Algorithms and The Social Organization of Work

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Algorithms and the Social Organization of Work

Ifeoma Ajunwa and Rachel Schlund
The Oxford Handbook of Ethics of AI
Edited by Markus D. Dubber, Frank Pasquale, and Sunit Das
Print Publication Date: Jul 2020 Subject: Law, IT and Communications Law
Online Publication Date: Jul 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190067397.013.52
Abstract and Keywords
This chapter argues that the proliferation of automated algorithms in the workplace rais
es questions as to how they might be used in service of the control of workers. In particu
lar, scholars have noted machine learning algorithms as prompting a data-centric reorga
nization of the workplace and a quantification of the worker. The chapter then considers
ethical issues implicated by three emergent algorithmic-driven work technologies: auto
mated hiring platforms (AHPs), wearable workplace technologies, and customer relation
ship management (CRM). AHPs are “digital intermediaries that invite submission of data
from one party through preset interfaces and structured protocols, process that data via
proprietary algorithms, and deliver the sorted data to a second party.” The use of AHPs
involves every stage of the hiring process, from the initial sourcing of candidates to the
eventual selection of candidates from the applicant pool. Meanwhile, wearable workplace
technologies exist in a variety of forms that vary in terms of design and use, from wrist
bands used to track employee location and productivity to exoskeletons used to assist em
ployees performing strenuous labor. Finally, CRM is an approach to managing current
and potential customer interaction and experience with a company using technology.
CRM practices typically involve the use of customer data to develop customer insight to
build customer relationships.
Keywords: automated algorithms, workplace, machine learning algorithms, algorithmic-driven work technologies,
automated hiring platforms, wearable workplace technologies, customer relationship management, hiring
process, customer data, customer relationships
The Social Organization of Work

MUCH organizational theorizing has been conducted on the role of brokers and institu
tional intermediaries in connecting disparate groups within organizations1 or in occluding
lacunae in the network of corporate entities.2 More recently, scholarly attention has shift
ed to the role of technology as an intermediary, mediating both access to work and the ex
perience of work.3 As Shoshana Zuboff observed, the introduction of new technology
“wields the power of the slow-moving hand at the turning rim of a kaleidoscope.” Zuboff
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argues that technology can never be introduced without an effect—rather any new tech
nology must be parsed for both its affordances and foreclosures.4
Harry Braverman’s seminal analysis of technology, Taylorist management, and the labor
process demonstrated how managerial control is exerted through technology, and as
Michael Burawoy noted in his ethnography, the most visible control technology in a
(p. 806) factory was the assembly line.5 The line coerced workers to keep pace or risk
penalties both monetary and social. The proliferation of automated algorithms in the
workplace raises questions as to how they might be used in the service of control and co
ercion. As some scholars have argued, machine learning algorithms have “prompted a da
ta-centric reorganization of the workplace” and a quantification of the worker in a man
ner and to a degree, previously unseen in history.6 This chapter considers ethical issues
implicated by three algorithmic-driven work technologies: (1) automated hiring plat
forms, (2) wearable workplace technologies, and (3) customer relationship management.
Automated Hiring Platforms

Automated hiring platforms (AHPs) are “digital intermediaries that invite submission of
data from one party through pre-set interfaces and structured protocols, process that da
ta via proprietary algorithms, and deliver the sorted data to a second party.”7 The use of
AHPs involves every stage of the hiring process, from the initial sourcing of candidates to
the eventual selection of candidates from the applicant pool. This section describes how
AHPs assist companies through each stage of the hiring process—sourcing, screening, in
terviewing, and selecting.8
During the initial sourcing stage of the hiring process, companies use AHPs to source or
find attractive candidates using targeted advertising or matching technology.9 Targeted
advertising involves the use of machine learning algorithms to build predictive models
based on data from job seekers and their online activity to automatically generate a pool
of jobseekers with predetermined, sought-out characteristics that companies can use to
target or exclude job seekers from viewing advertisements.10 In the case of matching
technologies, companies typically use personalized job boards to automatically generate a
list of potential job candidates who match the characteristics the company is looking for
in a job candidate.11
Following the initial sourcing stage of the hiring process, companies typically use
(p. 807)
AHPs to screen candidates—assessing candidates’ potential to excel in the job position

using predictive models.12 For example, companies may embed behavioral or personality
assessments within AHPs to predict how likely a job candidate is to work well with others
or steal from the company.13 Companies can also use AHPs to automatically review job
candidates resumes to predict how closely a given resume matches a company’s mini
mum or desired qualifications.14 During the screening stage, AHPs typically cull the bot
tom 20 percent or so of the applicant pool before transmitting the remaining applicant
pool to the interview stage of the hiring process.15
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AHPs aid during the interviewing stage of the hiring process by creating interview guides
for hiring managers based on areas of concern indicated by the assessments used in the
screening process.16 AHPs may also make use of video interviews—job applicants’ inter
views are recorded and their responses, vocal tone, and facial expressions are analyzed
using machine learning algorithms, which compare current job applicants’ responses to
past interview responses from the company’s top employees.17
During the final step in the hiring process, the selection phase, employers use AHPs in
making the final hiring decision by automating background checks and helping to negoti
ate job offer terms. Automated background checks typically assess if a job applicant has a
criminal history and is authorized to work.18 Recently, some AHP vendors also offer social
media background checks—a job applicant’s social media and online history is deployed
to predict how likely the job candidate will engage in toxic workplace behavior such as
bullying, sexual harassment, or drug use.19
Employers can also use AHPs to help negotiate job offer terms. For example, some AHPs
can use companies’ data regarding previous job offers and acceptances to create predic
tive models to assess how likely a given job candidate will accept a given job offer.20
Further, the predictive models can provide companies with potential ways in which to in
crease the likelihood a given job applicant will accept a given job offer such as by increas
ing salary, bonus, and other benefits.21
(p. 808) Current State of Use
The use of AHPS is on the rise. According to the Society for Human Resource Manage
ment, in 2016 approximately 22 percent of organizations used automated screening to re
view job applicants’ resumes. A survey conducted by Deloitte University Press in 2017 re
vealed approximately 56 percent of companies surveyed were in the process of redesign
ing their human resources (HR) programs to utilized digital and mobile AHPs. Further, 51
percent of companies surveyed in 2017 were in the process of redesigning their compa
nies to use digital business models. Additionally, 33 percent of the HR teams included in
the survey were using artificial intelligence (AI) to implement HR solutions. The survey
included data from 10,447 companies across the world, including Western Europe (25
percent), Latin and South America (17 percent), Asia (15 percent), North America (14
percent), Africa (10 percent), Central and Eastern Europe (8 percent), Nordic countries
(7 percent), Oceania (3 percent), and the Middle East (2 percent). The companies sur
veyed were also from a variety of industries, including professional services (16 percent),
financial services (13 percent), consumer business (13 percent), technology, media, and
telecommunications (12 percent), manufacturing (11 percent), energy and resources (7
percent), life sciences and health care (6 percent), real estate (1 percent), and other (12
percent).22 Thus, the use of AHPs is worldwide and spans a variety of industries.
Criticisms and Pitfalls
Page 3 of 21
Coercive and Hierarchical

By design, AHPs resemble hierarchical and coercive structures aimed to maximize profit
—clearly diverging from public and democratic social relations.23 AHPs are coercive as
they necessitate that workers consent to the information asymmetries and command
structures embedded in the design of AHPs in order to gain employment, which one must
attain to afford basic needs such as housing and food.24 One can view the coercive and hi
erarchical nature of AHP design as the descendant of technologies of control that have
dictated the social organization of work since the rise of scientific management in the
nineteenth century.25 Although the technologies of the nineteenth century, such as the as
sembly line and stopwatch monitoring, illustrates overt forms of technical control,
(p. 809) AHPs, although less overt, also exert technical control by coercing job applicants’
consent to hierarchical information asymmetries.
Information Asymmetry
The use of AHPs results in steep information asymmetries between job applicants and em
ployers since job applicants must provide volumes of personal information to attain em
ployment. However, employers do not reciprocate the information and insight they attain
about job applicants—employers do not share the information they attain about job appli
cants with the job applicants, and the job applicants do not receive additional information
about employers.26
Privacy Concerns
Coercing consent from job applicants to take part in personality assessments and to re
veal identifying information that is used to gather additional information on applicants
from third-party vendors renders an enormous amount of personal information. This in
formation is stored, analyzed, and shared among industry partners, in ways unknown to
the job candidate.27 The collection, distribution, and storage of job applicant’s personal
information create numerous privacy concerns regarding the security and confidentiality
of sensitive employee data.
Encoding of Bias
AHP designers claim that automating the hiring process will reduce hiring bias. The
promise of reduced hiring bias derives from the belief that automated hiring systems are
blind to protected characteristics such as gender, age, ethnicity, and sexual orientation.28
However, the AHP is not an autonomous agent. The predictive models used to select em
ployees from applicant pools are built from training data selected by the company. Train
ing data is typically derived from the company’s current high-sales employees’ data,
which is then used to detect patterns in the data to build predictive models to select simi
lar job applicants—a process sometimes referred to as “cloning your best people.”29 The
process of “cloning your best people” can result in encoding human bias. The idea being
that “systematically biased data produces systemically biased analyses, regardless of the
quality of those analyses.”30 For example, if women and racial minorities were underrep
resented in a company’s demographics, then (p. 810) training data would create a predic
Page 4 of 21
tive model that would similarly undervalue applicants from those underrepresented
groups.31
Discrimination
The encoding of human bias in predictive models used by AHPs can lead to discriminato
ry hiring practices. During the initial sourcing stage of the hiring process, the use of tar
geted advertising can result in discrimination when employers use protected characteris
tics such as ethnicity, gender, and age to target advertisements. Targeted advertising can
also result in discrimination when employers use variables that are correlated with pro
tected characteristics to target job advertisements, such as zip code.32 During the screen
ing stage of the hiring process, discrimination can result from using biased training data
to predict minimum qualifications.33 Furthermore, behavioral and personality assess
ments used in the screening process have been demonstrated to discriminate against peo
ple of color.34 During the interview stage of the hiring process, the use of video interviews
to analyze job applicants responses, vocal tone, and facial expressions can lead to dis
criminatory outcomes for people with regional and nonnative accents, speech impedi
ments, visible disabilities, and darker skin tones due to the design flaws in speech recog
nition and facial analysis software.35 During the selection phase of the hiring process, the
use of social media background checks can reveal information about job applicants that
employers are not legally permitted to use to inform hiring decisions, such as ethnicity,
sexuality, disability, or pregnancy status.
Wearable Workplace Technologies

Wearable technologies designed for the workplace—wearable workplace technologies—
exist in a variety of forms that vary in terms of design and use, from wristbands used to
track employee location and productivity to exoskeletons used to assist employees per
forming strenuous labor.36 Examples of wearable workplace technologies include (p. 811)
smart glasses, wrist- and finger-worn wearables, smart caps and helmets, and exoskele
tons—among many others.37
Wearable workplace technologies in the form of smart glasses exist in a variety of de
signs, including see-through smart glasses with enhanced visual aid, smart glasses
equipped with a thermographic camera, artificial reality glasses, and smart glasses with a
monocular view.38 See-through smart glasses with enhanced visual aid essentially consist
of glasses with the properties of a static computer—allowing employees to consult manu
als or guides, transcript notes, or look up records. A variety of industries use see-through
smart glasses with enhanced visual aid, such as construction, manufacturing, field ser
vice, and healthcare, among others.39 Smart glasses equipped with a thermographic cam
era are typically used in construction and manufacturing to assess machine fatigue by
monitoring surface temperature and temperature distribution to predict when a machine
will overheat. Artificial reality (AR) smart glasses project virtual information onto an
employee’s physical surroundings, allowing the employee to distinguish between virtual
information and physical information. To illustrate, factory employees who fix machines
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can use AR glasses to project visual markers and schematics to guide their work.40 Smart
glasses with a monocular view afford employees a wider viewing angle of their surround
ings and can produce high-resolution images. Many industries have implemented smart
glasses with a monocular view, including telemedicine, remote assistance, and warehous
ing.41
Wrist- and finger-worn wearable workplace technologies also come in a variety of designs
and provide different affordances. Examples of finger-worn workplace wearables include
rings equipped with scanners and Bluetooth technology that allow employees to scan in
ventory and communicate hands-free.42 Examples of wrist-worn workplace wearables in
clude bracelets and bands equipped with GPS to track employee location, biosensors to
record and analyze employee biometric data such as heart rate, accelerometers that track
employee movement and activity, and wearable computer interfaces.43 (p. 812) Wrist-worn
workplace wearables are used across a variety of industries, with global market revenue
projected to reach US$70 billion by 2020.44
Smart caps and helmets designed for the workplace can be equipped with augmented re
ality, Bluetooth technology, voice recognition, and even sensors to detect brain activity.45
For example, smart caps and helmets equipped with augmented reality can be used to
project blueprints and instructions for employees performing tasks such as welding and
construction.46 Further, smart caps and helmets equipped with sensors to detect brain ac
tivity can be used to measure an employee’s level of fatigue or alertness.47 A variety of in
dustries have adopted smart caps and helmets such as fieldwork, transportation, con
struction, manufacturing, and product design.48
Wearable workplace technology in the form of exoskeletons are essentially wearable ro
botics that are typically designed to assist employees performing arduous tasks by in
creasing their strength and agility.49 For example, exoskeletons used in construction and
manufacturing can assist employees in lifting heavy tools.50 Some exoskeletons are even
equipped with technology that allows employers to monitor their employees’ location,
mood, and physical health.51 A variety of industries have implemented exoskeletons such
as construction, manufacturing, and geriatric care.52
Current State of Use
Wearable workplace technology has proliferated in the workplace. A report by Frost &
Sullivan revealed that between January 2013 and December 2015 approximately 2,955
patents were registered in the United States for wearable technology designed for
(p. 813) the workplace—illustrating the flourishing development of wearable workplace
technologies.53 Further, the majority of the 2,955 patents registered in the United States
for wearable workplace technologies between January 2013 and December 2015 consist
ed of patents for wrist- and finger-worn wearables, such as wristwatches, ring scanners,
and wrist bands—indicating wrist- and finger-worn wearables designed for the workplace
remain a significant trend.54
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The implementation of wearable workplace technologies is also on the rise. A survey con
ducted by Forrester in 2016 revealed 23 percent of information workers use wearable
work technologies, demonstrating a 63 percent increase from 2015.55 Further, an addi
tional survey conducted by Forrester revealed that 62 percent of telecommunications or
ganization executives described the implementation of wearable workplace technologies
is a priority for their organization, which has grown from 52 percent in 2014.56
Adoption of wearable technology in corporate wellness programs is also increasing. A

survey conducted by WorldatWork revealed that in 2016 approximately 27 percent of the
organizations surveyed used wearable technology to encourage employee health and
wellness.57 A report by Gartner revealed that in 2017 an estimated 60 percent of corpo
rate wellness programs include the use of wearable technology.58 This trend is only pre
dicted to increase—Gartner estimates that by 2021, 90 percent of wellness programs will
include wearable technology.59
Privacy Concerns
The increased use of wearable workplace technologies presents numerous privacy con
cerns regarding employee data. Wearable technologies collect volumes of sensitive, per
sonal data from employees, creating issues regarding the collection, use, and distribution
of employee data by employers.60 Further, wearable workplace technologies (p. 814) typi
cally afford employers the ability to observe and track their employees’ location and phys
iological activity—a practice that may violate the National Labor Relations Act.61
Moreover, wearable workplace technologies collect large amounts of sensitive employee
data, which remains stored on companies’ servers—leaving sensitive employee data vul
nerable to hacking by third parties.62
Discrimination
Wearable workplace technologies also present concerns regarding discrimination. Since
wearables collect employee health data, such technologies could potentially reveal med
ical information that could be used to discriminate against employees. For example, the
use of wearable technologies could facilitate discrimination against employees who have
a medical condition or disability that prevents them from reaching productivity
standards.63 Additionally, wearables used in corporate wellness programs collect employ
ee data outside of the workplace such as activity levels, weight, heart rate, and sleep
quality.64 The collection and use of employee data regarding health and lifestyle outside
of the workplace present further discrimination concerns as this data could be used to de
termine employee benefits and compensation.65
Employee Safety and Compensation

Wearable workplace technologies can improve worker performance, but this can lead to
reductions in workers’ compensation for injuries. For example, wearable workplace tech
nology designed to assist workers in arduous tasks may allow injured workers to return to
work sooner than they would have without the wearable technologies assistance, reduc
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ing paid leave for workplace injuries.66 Further, the use of data collected by wearable
workplace technology could be used to deny employee compensation claims.67 For exam
ple, if an employee causes an accident that leads to injury at work, an employer could use
biometric data collected by wearable workplace technology to determine if the employee
was sleep-deprived, shifting the blame onto the employee.68
Wearable workplace technologies also present concerns regarding employee safe

(p. 815)
ty. For example, wearable workplace technologies such as see-through smart glasses with
enhanced visual aid or virtual reality glasses can cause distractions, which could lead to
injury.69 Furthermore, poorly designed exoskeletons could potentially damage muscles,
tendons, and nerves.70 Injuries caused by wearable workplace technologies could lead to
employee lawsuits against employers.71
Inaccurate Predictions
Data collected by wearable workplace technologies are not always accurate. For example,
employees can “game” wearable workplace technology design flaws to skew the results of
the data.72 The use of wearable workplace technology is also a form of surveillance,
which could make some individuals nervous, thus skewing the accuracy of the data col
lected.73
Customer Relationship Management

Customer relationship management (CRM) is an approach to managing current and po
tential customer interaction and experience with a company using technology.74 CRM
practices typically involve the use of customer data to develop customer insight to build
customer relationships.75 Customer data is collected from a wide range of resources: a
company’s website, telephone, email, live chat, advertising, social media, industry part
ners, and other third parties.76 The primary purpose of CRM is to improve (p. 816) a
company’s relationships with customers—increasing customer value—to attract potential
customers, retain current customers, and increase sales growth—increasing company val
ue.77
The definition of CRM implementation and use remains debated in academic literature.78
Pennie Frow and Adrian Payne conceptualize CRM implementation and use as five inte
grated processes: (1) strategy development, (2) value creation, (3) multichannel integra
tion and consumer experience, (4) information management, and (5) performance assess
ment. The strategy development process involves assessing a firm’s business strategy to
develop a customer strategy that creates a base for implementing CRM. The value-cre
ation process involves utilizing a firm’s business and associated customer strategy to de
termine what value the firm can offer customers, what value customers can offer the firm,
and how to integrate the exchange of both customer and company value. The multichan
nel integration and customer experience process involves deciding what channels (e.g.,
ways in which a firm interacts with customers) to use and integrate to improve customer
experience. The information management process involves the collection, analyzation,
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and use of customer data to develop customer insight to inform marketing practices. Fi
nally, the performance assessment process involves evaluating the implementation and
use of CRM to ensure it is achieving the intended results outlined by a firm’s business
strategy.79
Michael Fayerman provides an alternative conceptualization, describing the implementa

tion and use of CRM as consisting of three components—operational, analytical, and col
laborative. Operational CRM involves the integration and automation of sales, marketing,
and customer support. The analytical component of CRM involves the collection, analyza
tion, and utilization of customer data to develop customer insight to inform marketing
strategy and practice. Finally, collaborative CRM involves creating partnerships with
third parties to share customer data across organizations, which firms can then use to en
hance customer experience through customization.80
Current State of Use
Customer relationship management is widely used by organizations, a trend that is only

increasing. According to a survey conducted by Forrester in 2018, approximately 50 per
cent of small and medium-size organizations, defined as organizations with twenty to
ninety employees, surveyed use CRM software, and 19 percent planned to implement
CRM in (p. 817) 2019.81 Further, an estimated 65 percent of large organizations, defined
as organizations with one thousand or more employees, surveyed use CRM software, and
18 percent planned to implement CRM in 2019.82 Additionally, organizations are increas
ingly implementing the use of social media into their CRM strategy. For example, a survey
conducted by the Aberdeen Group in 2012 revealed that 86 percent of organizations use
social media to advertise to consumers.83 Additionally, A survey conducted by MIT Sloan
Management Review revealed that in 2013, approximately 65 percent of organizations
used social media to develop insight into market shifts.84
Differential Treatment of Customers

CRM claims sales and profits will increase by focusing on enhancing company-customer
relationships; however, the practice of CRM leads to differential treatment of customers,
focusing on enhancing certain company-customer relationships at the expense of
others.85 The idea being that favoritism of the most profitable customers will lead to in
creased profits.86 However, in practice favoring certain customers at the expense of oth
ers leads to inequality and may not increase profits.
Favoritism results in an unequal distribution of outcomes—the favored group of cus

tomers receive explicit targeting and promotions, while the group of customers that are
not favored do not receive explicit targeting and promotions. The unequal distribution of
outcomes caused by favoritism may lead to perceptions of unfairness, which may cause
favored customers to feel guilty or uneasy about their advantaged position, while cus
tomers who are not favored may feel angered or outraged about their disadvantaged posi
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tion.87 Essentially, the use of CRM to favor certain groups of customers at the expense of
others leads to perceptions of unfairness, which can damage a company’s reputation,
leading some customers to disengage with the company and spread negative (p. 818) in
formation about the company.88 In effect, such targeted promotions could also be seen as
a form of digital redlining that disadvantages lower income customers, a population that
has large overlaps with racial minorities.89
Exploiting Customer Relationships

A premise of CRM is “dual creation of value” for the company and the customer through
information reciprocity.90 The idea being that customers give companies their information
which companies reciprocate by providing an enhanced shopping and buying
experience.91 Essentially companies attain customer information so that they can cus
tomize and enhance the customer’s shopping and buying experience, which increases the
likelihood the customer will continue to purchase from the company—creating both value
for the customer (i.e., enhancing their shopping and buying experience) and the company
(i.e., customer retention and increased profits). However, in practice, customer informa
tion is not reciprocated and leads to information asymmetry between the customer and
the company because the customer is not always aware of when and how their data is be
ing collected and used by the company.92 The information asymmetry between the cus
tomer and the company may cause the customer to distrust the company with their infor
mation.93 The Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal presents an illustrative case.94
In 2018, it was revealed that Facebook permitted the data analytics firm Cambridge Ana
lytica to collect information on millions of Facebook users in order to target political cam
paign ads to those users.95
Information Misuse and Privacy Concerns

An essential component of CRM entails the collection and storage of consumer data. Con
sumers are typically unaware of when and how their data is collected and used by (p. 819)
companies, which creates numerous privacy concerns. Furthermore, companies will sell
customer data to other firms without the customers’ knowledge or permission, exacerbat
ing privacy concerns.96
Dishonesty
CRM practices may sometimes entail misleading and confusing customers by hiding rele
vant information, which may cause customers to make buying decisions at their disadvan
tage. For example, companies can use CRM to generate complex pricing schemas that
make it difficult for customers to compare pricing from other service providers. Addition
ally, companies can use CRM to generate continuous price and rate changes so that cus
tomers do not have time to compare pricing alternatives from other service providers ac
curately. Further, CRM performance measurement systems and employee reward struc
tures can encourage dishonest company behavior, such as overcharging and upselling
customers.97
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Discrimination
Collecting and analyzing consumer data to generate consumer insight to inform market
ing practices, such as targeted advertising, constitutes an essential component of CRM.98
Companies collect and analyze consumer data to predict who their most profitable cus
tomers are and then target advertisements and promotions to those customers and other
customers who share similar characteristics.99 This practice of targeted advertising using
predictive analytics leads to certain groups of customers to receive targeted advertising
and promotions, while excluding other groups of customers, known as “digital
redlining.”100 Digital redlining can lead to discrimination when companies exclude cer
tain groups of customers based on protected characteristics, such as ethnicity,101 (p. 820)
religion,102 pregnancy status,103 and gender104 or proxies for protected characteristics.105
For example, a ProPublica investigation revealed that companies were excluding cus
tomers by ethnic group from viewing targeted advertisements on Facebook using “ethnic
affinity groups,” a feature on Facebook that used online customer behavior to determine
customer ethnicity—a proxy for the protected characteristic of ethnicity.106
Future Directions for Research

There has been recent empirical research investigating bias on online hiring platforms
and also on CRM.
Customer Relationship Management
Hannak et al. investigated the effect of race and gender on online freelance market
places.107 Specifically, Hannak and colleagues examined if perceived gender and race in
fluence worker evaluations by customers, if the language of worker evaluations by cus
tomers differed for workers of different perceived genders and races, and if workers’ per
ceived gender and race significantly associate with their search result rankings in online
freelance marketplaces.108 Overall, the findings demonstrate support for the effect of
race and gender or bias in online freelance marketplaces. Hannak and colleagues hypoth
esized that biased customer evaluations of workers might indirectly cause the biased
ranking of workers. In other words, since customer evaluations of workers revealed bias
as a function of perceived race and gender, and worker rankings also revealed bias as a
function of perceived race and gender, biased customer evaluations of workers might also
cause biased rankings of workers.
Hannak and colleagues argue that online freelance marketplace designers should
(p. 821)
actively seek to mitigate the biases present in online freelance marketplaces. Hannak and
colleagues present several examples, including, limiting the number of customer evalua
tions of workers that can be viewed, limiting customers’ ability to pick workers by having
the process automated, and adjusting individual workers’ ratings when they are a prod
uct of systematic biased evaluation by customers.
Page 11 of 21
Furthermore, Hannak and colleagues call for future research to investigate the impact of
working conditions on the propensity for women and people of color to leave the free
lance workforce. The researchers also call for future research to investigate the causal
mechanisms behind the effect of biased customer evaluations of workers on hiring deci
sions.109
Automated Hiring and Recruitment
Chen and co-authors conducted an audit study of three resume search engines. Notably,
they conducted experimental studies to investigate if the resume search engines directly
used inferred gender to rank job seekers’ posted resumes.110 The findings support the ex
istence of indirect gender discrimination at both the individual and group level for re
sume search engine rankings—presenting several key implications. Chen and colleagues
argue for the adoption of ranking algorithms that account for indirect discrimination by
making ranking algorithms “group fair by design.” In other words, hiring websites that
use ranking algorithms should ensure their ranking algorithms rank both male and fe
male job candidates at a rate proportional to the distribution of the population. Further
more, Chen and colleagues call for future research to investigate other hiring websites
and how actual hirers or recruiters use resume search engines.111
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Notes:
(1) David Obstfeld, “Social Networks, the Tertius Iungens Orientation, and Involvement in
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(5) Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twen
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Page 13 of 21
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(21) Nagaraj Nadendla, “Introducing the Oracle Recruiting Cloud,” filmed 2017 at Open
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Page 14 of 21
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Page 15 of 21
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Like Artificial Intelligence Are Reshaping The Future of Work.”
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nology as the New Data-Centric Research Agenda for Employment and Labor Law”; Ben
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Page 18 of 21
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Use in Customer Relationship Management.”
(92) Pennie Frow et al., “Customer Management and CRM: Addressing the Dark Side.”
(93) William Boulding et al., “A Customer Relationship Management Roadmap: What Is

Known, Potential Pitfalls, and Where to Go.”
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(96) Pennie Frow et al., “Customer Management and CRM: Addressing the Dark Side”;
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(100) Margaret Hu, “Algorithmic Jim Crow”; Cathy O’Neil, “No Safe Zone: Getting In
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Page 20 of 21
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(107) A. Hannák, C. Wagner, D. Garcia, A. Mislove, M. Strohmaier, and C. Wilson, “Bias in

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(108) Id.
(109) Id.
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Ifeoma Ajunwa
Ifeoma Ajunwa, Associate Professor, Labor Relations, Law, and History Department,
Cornell University ILR School; Associate Faculty Member, Cornell Law School; Facul
ty Associate, Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University
Rachel Schlund
Rachel Schlund, Department of Organizational Behavior, Cornell University
Page 21 of 21

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Abstract and Keywords

The Social Organization of Work

Automated Hiring Platforms

AHPs to screen candidates—assessing candidates’ potential to excel in the job position

(p. 808) Current State of Use

Criticisms and Pitfalls

Coercive and Hierarchical

consent to hierarchical information asymmetries.

Wearable Workplace Technologies

Current State of Use

Adoption of wearable technology in corporate wellness programs is also increasing. A

Criticisms and Pitfalls

Employee Safety and Compensation

Wearable workplace technologies also present concerns regarding employee safe­

Customer Relationship Management

Michael Fayerman provides an alternative conceptualization, describing the implementa­

Current State of Use

Customer relationship management is widely used by organizations, a trend that is only

Criticisms and Pitfalls

Differential Treatment of Customers

Favoritism results in an unequal distribution of outcomes—the favored group of cus­

Exploiting Customer Relationships

Information Misuse and Privacy Concerns

Future Directions for Research

Customer Relationship Management

Automated Hiring and Recruitment

Ajunwa, Ifeoma. “Age Discrimination by Platforms.” Berkeley Journal of Employment &

Ajunwa, Ifeoma. “Algorithms at Work: Productivity Monitoring Platforms and Wearable

Nissenbaum, Helen and Heather Patterson. “Biosensing in Context: Health Privacy in a

Srnicek, Nick. Platform Capitalism. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2017.

(32) Kim and Scott, “Discrimination in Online Employment Recruiting.”

(39) Frost & Sullivan, “Wearable Technologies for Industrial Applications.”

(40) J.P. Gownder, “The Technology-Augmented Employee: How Emerging Technologies

(41) Frost & Sullivan, “Wearable Technologies for Industrial Applications.”

(44) Frost & Sullivan, “Wearable Technologies for Industrial Applications.”

(45) Id.; Karen Turner, “Are Performance-Monitoring Wearables an Affront to Workers’

(48) Frost & Sullivan, “Wearable Technologies for Industrial Applications.”

(49) Greenbaum, “Ethical, Legal and Social Concerns Relating to Exoskeletons.”

(52) Greenbaum, “Ethical, Legal and Social Concerns Relating to Exoskeletons.”

(53) Frost & Sullivan, “Wearable Technologies for Industrial Applications.”

(57) WorldatWork, “Inventory of Total Rewards Programs & Practices” (WorldatWork,

(62) Frost & Sullivan, “Wearable Technologies for Industrial Applications.”

(66) Greenbaum, “Ethical, Legal and Social Concerns Relating to Exoskeletons.”

(75) William Boulding et al., “A Customer Relationship Management Roadmap: What Is

(93) William Boulding et al., “A Customer Relationship Management Roadmap: What Is

(107) A. Hannák, C. Wagner, D. Garcia, A. Mislove, M. Strohmaier, and C. Wilson, “Bias in

Rachel Schlund, Department of Organizational Behavior, Cornell University

You might also like

Wearable workplace technologies also present concerns regarding employee safe

Michael Fayerman provides an alternative conceptualization, describing the implementa

Favoritism results in an unequal distribution of outcomes—the favored group of cus