WINDOWS & WINDOW FRAMING

1 Windows .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Definition of Windows .......................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Function of Windows ............................................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 Primary Function......................................................................................................................................2

1.3 Other Functions .................................................................................................................... 2

1.4 Building code requirements .................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Functional Requirements ...................................................................................................... 3
1.5.1 Strength and Stability .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.5.2 Resistance to Weather............................................................................................................................. 4
1.5.3 Durability and freedom from maintenance ............................................................................................. 5
1.5.4 Fire Safety ................................................................................................................................................6
1.5.5 Resistance to the passage of Heat ........................................................................................................... 6
1.5.6 Resistance to passage of sound ............................................................................................................... 6
1.5.7 Security .................................................................................................................................................... 7

1.6 Window Types ...................................................................................................................... 8

1.6.1 Fixed (Dead) Light ....................................................................................................................................8
1.6.2 Opening light ...........................................................................................................................................8
1.6.2.1 Hinged .............................................................................................................................................8
1.6.2.2 Pivoted ..........................................................................................................................................10
1.6.2.3 Sliding ............................................................................................................................................10
1.6.2.4 Composite action .......................................................................................................................... 11

2 Window Framing ............................................................................................................ 12

2.1 Wood Casement Windows .................................................................................................. 12
2.1.1 Terms .....................................................................................................................................................12
2.1.2 Casement window frame ....................................................................................................................... 16
2.1.3 Weathering strips ..................................................................................................................................18
2.1.4 Hardware ...............................................................................................................................................19
2.1.5 Fixing Frames .........................................................................................................................................20

2.2 Steel Casement Windows.................................................................................................... 21

2.3 Aluminum Casement Windows ........................................................................................... 24
2.3.1 Fixing ......................................................................................................................................................25
2.3.2 Hardware ...............................................................................................................................................25

2.4 uPVC Casement Windows ................................................................................................... 26

2.5 References .......................................................................................................................... 29
1 Windows
1.1 Definition of Windows
• An opening formed in a wall or roof to admit daylight through some transparent or
translucent material fixed in the window opening.
• Windows can be made from a variety of materials or a combination of these materials such
as timber, metal and plastic.
• They can also be designed to operate in various ways by arranging the sashes to
o Slide,
o Pivot,
o Swing or Hung as a casement on one of the frame members

1.2 Function of Windows

1.2.1 Primary Function

• Admitting daylight
• This primary function of a window is served by a sheet of glass fixed in a frame in the
window opening- FIXED LIGHT

1.3 Other Functions

• Ventilation
• Exclude wind
• Exclude rain
• Barrier against excessive transfer of heat
• Barrier against sound
• Barrier against spread of fire

Glass is efficient in admitting daylight and excluding wind and rain but is a poor barrier to
the transfer of heat, sound and the spread of fire.

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Figure 1: Casement window

Source: Barry, 1999: 1

1.4 Building code requirements

• (By-laws 150-152)
• Windows should be suitably positioned for direct communication with the external air
• Every habitable room to have window(s) opening to the external air with a total area
(excluding frames) equal to at least one-tenth of the floor area of such room
o For a window on a wall abutting to an open verandah or beneath a balcony or
canopy the area shall be increased by 5% for each 300mm that the verandah, balcony
or canopy projects from the wall
• Requirement for direct communication to external air:
o An unobstructed open space distant from the boundary of not less than 2.4 meters

1.5 Functional Requirements

• Strength and stability
• Resistance to weather
• Durability and freedom from maintenance
• Fire safety
• Resistance to passage of heat
• Resistance to passage of sound
• Security

1.5.1 Strength and Stability

• A window should be strong enough when closed to resist the likely pressures and suctions
due to wind, and when open be strong and stiff enough to resist the effect of gale force
winds1 on opening lights

1
A wind with a speed of from 39 to 46 miles per hour;( 63 to 74 kilometers per hour), according to the Beaufort scale. Also
called fresh gale.
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 • A window should also have sufficient strength and stiffness against pressures and knocks
due to normal use and appear to be safe, particularly to occupants in high buildings

1.5.2 Resistance to Weather

• To conserve heat and avoid cold draughts it is good practice to design windows so that there
is little unnecessary leakage of air
• Air movement through closed windows may occur
o between the window frame and the surrounding wall
o through cracks between glass and the framing
o through glazing joints
o through clearance gaps between opening lights and the window frame
• Leakage of air can be avoided by
o care in design, construction and maintenance
o use of weathestripping
• Water tightness
o Use of weatherstripping

Figure 2: Weathering strips

Source: Barry, 1999: 44

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1.5.3 Durability and freedom from maintenance

Wood
• May rot where water enters open joints
• Need to be protected with paint or other protective coating
• Need frequent maintenance every 5-7 years

Steel windows
• Prone to corrosive rusting when not protected
• Need frequent painting
o (galvanized zinc coating does not give total protection)

Aluminum windows
• On exposure to air, aluminum forms an oxide that generally protects the aluminum below it
from further corrosion.
• This coating is coarse textured and readily collects dirt, and has an unattractive appearance
• Therefore aluminum is usually coated by anodizing, polyester powder, organic or acrylic
coatings, to inhibit corrosion and for appearance sake
• Anodised finishes may fail after some years
• Organic powder coating and acrylic coatings survive for many years and require cleaning by
washing with water to maintain appearance

uPVC2 Windows
• PVC sections maintain their original characteristics over a long time in various climatic
conditions
• Strongly coloured uPVC will after some years bleach blue due to the effect of ultraviolet
light
o This color loss is irregular and unsightly
o Overpainting is not generally successful
• The use of white or off-white is recommended
• The smooth surface will after sometime collect a layer of grime
o This can be easily removed by washing with water
• Other than occassional washing these windows require no maintenance
• (Upvc windows should be cleaned using a solution of vinegar and hot water. After spraying
the solution on the window frames and letting it sit for about two minutes, wipe with a clean
damp rag. Make sure not to use detergents and a scouring pad as this will only end up
scratching or damaging the Upvc window frames)

Glass

2
UPVC refers to Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride. It is a type of a rigid and chemically resistant form of
Poly vinyl chloride that is utilized for piping, making window frames, and other structures.
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 • A layer of grime will collect on the surface of glass over the course of a month or two
• This is unsightly and reduces light transmission
• To maintain its lustrous, fire-glazed finish, glass needs cleaning at intervals of one to two
months by washing with water and polishing dry with a linen scrim cloth

1.5.4 Fire Safety

• The requirement by building regulations are concerned with
o Providing adequate means of escape
o Limiting internal spread of fire
o Limiting external spread of fire
• Windows are unprotected areas as glass offers negligible resistance to the spread of fire
• Guidance is given in regard to minimum distances of walls from boundaries – 2.4 meters

1.5.5 Resistance to the passage of Heat

• A window affects thermal comfort in two ways
o Trasmission (passage) of heat
o Penetration of radiant heat from the sun that causes SOLAR HEAT GAIN
• Glass, which forms the major part of a window, offers poor resistance to the passage of heat
and readily allows penetration of solar radiation

1.5.6 Resistance to passage of sound

o Airborne sound
o Impact sound
• Windows and doors are a prime source for the entry of airborne sound both through glass
and by clearance gaps around opening parts of windows and doors
• Appreciable reduction of instrusive airborne sound can be effected by weatherstripping
around the opening parts of windows and doors
• The transmission of sound through materials depends mainly on their mass
o The more dense and heavier the material the more effective it is in reducing sound
• A small increase in insulation or sound reduction of glass cane be effected by the use of
thicker glass
o There is an average reduction of 5 dB obtained by doubling the thickness of glass
• Other method is to use DOUBLE GLAZING

6|Page Windows & window framing

Figure 3 Double Glazing

Source: Barry, 1999: 26

1.5.7 Security
• Windows and doors are the principal route for illegal entry to buildings
• Of the materials used for windows, uPVC can more easily be deformed than more rigid
wood, steel or aluminum sections
• Security against locks, bolts, catches and hinges being forced open depends on reasonably
rigid frame and strength of the materials
• Glass
o Ordinary glass
o Wired glass
o Toughned glass
o Laminated glass- strongest

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1.6 Window Types

1.6.1 Fixed (Dead) Light

• Describes the whole or part of a window in which glass is fixed so that no part of the glazing
can be opened

Figure 4 Casement window with dead light

Source: Barry, 1999: 35

1.6.2 Opening light

• The whole or part of a window that can be opened by being hinged or pivoted to the frame
or which can slide open inside the frame
• Windows with opening lights may be classified according to the manner in which the
opening lights are arranged to open inside the frame

1.6.2.1 Hinged
• side hung
• Top hung
• Bottom hung

Figure 5 Hinged window opening

Source: Barry, 1999: 32

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Figure 6 Side hung casement window Figure 7 Pair of Casements

Source: Barry, 1999: 34 Source: Barry, 1999: 34

Figure 8 Casement and mullion Figure 9 Casement and ventlights

Source: Barry, 1999: 34 Source: Barry, 1999: 34

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1.6.2.2 Pivoted
• Horizontally pivoted
• Vertically pivoted

Figure 10 Pivoted

Source: Barry, 1999: 32

1.6.2.3 Sliding
• Vertically sliding
• Horizontally sliding

Figure 11 Sliding

Source: Barry, 1999: 32

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1.6.2.4 Composite action
• Side hung projected
• Top hung projected
• Bottom hung projected
• Sliding folding

Figure 12 Composite

Source: Barry, 1999: 32

Figure 13 Projected top hung window Figure 14 Tilt and turn window

Source: Barry, 1999: 39 Source: Barry, 1999: 39

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2 Window Framing
2.1 Wood Casement Windows

2.1.1 Terms
• Casement -an openable, framed, glazed and hinged light in a window unit.
• Cellulose lacquer, cellulose varnish- a quick drying varnish, used mainly on wooden surfaces,
based on nitrocellulose compounds in a solvent-based medium, which dries by the evaporation of
the solvent.
• Combed joint -a joinery corner joint for drawers and boxes in which pieces are cut with a series of
square notches to fit each other, also called a comb joint, finger joint or boxed corner joint.
• Haunched tenon joint -a joinery mortise and tenon joint with an L-shaped tenon flush with both
edges of the member at its stem, then stepped back on one side towards its end.
• Mortise and tenon joint, tenon joint- a strong timber framing joint in which the end of one
member is cut with a tenon which fits into a housing or mortise in another.
• Mullion, munnion, muntin- a vertical dividing or framing member in a window, proprietary glazing
systems etc.
• Rail-a horizontal frame member in a door leaf, sash, casement or other framework.
• Rebate- a step-shaped reduction along the edge of or in the face of a piece of timber or other
component, usually to receive another piece; a housing in a window or door frame in which a door
leaf, casement or pane of glass is fitted.
• Rebate joint -a timber joint in which one piece has been rebated to receive another.
• Scribed edge -in horizontal log construction, the edge of the long groove, in contact with the upper
surface of the log below, which provides a closure against the elements.
• Shoulder- in timber tenon jointing, the timber surface at the base of a tenon which abuts the face of
the mortised member
• Stile- a vertical side framing member of a door leaf or window casement.
• Throat, throating, drip- in building construction, a slot in the undersurface of a protruding
externalcomponent such as a sill to prevent water running back to the surface of the building.
• Transom, transome; -a horizontal framing member in a window or door frame, between two
openable panels such as a door and fanlight above, or between two sashes in the same frame
• Tenon-a rectangular protrusion cut into the end of a timber member, which fits into a recess or
mortise to create a mortise and tenon joint.
• Ventlight- an openable hatch or window to provide ventilating air.
• Weathered joint- weather joint, weather-struck joint, struck joint; a horizontal brickwork joint
whose mortar is pressed in at the top, slanting in cross-section.
• Weathered pointing - in brickwork, the making of weathered joints.
• Weatherstrip-draught strip, draught excluder, weather seal; a strip of impervious material applied to
joints between a door leaf or window casement` and its frame to prevent the passage of water and air
draughts, and as soundproofing.
• Window sill (Cill)- an external horizontal protruding construction at the base of a window for
throwing off water; the lowest horizontal member in a window frame.

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 Figure 15: Wood casement window

Source: Barry, 1999: 40

• The Rebates- usually 13mm deep serve as a check to wind and rain in normal positions of
exposure

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 • The traditional jointing for timber frames was to use MORTISE AND TENON JOINTS.
The joint is made secure with glue and wedges

Figure 16 Mortise and Tenon joints

Source: Barry, 1999: 41 Source: Barry, 1999: 42

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 • The alternative is to use COMBED JOINT
o This consists of interlocking tongues cut on the ends of members which are put
together, glued and pinned
o Combed joints can be cut and assembled faster than mortise and tenon joints

Figure 17 Combed joint

Source: Barry, 1999: 41

• It is usual to specify the sizes of timber for joinery for windows, door and frames as being ex
100x75 mm, for example
o The description ‘ex’ denotes that the member is to be cut from a rough sawn timber
size 100x75 mm, which after being planed on all four faces would be about 95x70
mm finished size.
o This system of specifying timber members is used when joinery is to be prepared by
hand operated tools

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 o Where joinery is wrought or planed by machine it is practice to specify the precise
finished size of each member (this is the dimension the operator needs to know
when setting up the machine)

2.1.2 Casement window frame

• A casement window frame consists of a HEAD, TWO POSTS (JAMBS) and a SILL joined
with mortise and tenon joints, together with one or more MULLIONS and a TRANSOM,
depending on the number of casements and ventlights
• The members of wood window frame are cut from 100 x75 mm or 100 x 63 mm for sill and
transom
• The members of the frame are joined with wedged mortice and tenon joints.
• The posts (jambs) of the frame are tenoned to the head and sill with the ends of the sill and
head projecting some 40 mm or more each side of the frame as HORNS
o These projecting horns can be built into the wall in the jambs of openings or they
may be cut off on site if the frame is built in flush with the outside of the wall
• The reason for using a haunched tenon joint between posts and head is so that when the
horn is cut off there will still be a complete mortice and tenon left.
• The mortice and tenon joints are put together in glue, cramped up and wedged.
• When there is a transom in the frame it is joined to the posts by means of tenons fitted and
wedged to mortices.
• Mullions are joined to head and sill with tenons wedged to mortices and to the transom with
stub tenons fitted into a mortice.
o A stub tenon is one which does not go right through the timber into which it is fitted

16 | P a g e Windows & window framing

Figure 18 Joints of casement window frame

Source: Barry, 1999: 42

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2.1.3 Weathering strips

Purpose
1) Exclude wind
2) Barrier to entry of draughts and cold air
3) Barrier to airborne sound

Forms

• Flexible bulb or strip of rubber, Synthetic rubber or plastic which is compressed between the
frame and the opening light
• Strip of nylon filament pile between the frame and the opening light
• For a maximum effect these seals should be fitted or fixed on the back face of the rebate or
the inner face of the frame so that the rebate acts as a first defense against driven wind and
rain

Figure 19: Weathering strips

Source: Barry, 1999: 44

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2.1.4 Hardware
1) Hinges
2) Fasteners
3) Stays

Figure 20 Lockable casement fastener Figure 21 Lockable casement peg stay

Source: Barry, 1999: 46 Source: Barry, 1999: 46

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2.1.5 Fixing Frames

1) The traditional method of fixing windows in position in a wall is to build solid walling around
them.
• The window is said to be ‘built-in’
• The advantage of this is that there is good fit of the wall to the window and that secure
fixings may be solidly bedded in horizontal courses as the wall is raised around the window.
• Majority of softwood joinery and metal windows are built-in
• Any slight damage to the frame will be masked by subsequent painting

Figure 22: Fixing wood frames, lugs
• Softwood window frames are secured in
position by means of ‘L’ Shaped galvanized
steel cramps or lugs that are screwed to the
back of the frame and built into horizontal
brick or block courses as the wall is raised.

• The figure illustrates a fishtail ended lug

50x75mm

Source: Barry, 1999: 47

2) Fixing-in the window after the wall has been built. This is applicable to:
• Hardwood windows
• Ready glazed plastic and aluminum windows

Where hardwood frames are fixed-in after the walling is completed, one method of fixing frames is
to leave pockets in the jambs of the wall into which lugs can be fitted and the walling then made up.

As an alternative the window frames may be secured by galvanized iron straps screwed to the back
of the frame and screwed to plugs in the inner reveal of the opening where they will be hidden by
subsequent plastering

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2.2 Steel Casement Windows

Made from

1) Standard Z-section hot-rolled steel

2) Universal section.
o Made with channels to take weatherstripping

Figure 23: Standard steel z-section Figure 24: W20 Universal steel section

Source: Barry, 1999: 48

Source: Barry, 1999: 48

Disadvantage of steel window

• The small section will not comfortably accommodate the thickness of double glazing
• The material being a good conductor of heat acts as a cold bridge to transfer of heat and
encourages condensation which in turn may encourage rust

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Figure 25 Typical steel window details

Source: Greeno and Chudley, 1999: 294

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Figure 26 Steel window couplings and fixings

Source: Greeno and Chudley, 1999: 295

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2.3 Aluminum Casement Windows
• Majority of aluminum windows are of sections extruded from aluminum alloy in a wide
range of channel and box sections with grooves for lips for weatherstripping and double
glazing
• In the extrusion process through which these window sections are formed, molten metal is
forced through a die as thin sections of material
• The extrusion process allows for a wide range of sections which are more straightforward to
vary than comparable uPVC sections
o This is a particular advantage of aluminum as a window material where special
sections are required

Figure 27 Corner cleat for aluminum window

Source: Barry, 1999: 52

• A disadvantage of aluminum as a window material is that it is a good conductor of heat and

in consequence moisture vapour in warm air will condense to water on the cold inner
surfaces of these window sections in periods of cold outside temperature

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2.3.1 Fixing
• The aluminum frame is secured to the surrounding wall by aluminum lugs that clip to the
back of the frame at centers of up to 600mm and also adjacent to hinges and fasteners, with
the lugs screwed to plugs in the wall

Figure 28 Fixing lugs

Source: Barry, 1999: 53

INSULATED GLAZING (IG),- more commonly known as double glazing (or double-pane, and increasingly triple
glazing/pane) are double or triple glass window panes separated by an air or other gas filled space to reduce heat
transfer across a part of the building envelope.
Insulated Glass Units are manufactured with glass in range of thickness from 3 mm to 10 mm (1/8" to 3/8") or more in
special applications. Laminated or tempered glass may also be used as part of the construction. Most units are
manufactured with the same thickness of glass used on both panes but special applications such as acoustic
attenuation or security may require wide ranges of thicknesses to be incorporated in the same unit.

2.3.2 Hardware
• Hinges, lockable casement fasteners and stays are made of anodized finish, cast aluminum or
die-cast zinc alloy, chromium plated

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2.4 uPVC Casement Windows

• These windows are fabricated from extruded, high-impact strength, white, uPVC (Unplasticized
polyvinyl chloride)
• Modifiers such as acrylic are added to the PVC3 material to improve impact strength
• Pigment may be added to produce body colored uPVC
• The heated, plastic material is forced through dies from which it extrudes as thin-walled hollow box
sections, complete with rebates, grooves and nibs for beads, weatherseals, glazing seals and for fixing
hardware.
• Section sizes vary from 2.2mm to 3 mm.
• The extruded sections are mitre4 cut to length, metal reinforcement is fitted inside the main central
cell, and the corner joins are welded together by an electrically heated plate that melts the end
material with the ends then brought together to fuse weld

Metal Reinforcement
• Reinforcement should be fitted to all frames more than 1500mm long and all opening lights more
than 900mm long.
• For fixing frames to surrounding walls and for secure fixing of hardware it is advantageous to use
reinforcement to all window sections
• Reinforcement is either of galvanized, rolled steel or extruded aluminum sections, aluminum having
the advantage that it does not destructively corrode and expand where water may find its way into
the hollow sections.

White or off -white uPVC

• In use, colored uPVC material, particularly dark colors may bleach in an irregular, unsightly manner
after some years due to ultraviolet light, so white to off-white uPVC is recommended

Behavior in fire

• In fire, uPVC, which does not readily ignite, will only burn when the source of heat is close to the
material and will not appreciably contribute to the spread of flame.

Advantage

• Other than occasional washing with water to remove dirt these windows require no maintenance

Disadvantage

• Because most uPVC sections are bulky they are not suited for use in the comparatively small
casement windows.

3
Polyvinyl chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely produced plastic,
after polyethylene and polypropylene. PVC is used in construction because it is more effective than traditional materials
such as copper, iron or wood in pipe and profile applications. It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition
of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in clothing and upholstery, electrical
cable insulation, inflatable products and many applications in which it replaces rubber

4Mitre-a corner joint used in picture and glazing framing, fine joinery etc. in which two perpendicular pieces meet with
joined ends splayed to 45O; mitred edge-the end of one such piece cut with a 45 O splay
26 | P a g e Windows & window framing
Hardware
• Made from cast aluminum alloy and die-cast zinc alloy with anodized, powder or organic
liquid coatings for fasteners and stays that are screwed through the outer wall of the uPVC
sections into the reinforcement

Fixing uPVC frames

• To avoid damage to the frames during building operations these windows are usually fixed in
position after the surrounding walls have been built
• Fixing is by
o Driving strong screws through holes in the frame and reinforcement into
surrounding walls
o By means of lugs bolted to the back of frames which are screwed to plugs in walls
• Fixings are at 250 and 600mm centers and from 150 to 250mm from corners

27 | P a g e Windows & window framing

Perimeter seals to uPVC windows
• The gap between the window and the surrounding wall is sealed with silicone or
polyurethane sealant with backing of foamed, compressible, pre-formed strips or gunned in
expanded, adhesive foam for joints more than 6 mm wide

Figure 29 uPVC casement window

Source: Barry, 1999: 58

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2.5 References
Barry, R., (1999). The Construction of Buildings, Volume 2, Fifth Edition. London: Blackwell Science Ltd.

Greeno Roger and Roy Chudley, (1999).Construction Technology, 3rd Edition. Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited

Kenya, Republic of, (1968). The Local Government (Adoptive By-Laws) (Building) Order 1968. Nairobi:
Government Printer

Nikolas Davies and ErkkiJokiniemi, (2008).Dictionary of Architecture and Building Construction

Amsterdam: Elsevier Ltd

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