Protective Discrimination: Why Scheduled Tribes Lag behind Scheduled Castes

Author(s): Virginius Xaxa

Source: Economic and Political Weekly , Jul. 21-27, 2001, Vol. 36, No. 29 (Jul. 21-27,
2001), pp. 2765-2772
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly

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 Special articles

Protective Discrimination: Why Scheduled

Tribes Lag Behind Scheduled Castes
The pattern of historical development has been different for the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes with the latter never having been an integral part of mainstream society. How
effective has been the policy of protective discrimination in removing the disabilities suffered
by the scheduled tribes? This paper attempts a comparison between the relative benefits to
the scheduled tribes and scheduled castes as a result of the policy of protective discrimination.
Following upon this, the author examines why one category has fared better than the other.

VIRGINIUS XAXA

he groups identified as scheduled for members of the scheduled caste and better than the other, or alternatively, as
castes and scheduled tribes sufferedscheduled tribe category. The quota was to why one has not fared as well as the
from certain disabilities. The Con- fixed keeping in mind the populationother. It is interesting to note that though
the filling up of the quota falls short of
stitution of India hence made certain pro- size of the two groups then. It was 15 per
visions for their welfare and upliftment. cent for the scheduled castes and 7.5 the government stipulation both with re-
All the same, the provisions are far from per cent for the scheduled tribes. The spect
size to scheduled castes and scheduled
uniform for the two groups. Indeed, there so fixed has remained the same till today
tribes particularly with respect to the higher-
are more provisions for the scheduled tribes though the population size of the two
grade services, the distribution of the two
than for the scheduled castes. The Articles communities has undergone changes. categories has been disproportionate.
15(4), 16(4), 19(5), 23, 46, 330, 332, 334, As per 1991 Census, the scheduled castes
constitute 16.5 per cent of the total
335 and 338 are common to the two I
categories and Articles 29, 164,population
244, and the scheduled tribes Relative Positions of
244(A), 275(1), 339(1), 339(2) pertain 8.01 per cent.
only the SCs and STs
to the scheduled tribe category. Besides, Though the reservation policy has been
there are Articles 371(A), 371(B) and in force for five decades and the popula- As pointed out earlier, the provision of
371(C), which are in force only in certain tion size of the two communities has grown reservations for the scheduled castes and
states of the north-eastern region either in over the years, the filling up of the quota scheduled tribes have been made in three
the whole state or part of it [Verma 1990]. as fixed by the government is a problem areas-parliament/legislatures (politics),
Of the provisions ensured for the sched- even today. This is far more the case at government services and educational in-
uled castes and scheduled tribes, the policy the upper levels of the government and stitutions. In politics, the provision of
of protective discrimination has been one semi government services. There are many reservation was initially meant for the
of the most debated and discussed. Based reasons as to why the quota reserved for period of 10 years, but, ever since-then,
on the policy, the government has laid the two communities could not be filled it has been renewed on a regular basis. It
down three kinds of arrangementfor people up. Much has already been written on the is worth noting here that such time limits
belonging to the category of the scheduledissue. And the reasons put forward range contrary to general beliefs was not fixed
castes and scheduled tribes. First, there hasfrom apathy and indifference of the govern- in the areas of government services and
been reservation of seats for these groups ment to the unavailability of suitableeducational institutions [Galanter 1984:
in the parliament/state legislatures. Sec-candidates from the scheduled caste and 46]. Unlike the scheduled tribes, who have
ond, there has been reservation of jobs forthe scheduled tribe category, on account been unable to create a space for them-
them in government and semi-government of their social, economic and educational selves in the national or regional scene, the
services. Third, seats have been reservedbackgrounds [Ram 1981]. Therefore the scheduled castes have been able to do so,
for them in the educational institutions focus in the paper is not on this aspect especially
of in cases where the two have
especially in institutions of the higher reservations. Instead, the paper will con- been sharing these facilities.
learning such as colleges and universities sider the following issues: (1) a compari-
son between the scheduled tribes and
Politics
for their social and educational advance-
scheduled castes in relation to the benefits
ment. To this end, a certain percentage of Let us start with.the sphere of politics.
derived by them of the facilities extended
seats or quota was earmarked in the As noted earlier 15 per cent and 7.5 per
parliament/state legislatures, government
to them so far; (2) an analysis, even though cent of seats in parliament are reserved for
services and the educational institutions
tentative, as to why one category has fared the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes

Economic and Political Weekly July 21, 2001 2765

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respectively. In state legislatures the per- share of the scheduled tribes in the assem- strategic importance both at the national
centage of seats earmarked for them varies blies is due to the creation of tribal states, and regional levels. The numerical strength
corresponding to size of their respective mainly in the north-eastern region. The that the scheduled castes enjoy over the
population in the concerned state. Now the performance of the two categories in scheduled tribes gives them an advantage
question is how have the two categories politics has to be therefore examined else- over the latter in national politics. It is true
fared at the regional and national levels? where. Over the question of what should that the scheduled castes and scheduled
In services or education the relative po- be those dimensions, there is surely going tribes do not constitute a homogeneous
sition of the two categories can be dis- to be a difference of opinion among schol- and cohesive social group both in the
cerned from the statistical figures. After ars. All the same, criteria such as political parliament and in the state legislatures.
all the statistical figures are to a greater appointment within the parliament/legis- They are fragmented along lines of politi-
or lesser extent related with performance. latures or in the government such as coun- cal party and linguistic/regional consider-
In politics one cannot judge the relative cil of ministers or membership on the ations. Yet any government cannot ignore
positions of the two categories in terms of standing committees, even an office within the issue of adequate representation of
their share in the parliament or state leg- political parties may be considered of groups described as scheduled castes and
islatures for two reasons. First of all, the critical significance in this context. And scheduled tribes. In all these, the sche-
share of each category is invariably related yet the share of the two categories in respect duled castes have had an edge over the
to the size of its population. Secondly, and of the above may greatly depend on the scheduled tribes. It may not be out of place
more importantly, there exists in political nature of their participation and mobilisa- to point out here that the scheduled castes
sphere congruence between what is stipu- tion process. The two together may there- have invariably had better representation
lated and what is actually held. In 1999, fore be taken as the domain where relative in the government in the form of holding
the share of the scheduled castes andperformance of the two categories can be ministerial portfolios or other positions
assessed.
scheduled tribes in the parliament was 79 There are however no data at our like state governors through the years.
(14.5 per cent) and 41 (7.5 per cent) res- on the aspect corresponding to the Further, whereas the scheduled castes can
disposal
pectively. The corresponding figure ones
forwe have on service and education. boast of having produced leaders and ad-
the legislative assemblies was 562 (13.8All the same evidences, sketchy though ministrators such as B R Ambedkar and
per cent) for the scheduled castes and 539may be, are not altogether absent.
they Jagjivan
In Ram in the past and K R
(13.2 per cent) for the scheduled tribes Narayanan, Buta Singh, Paswan, Kanshi
democratic politics, the numerical strength
[Planning Commission 2000]. The higher
that the groups or categories enjoy isRam of and Mayawati in more recent times,

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2766 Economic and Political Weekly July 21, 2001

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it is hard to find any from the scheduled ment. There is however no dearth of data,
tribes prefer arts and humanities courses.
tribe category. P A Sangma may be con- This is apparent from the enrolment data
fragmented though they may be, in support
sidered as one such leader, though he does shown above as well as employment data
of the point made above. In public sector
not even have a following within a region, undertakings like Hindustan Aeronautics,
of the scheduled tribes in sectors/ depart-
let alone among tribes across regions. In ments/faculties where science and tech-
Bharat Electronics, Bharat Dynamics, etc,
short, tribes have not been able to carve the share of the scheduled castes in class nology training is crucial. The employ-
out a space akin to that of the scheduled I jobs was 3.39, 2.38 and 7.90 per cent as ment pattern of the scheduled tribes in
castes in national politics. Even at the against 1.88, 14.37 and 23.70 for class IIpublic sector undertaking has already been
regional level, where tribes have been jobs respectively. In contrast, the share of referred to earlier. The pattern is similar
sharing power with the scheduled castes, the scheduled tribes was 0.12, 0.20, andin colleges and university departments. In
their presence is hardly noticeable. nil respectively for class I jobs and 0.26, the North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong,
for example, of the 30 teaching positions
0.90 and again nil in respect of class II jobs
Service respectively (Report of the Commissioner held by the scheduled tribe candidates in
for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes 1986, only three were in the faculty of
Now if one takes the relative position 1975-77). sciences. The scenario at Delhi University
of the two categories in government ser- or elsewhere is no different. Even within
vices, one finds that the scheduled tribes Education the sciences, more tribes opt for courses
have not fared as well as the scheduled such as agriculture, medicine rather than
castes in availing of the facilities of reser-One of the major prerequisites for filling other science courses. Of equal signifi-
vation extended to them by the govern- up positions meant for the scheduled castes cance is the fact that the enrolment of the
ment. This is clearly reflected in Tableand 1. scheduled tribes in government/ semi- scheduled tribes in arts and humanities,
The data are based on information avail- government services is the attainmentcontrary of to the general belief, is lower than
able on January 1, 1995. the minimum educational qualification that of medicine and agriculture.
It is evident from the above that the sharespecified for jobs or positions. Hence Even at regional levels, where the SC
of the scheduled tribes in respect of A, B, reservation has also been provided forand in ST partake in resources, the perfor-
C, and D group of services has been that the educational institutions especiallymance in of the scheduled castes, as one can
of 2.89, 2.68, 5.69 and 6.48 per cent higher education. Now, the scenario with see from Table 5 has been invariably better.
respectively as against 10.15, 12.67, 16.15 respect of enrolment of the scheduled tribesParadoxically, this is the case even in states
and 21.26 respectively in case of the in institutions of higher learning such where
as tribes easily outnumber the sche-
scheduled caste. The scheduled tribes thus colleges and university departmentsduled is castes in terms of their numerical
fall short of the required stipulation bothalmost similar to the situation in the sphere strength. Madhya Pradesh and Orissa may
in respect of the aggregate and the differ- of services (Table 3). be taken as two appropriate cases in point.
ent groups of the services. Moreover, the It is obvious from the above that the The scheduled tribes constitute between
shortfalls at the higher levels are far greater presence of the scheduled tribe at the 22 and 23 per cent of the total population
in comparison to those for the scheduled national level is less strong than that of in each of the two states as against 4 and
caste. In contrast, the scheduled castes fallthe scheduled caste. Also, the share of the 7 per cent for the scheduled castes in
short of the stipulated quota only in respecttribes in respect of education like science,
of group A and B services and that too,engineering/technology, law, etc, is much Table 2: Designationwlse Position
if one may add, not substantially. Inlower than that of other fields of education. of SC/ST Teachers in University
respect of C and D, their share exceeds the The data that we have from the Indian Teaching Departments/University
Colleges (1992-93)
required quota of 15.5 per cent of Institute of Technology, Kanpur for the
reservation. period between 1969-70 and 1973-74
Designation Total SC Per- ST Per-
centage centage
The position of tribes with respect offurther corroborates the pattern (Table 4).
their share in academic or teaching posts One finds that the entry of tribes Professor in 3338 32 0.96 11 0.33
Reader 5837 104 1.78 31 0.53
in colleges and universities is no better.various courses offered at the higher levels
Lecturer 10191 328 3.22 81 0.79
In Delhi University, till 1995, out of 700of education falls below that of the sched-
teachers in the university departments, thereuled castes. Moreover, the share of the Source. UGC, 'Representation of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Enrolment,
were only nine teachers from the sched- tribes in various courses that are offered
Teaching and Non-Teaching Staff in
uled caste and the scheduled tribe cate- is very uneven. One finds that in compari- University Teaching Departments/
son to natural sciences, more scheduled
gory. Out of these, only two were from the University Colleges', p 55.
scheduled tribe category. If one were to
include under-graduate colleges of Delhi Table 1: Share of SCs and STs at various Levels of the Government Services
University, the scenario would be even
Group Total No of Employees No of SC Percentage No of ST Percentage
worse. The picture is no different else-
'A'
where, as evidenced by the data in Table 2, 65,408 6,637 10.15 1,891 2.89
'B' 1.08,857 13,797 12.67 2,913 2.68
in the other universities in the country.
'C' 23,41,863 3,78,179 16.15 1,33,179 5.69
They are also more sparsely distributed
'D' 10,41,082 2,21,380 21.26 67,453 6.48
in the field of science and technology than
Total 35,57,210 6,19,986 17.43 2,05,436 5.78
in other areas of employment. It has not
Note. 'D' excludes sweepers.
been possible to furnish detailed and
Source. Report ofthe Nationa/Commission forSc
comprehensive data for the above state- 1997-98.

Economic and Political Weekly July 21, 2001 2767

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respect of Orrisa and Madhya Pradesh re- blematised, rather than ignored or takenscheduled castes have fared better than the
spectively. for granted corollaries of reservations. scheduled tribes. The scheduled castes have
Any attempt at understanding such prob-been generally described as those falling
II lems entails discussion of two aspects/ outside the 'varna' system. Though out-
Explaining the Phenomenon levels - both of which are intricately re-side of the varna system, the scheduled
lated to one another. The relative positionscastes or the erstwhile untouchables had
Though reservations have been provided of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes been integral to the dominant community
for the scheduled castes and scheduled in availing of the benefits provided bywhether in a village or town, the only
tribes, the filling up of these seats espe-
governments are to a great extent depen-difference being that the untouchables were
cially in service and higher educationdentis upon two factors. One is the relative unjustly segregated from the community
not routine and mechanical. Rather it is and subjected to all forms of disabilities
role of the two groups with respect to their
dependent upon their performances in test,
general educational attainment, especially and discrimination. The scheduled castes
examinations or interviews, etc, besides at
of the level of higher education. The otherhave, therefore, had a greater exposure to
course the prerequisites of appropriate factor is their over all performances at the larger society as compared to the
educational attainments. This partly ex- these levels. For it is not only their enrol-scheduled tribes. This is to say that oppor-
ment in the courses offered for highertunities made available to the larger soci-
plains as to why the state has not been able
to fill up these posts and seats for both the
education, but also the quality of perfor- eties or the higher castes in the form of
scheduled tribes and scheduled castes. And mance in the duration of the course and knowledge, information, technology,
this has been especially so in the case oftheir successful completion of the same, employment, etc, were also in sight for the
scheduled tribes than scheduled castes. which is critical in assessing their eligi- scheduled castes, even though they were
What is striking is that the scheduled tribes denied access to it. Such advantages were
bility forjobs/positions at different levels.
have invariably played a second fiddle It to
may not be out of place to point here absent for the scheduled tribes. Tribes thus
the scheduled castes in taking advantage suffered the disadvantage of isolation in
that the drop-out rates amongst the sched-
uled tribes between classes I-X is higher
of the resources granted to them, whether this regard.
it is education, science and technologythan or those the scheduled castes. The figure It is very unlikely that educated Indians
civil services and politics. An attempt in is
1980-81 and 1990-91 was 91.18 and are unaware of the category 'scheduled
being made here to explain as to why 86.00 the percent respectively as against caste'
86.91 and 'scheduled tribe'. Yet, while
scheduled tribes do not achieve as much they may be quite familiar with the cat-
and 80.58 per cent for the scheduled castes
as the scheduled castes. It is thus obvious [Planning Commission 2000]. egory of scheduled caste and have an idea
that the paper is not aimed at examining Before one embarks on exploration of of
what it means and represents, the same
the basic assumption underlying the edu- the above question, it is of significancecannot
to be said, with a similar degree of
cational system with its overriding focus certainty, about the scheduled tribe. To
note that certain arbitrariness is invariably
on individual performance and the ability involved in demarcation of the populationbegin with, despite being segregated, dis-
to compete with others. The provision of into categories such as the scheduled criminated
caste and oppressed, the scheduled
and scheduled tribes. The arbitrariness is
reservations by itself does not question the castes are invariably as being a part of the
basic premises. however not limited to the demarcation Hindu society. And since the Hindu so-
Why have the scheduled tribes not alone. It also extends to the demarcation ciety can be effectively understood at the
performed as well as the scheduled castes? regional level, the scheduled castes too are
of the population into this or that category.
Before one proceeds to explain, it is in- Such arbitrariness creeps in bordering in effect an integral part of the regional
teresting to ascertain if the discrepancy in community. This regional community is
cases; it cannot be generalised for the whole
the performance of the scheduled castes of the categories. also at the same time a linguistic commu-
and the scheduled tribes has any thing to One could begin by looking into the nity. Hence, though divided on the basis
do with such phenomena as demographic of castes, the scheduled castes share lan-
logic of the reservation for the two catego-
size, rate of literacy or the geographical ries for an exploration of the above ques-
guage, culture, and tradition, etc, of the
mobility of the concerned groups. It is true tion. It must be mentioned here that thelinguistic community. They constitute a
that the scheduled caste population is twice logic of reservation for the two categories,
the size of the scheduled tribe population in contrast to the popularly held belief, is Table 3: Facultywlse Percentage
not identical. The scheduled tribes were Position of SC/ST Enrolment (1992-93)
but for the purpose under consideration it
is hardly significant as the issue under extended reservation because they sufferedFaculty SC ST SC and ST
examination is in keeping with the size of certain disabilities arising from life of Arts 8.0 3.9 11.9
the respective population. In terms of segregation from the dominant commu-Science 5.8 2.1 7.9
overall literacy, the scheduled castes have nity. The scheduled tribes, on the otherEngg/Tech 8.1 2.1 10.2
Medicine 11.9 4.4 16.3
fared better than the scheduled tribes. As hand, were given reservation not because
Agriculture 10.7 5.4 16.1
per the 1991 Census they enjoyed literacy they were segregated from the dominantLaw 11.7 2.7 14.4
rate of 37.4 per cent as against 29.6 percommunity, but because they lived in
Note. Enrolment fa
cent for tribes. Again the geographical isolation from the dominant community. ranging from und
mobility of the scheduled tribes, especially This difference is hardly ever pinpointed, plus diploma/certi
the educated, is not as pronounced as that let alone explicated. Rather, the generalSource. UGC, 'Representation of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
of the scheduled castes both within and tendency is to treat the two similarly.
Enrolment, Teaching and Non-Teach
outside of the states. It is precisely theseIn fact, this may be taken up as the Staff in University Teaching Departme
differences, which need to be pro- starting point for discussion as to why the University Colleges', p 5.

2768 Economic and Political Weekly July 21, 2001

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part of the dominant nationality of the Hence to seek reasons as to why thecommunities in India could be taken as the
region. It is not so with tribes and that turns scheduled tribes have not fared as well as point of illustration in the context. What
out to be one of the most serious handicaps the scheduled castes, we have to go beyond this means is that the size of the population
before tribes. In fact, an average Indian is the aforementioned explanations. Myhas nothing to do with differential share
unable to figure where the tribes fall. Tribes contention is that the exposure per se of is tribal groups with respect to facilities
are therefore invariably seen as outsiders, extended through reservation.
not as important as the social structure that
ones who not only do not speak their they represent and of which they were a A lack of heterogeneity in terms of social
language but also do not share their cus- part. Tribes in India besides being outside division of labour, occupation, skill, class,
toms, tradition and values. Belonging to access to power, style of life, etc. has been
of'civilisation' represented a different type
the tribe, though advantageous at the local considered as the hallmark of tribal soci-
of society. Tribal societies on the whole
level, is hardly so at the regional and eties. This being the case there exits hardly
are small in scale and marked by great deal
national levels. In fact, tribes suffer from of homogeneity despite being differenti-
any group or stratum, which can be taken
all the disadvantages of the community ated along lines mentioned above. Theyas the reference point for emulation by
associated with ethnic minorities/ commu-
are characterised more by resemblance than tribes. Of course there have been tribal
nities. Hence the scheduled castes have
by differentiation and heterogeneity, espe-societies with some forms of stratification,
generally been able to fill the jobs ear-
cially in terms of their structural features.
if one may use the term, but they have been
imarked for them at the lower levels. Jobs Thus tribal societies suffered from ab- rudimentary and mainly based on clan or
allocated for tribes at such levels however sence of interdependence, divisionlineage.
of Moreover they were not charac-
remain vacant mainly for two reasons. labour/occupation and correspondingly terised by status differentiation though
Either the scheduled tribe candidates areheterogeneity of values, skills, knowledge,privileges of some kinds were not alto-
income, wealth, status, privilege, etc.gether ruled out. Further there is hardly
generally not available oreven when availa-
ble there is a general discrimination or There were disadvantages arising from anything like tribal identity among tribes
prejudices against them as being outside at the pan-India level. If at all there is
the structure specific to the tribal society.
of their language and religion. Further, Tribes,
to for example, are small-scale soci- anything like tribal identity, it is confined
get into these jobs, the tribes have also eties
to and are not a part of the larger society, either to a locality/region or at best to an
learn the language of the dominant com- though they may have been in some kind institution or organisation. Moreover such
munity, an advantage that the scheduled of contact and interaction with it. The identity is at work more at the level of the
castes already possess. In short, whereas description of the tribal society as small- political or of interest articulation than at
the scheduled castes are acceptable to the scale is relative. They are small-scale socialin or cultural plane. And even when
dominant community, the scheduled tribes relation to the dominant community but there has been identity such as this, it has
are not. they vary in size among themselves. The not been assertive and active. Such an
The presence and absence of exposure, size varies from over seven million in case identity among the scheduled castes both
though necessary and important, is the agonds and bhils to even less than at the regional and national level is more
ofnot
one thousand in case of many tribal
sufficient explanation for the differentials Table 5: Enrolment of SCs and STs at
between the scheduled castes and tribes in communities. Notwithstanding such varia- UG/PG Courses (Statewlse)
making the most of the provision of res-tion in size, the societies are characterised
State Undergraduate Postgraduate
ervations. Tribes, as we all know, are not by great deal of homogeneity in their social SC ST SC ST
a homogeneous category. Not only do they structure, a point that has already been
Gujarat 3.6 1.9 6.4 12.8
differ in terms of .ize, language, region, made earlier. Interestingly, there seems to Karnataka 23.3 2.6 21.7 6.4
etc, but also in terms of exposure to the be no co-relation between the size of the MP 13.9 6.1 12.5 4.8

larger society. The contact of the tribespopulation of the different tribal groupsMaharashtra 11.4 3.0 12.1 2.0
Orissa 14.1 4.8 13.1 5.2
with the larger society though not alto-and their performances. Rather, the pattern
W Bengal 11.2 0.5 7.3 0.4
gether absent was tenuous and limited prior seems to be one of larger the size, lower
Source: UGC, 'Representation of Scheduled
to the arrival of the British. With the onset is the rate of literacy, educational attain-
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Enrolment,
of the colonial rule, the scenario has ment and share in the facilities extended
Teaching and Non-Teaching Staff in
however undergone change. Tribes have by the governments. The case of the gonds, University Teaching Departments/
bhils, santhals, the three major tribal
been increasingly brought in contact with University Colleges', pp 12-18.
the larger society and exposed to the wider
world through means of transport like roads Table 4: Admission of Scheduled Caste/Tribe Students In IIT-Kanpur (1967-78)
and railways on the one hand and growth of
Year No of Candidates No of Candidates No of Candidates ' No of Candidates
trade, commerce and market on the other. Applied for JEE in Merit and Called Offered Actually Admitted
Such a process has been followed more for Interview Admissions
Total SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST Total
vigorously in the post-independent India
through various ways of integration of 1967-68 62 47 15 - - - - -

which geographical, economic and political 1968-69 47 2 - - - - -

1969-70 35 29 6 7 1 7 1 7 1 3
has been crucial. Of course, the degree and1970-71 28 - - 5 1 6 1 6 1 7
history of integration vary from tribe to tribe. 1971-72 35 - - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1
Yet tribes with a history of such contacts1972-73 79 - - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1

and exposure, especially for over a century, 1973-74 98 86 12 42 6 42 6 - - 46

have not necessarily fared better than thoseSource. K N Sharma et al (1974): 'E
who have been minimally exposed. Adjustment of IIT, Kanpur Stud

Economic and Political Weekly July 21, 2001 2769

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pronounced in comparison to those of the process it could never become a standard
By virtue of being engaged in such works,
scheduled tribes. One of the reasons as to for evaluation, emulation and aspiration.
they had the advantage of being absorbed
why such identity is much stronger among Equally important aspect worth notinginisindustries that came up during the British
rule. They had thus the historical advan-
the scheduled castes is that they have gonethat it is the collectivity and not individu-
through the common historical experienceality that dominates the larger part of the tage of being not only a part of the modern
of oppression and discrimination for cen-life of the tribes. Hence the principle industrial
of organisation but also the process
turies. This was not the case with the sche- individuality and individual performance of urbanisation and urbanism, which got
duled tribes. Further the oppression andand excellence is less acceptable as the accelerated under the British rule.
exploitation of tribes, for the form that itethos of the tribal societies. Collectivity is
Given the structural setting in which the
scheduled castes lived in comparison with
took, was economic and political. It did notstill the central value or ethos among tribes
percolate down to social and cultural level,despite existence of certain forms of in- the scheduled tribes, the constitutional
as was the case with the scheduled castes. equality among them. Of course with incor-
provision turned out to be the major break
The reason for this is that the scheduled through for the scheduled castes but not
poration into the wider world and the provi-
castes were part of the larger community sion of protective discrimination for theso for the scheduled tribes. With the
but tribes were not. The scheduled castes adoption of the Constitution, ideology of
advancement and welfare of the tribal people,
therefore have had reference points not only tribal societies are increasingly becominghierarchy/inequality was formally replaced
within the system of which they were differentiated.
a The processes are howeverby ideology of equality and social justice.
uneven among them. Notwithstanding this,
part, viz, higher caste groups but also within For the first time in history the scheduled
castes were considered as having the same
egalitarianism to a lesser or greater degree
their own social category as they have been
able to develop a very strong sense of continues to be guiding ethos/spirit of thecivil and political rights as the others. The
tribal societies. In view of values such as
identity both at the regional and national harmonic system, viz, congruence between
these, the significance of individual/indi-
levels despite being regionally and linguis- the ideology and the social structure that
vidualism does not assume the place it
tically heterogeneous. This has been help- characterised the Indian society gave way
assumes in other categories of the popu-
ful and important in social networking, but to disharmonic system with the adoption
of the Indian Constitution [Beteille 974].
lation. Hence performance and achieve-
importantly, at interest articulation and
social and political mobilisation. Now there was disharmony between a struc-
ment that stems from the spirit of individu-
No doubt, tribes have now become alism is not adequately reflected in the tribalture that was inherently inegalitarian and
the ideology that proclaimed abolition of
exposed to the market, bureaucracy, state societies. That such a tendency or spirit is
and the wider social and cultural groups also partly responsible for poor perfor- discrimination based on race, caste, reli-
but had little knowledge of interaction and mance of tribal students cannot be denied. gion, etc. The actual social system, then,
negotiation with them, largely because they It is also important to bear in mind that was far from conducive to the realisation
had little to do with people different from tribes by and large were dependent on the of the ideal that was set in motion in
their own. Even if they had to interact with mode of livelihood that was mainly depen- independent India. The various kinds of
them, they did so only marginally. In fact, dent on nature, viz, land and forest. They provisions were therefore provided within
not only did non-tribes treat them as make their living more as food-gatherers, the Constitution for those affected by the
outsiders, but also tribes considered them hunters, livestock-holders, cultivators or system. Of these, reservation has come to
basically as outsiders and therefore not combination of one or more of them. In be the most important provision. As noted
worthy of emulation. Of course there had view of this, magic, ritual or at best rationalabove, the scheduled castes were a part of
always been exceptions. The incorpora- the larger society and were exposed to
adaptation rather than rational calculation
tion of tribes in the larger society had and domination characterise their orienta- discrimination at almost all levels of the
paved way for more intense interaction tion to life. The fact that the scheduled social life from time immemorial. The
.between tribes and non-tribes leading to extension of the constitutional provision
tribes have relatively better representation
increasing exploitation and discrimination of enrolment and employment in disci- was the beginning of the phase of setting
of tribes. These were, broadly speaking, plines connected with agriculture and the process in reverse direction. Hence the
confined in the economic field. In social scheduled castes grabbed the advantage
medicine may have something to do with
made open by the Constitution with ag-
linkage that tribes have with the organic
and cultural plane, tribes lived a life outside
of the larger society. This is not to denyworld. The scheduled castes in compari- gression and vengeance so to say. The fact
altogether that there were moves among son to the scheduled tribes were less rooted that they were part of the dominant com-
segments or sections of tribes to adopt the
in nature and hence more prone to abstract munity and were exposed to whatever the
lifestyle of castes and groups of the largerdisciplines that were sine qua non for dominant community was exposed to,
society. Such emulation however remained science and mathematics. The scheduled turned out to be handy and instrumental
confined to the cultural level and could notcastes were engaged in occupations thatin helping them to take advantage of the
were either service or craft oriented. They
get translated at the structural level. Where facilities extended by the government under
it got translated, tribes by virtue of being
were engaged in occupation that was charac- the constitutional provision. The driving
absorbed into the larger society had lost terised by some degree of calculation, reci-force that helped the scheduled castes in
procity, and commitment and therefore
their distinct identity of their own. The availing of the benefits was the position
went beyond the rhythm of nature. This
urge for integration with the larger society that they occupied in the structure of the
and to be identified with it was on the may partly explain the higher ratio of enrol-society. Since discrimination was experi-
whole missing. The larger society was seenment and employment of the scheduled enced at all levels of social life, any
as exploitative and oppressive, as a cate-castes in the field of science and techno- opportunity that was provided to them for
gory to be opposed and fought. In the logy in comparison to the scheduled tribes.reversing such an arrangement was made

2770 Economic and Political Weekly July 21, 2001

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use of by the scheduled caste population. to the modern world especially the statelevels, the scheduled tribes have however
Since the traditional occupations pursued along with its legal-bureaucratic structuresbeen able to make some impact but only
by the scheduled castes were at the root and market. Even when they came to bewhere they are in numerical majority
of low social status, the scheduled castes exposed, it was not as a part of this struc-
were desperate to abandon their traditional ture but as the victims of it. Differences among Tribes
occupation. In the context new and diver- In the sphere of politics too, as noted
sified occupations let open by the British earlier, the impact made by the scheduled As mentioned above, the scheduled
administration and the process of indus- castes at the national/regional levels hascastes have, in general, fared better than
trialisation assumed place of critical im- been greater than that of the scheduledthe scheduled tribes. But, within the cat-
portance. Industrialisation and urbanisa- tribes. This is so partly due to their numeri- egory of the scheduled caste and scheduled
tion not only opened up a space for geo- cal strength but more importantly due totribe, some castes or tribes/communities
graphical mobility but also for social their better articulation, manoeuveringhave fared better than the others. Among
mobility in view of a scope for interaction strategy and mobilisation process. Thethe scheduled castes, for example, the
mobilisation processes in case of the sche-mahars of Maharashtra or chamars and
and reference points that it provided for
duled castes unlike in case of tribes cuts
the scheduled castes categories. In fact, it jatavs of north India have done better than
across districts, regions and even states. Inthe other groups within the scheduled
acted as a major catalyst. The adoption of
the Indian Constitution in 1950 and the course, the latter have invariably emerged castes. Similarly, among tribes, there are
as the national leaders, with followers from
constitutional provision for the scheduled some that have done better in comparison
castes therein gave a major boost to thesocial categories cutting across different to other tribal groups, if not as well as the
regions and states.
process of mobility unleashed by the pro- scheduled castes. Indeed, there are cases
cess of industrialisation and urbanisation. Since the scheduled castes have been wherein some tribal groups have done better
This was not the case with tribes. Theypart of the dominant community, theythan are some of the scheduled castes groups.
did not experience the kind of discrimi- spread all over the length and breadthItof would be interesting to explore as to
nation that the scheduled castes experi-the country. Hence their presence is muchwhat accounts for such differences in case
enced primarily because they were not anstrongly felt at the national/ regional level.
of groups so found. The focus/interest here
integral part the dominant society. WhatTheir presence becomes even more visible is not so much on castes as it is on tribes;
they did experience with the colonial and significant due to their numerical
hence differences among the scheduled
encounter was the exploitation at the advantage. Also, because of the common
castes have not been highlighted as much
economic level and domination at the experience they have gone through - differences among the tribal groups.
as the
political level. This they aimed at fighting
irrespective of the part or region they come Some of the tribal communities that have
from, unity comes easily and intensely
by greater articulation of rights over land done relatively better than the others are
and forest on the one hand and political
among them as against the tribes. the minas of Rajasthan, mizos of Mizoram,
autonomy on the other rather than share Unlike the leaders from within the sched- khasis of Meghalaya, oraons of erstwhile
uled caste, the impact made by leadership
over government jobs and state structure. Bihar and Madhya Pradesh, etc. Of these,
The CQnstitution however did not extendfrom within tribes, even when nationally the minas would be conspicuous as the
recognised as in case of P A Sangma most
such guarantee to them. The industrialisa- for outstanding.
tion process did not benefit them inexample,
the has been less visible than those The minas and the oraons with a popu-
in case of the scheduled castes. It is most
way it did for the scheduled castes mainly lation ranging between two and three mil-
glaring at the level of interest articulationlion each are smaller than the groups as
because of the nature of their occupation.
Tribes also had no disliking for their
and pushing up of the tribal cause. Thethe gonds, bhils and santhals. The khasis
occupations as were the case with tribal
the leadership including Sangma isand mizos are even smaller groups than
scheduled castes. First of all, there was no to pursue the interest of tribes asthe minas and oraons. What seem to ac-
unable
stigma attached to their occupation. aggressively
Sec- as ones from the scheduledcount for better representation of the minas
castes are. He is not seen as a liberator byin the government services is that the minas
ondly, there was little inclination to aban-
the tribes he represents, which is evidentlywas a fairly differentiated community.
don traditional occupation among the tribes.
In fact, tribes more often than not werethe case with Paswan, Kanshi Ram or There were, among them, large and small
engaged in agriculture or hunting-food Mayawati, etc, in relation to scheduledlandowners besides the class ofchowkidars.
gathering. Tribes have been more inter- castes. Much of the causes for it are rooted They were also differentiated into other
ested in acquiring land and start life as nature of the tribal society, whichcategories depending on their geographi-
in the
even within a given region, is dividedcal spread, nature of their social intermin-
agriculturists at the slightest opportunity
available to them. among themselves in terms of language,gling with caste groups such as jats, ahirs
In addition tribes face disadvantages,territory, and culture on the one hand andand especially the rajputs, adoption of
which have accumulated with time. Since needs, interests and aspiration on the other.specific occupations, etc. As lords/
they have been independent of the largerThere is also an inherent difficulty for thezamindars, many lived off land as extrac-
community and therefore not a part of thescheduled tribes to negotiate with the mem-tors of rent. Also, as lords, they were in
dominant linguistic and religious commu-bers of the larger community for the lattermore regular interaction with their coun-
nity, they have invariably been seen asinvariably see them as alien and not anterparts in other communities and also the
alien to that society and therefore not theintegral part of their society. Hence there state authorities. The privileged section of
legitimate partakers in the share. They havehas been inherent centrifugal tendencythe mina community was thus in a position
by and large lived in relatively inaccessiblerather than centripetal tendency amongto take advantage open to similar people
areas; hence have been the last to be exposedtribes in India. At the sub-regional or localin other communities. The provision of

Economic and Political Weekly July 21, 2001 . 2771

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reservation gave an added advantage to the out here that there is a strong co-relation References
members of the Mina community. Once between urbanisation and higher rate of
such processes were set in motion within literacy among tribes. The oraons, on the Beteille, A (1974): Studies in Agrarian Social
Structure, Oxford University Press, Delhi.
the community, the not so privileged too other hand, were characterised by relative
Galanter, M (1984): Competing Equalities: Law
began to take the path set by the more absence of chiefs and kings within the and the Backward Classes in India, Oxford
privileged from within the community. community. The community was hence University Press, Delhi.
National Commission for the Scheduled Castes
Besides the minas, the other tribal relatively egalitarian. The onset of Chris-
and Scheduled Tribes (1998): Report of the
groups, which have done relatively better tianity and the modem education among National Commissionfor the Scheduled Castes
than the others are the mizos and khasis them however opened up the road of social and Scheduled Tribes, Vol 1, 1996-97 and
of the north-east and the oraons of the differentiation, viz, Christian, non-Chris- 1997-98.

eastern and central India. The mizos and tian, educated, and non-educated and also Planning Commission (2000): 'Tribes in India'
(A Data Sheet).
the khasis with a population of less than
certain level of occupational differentia- - (2000): 'Scheduled Castes in India' (A Data
one million each had a form of chieftain- tion within the community. It gave rise to Sheet)
ship among them. There were also someemergence of a priestly class, teachers, and Ram, Nandu (1981): 'The Limited Education,'
social differentiation based on rank and Seminar, December.
others from within who were also being
Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes
accorded high status within the commu-
some rudimentary form of status. The ranks and Scheduled Tribes, part II, 1975-76 and
and status based on lineage were not opennity. The emergence of such groups fairly 1976-77 (Appendices).
to all. It is with Christianity and modemearly within the community helped such Sharma, K N et al (1974): 'Educational Arithmetic
of Social Inequality' (A Study of Admission
education that opened up new opportuni- community to take advantage of the ser- and Adjustment of IIT Kanpur students), Dept
ties of rank and status among them. The vices provided by the modernising pro- of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian
cess. This explains, even though partially,
growth of township within the tribal heart- Institute of Technology Kanpur
land resulting from opening up of new as to why the oraons have done better than (Mimeographed).
University Grants Commission (1992-93):
administration and the rise of trade and the other in availing the facilities provided 'Representation of Scheduled Castes and
commerce gave not only a major boost toby the government under the constitutional Scheduled Tribes in Enrolment, Teaching and
the process of social differentiation in thoseprovision. These then were some of the Non-Teaching Staff in University Departments/
societies but also led to intense interaction structural features within which better University Colleges' (Mimeographed).
Verma, R C (1990): Indian Tribes through the
between groups living there including the performance of the scheduled tribes and Ages, Ministry of Information and
tribes. It may not be out of place to point castes has to be understood. If1 Broadcasting, GoI, New Delhi.

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2772 Economic and Political Weekly July 21, 2001

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