter consists of a glass electrode system, an electronic amplifier and a
meter calibrated in pH units.
The electrode system is composed of:The glass electrodes, which consists of a thin walled bulb
made of special glass within which is sealed a suitable electrolyte and electrode.

3. Cation exchange capacity or methylelene blue test (mbt)

It indicates the amount of active clay in the mud. It measures the total cec of the clay by titrating
with standard methylene blue solution. Bentonite content (active clay) can be estimated (if other
adsorptive materials are not present), based on an exchange capacity of 75 mill equivalent
per100 gm of dry Bentonite.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the total capacity of a soil to hold exchangeable cations. CEC
is an inherent soil characteristic and is difficult to alter significantly. It influences the soil's

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ability to hold onto essential nutrients and provides a buffer against soil acidification.
4. Methylene blue test for cation exchange capacity
I.Methylene blue solution (3.74 gm U.S.P. Grade methylene blue per 1000 cub.cm.) 1CM = 0.01
milli-Equivalent.
II. Hydrogen peroxide – 3% Solution.
III. Dilute sulfuric acid (approx. 5N)
IV. One 2.5 cc or 3 cc syringe
v. Flask, burette, graduated cylinder, hot plate, filter paper etc.

g) Lubricity
Requirement for lubrication is critical (especially in directional well) to reduce torque and drag.
Lubricating testers are modified to measure lubricity coefficient and film strength (ep test).
Based on which recommendations are given for treatment of the mud with lubricating agents.

Drilling Mud Calculations

Total system mud volume = volume of mud in hole + volume of mud in surface pits
Surface pits volume is dependent on pit size. But downhole volume cannot be calculated easily
because the hole is not uniform. Caliper logs are used to measure actual hole size distributions.
Actual hole volume = volume estimated from caliper log or experience x enlargement factor.

Note that 1g/cc = 350Ib/bbl. 42USgallons = 1barrel.

Assignment
• How many sacks of barite are necessary to increase the density of 1000bbl of mud from
10 to 14ppg? (b) What will be the final mud volume? Ans = 275sacks/100bbl =
2750sacks/1000bbl, 1180bbl.
• (a) How much fresh water must be added to 1000bbl of 12ppg mud to reduce its density
to 10ppg? (b) What will the resulting volume?
• How much weighting material (barite, BaSO4, S.G. = 4.3) should be added to the mud
made of density 8.7ppg to increase its density to 10ppg? What will be the resulting
volume?

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