Final Business English

Լ. Ա.
ՀԱՐՈՒԹՅՈՒՆՅԱՆ
BUSINESS ENGLISH
ԵՐԵՎԱՆ 2019
Գրախոսներ՝ Եղիազարյան Գ. Վ., բ.գ.դ.,
պրոֆեսոր
Մկրտչյան Թ.Մ., տ.գ.դ., դոցենտ
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Գրիգորյան Ա.Ռ., բ.գ.թ., դոցենտ
Խաչատրյան Ա.Ս., բ.գ.թ.,
դոցենտ
Գլխավոր խմբագիր՝ Չալաբյան Ս.Ա., բ.գ.թ.,

դոցենտ
Լ.Ա.Հարությունյան
BUSINESS ENGLISH
Դասագիրքը նախատեսված է տնտեսագետ ուսանողների,

տնտեսագիտության տարբեր ոլորտներում աշխատող
մասնագետների, ինչպես նաև անգլերենով հրատարակված
մասնագիտական գրականությունից օգտվել
ցանկացողների համար:
2
ԱՌԱՋԱԲԱՆ
«Business English» անգլերենի դասագիրքը նախատես-

ված է բուհերի տնտեսագիտական, միջազգային
տնտեսական հարաբերությունների ֆակուլտետների
ուսանողների, ինչպես նաև տնտեսագիտական ոլորտում
աշխատող, գործարար անգլերենով հաղորդակցվել
ցանկացող մասնագետների համար: Դասագրքում առկա
նյութի բաշխվածությունը ծրագրված է 80 ժամյա
տևողությամբ դասընթացի համար:
Այն նպատակաուղղված է տնտեսագետ ուսանողների
մոտ զարգացնել անգլերենով մասնագիտական
գրականություն ընթերցելու հմտություններ, կուտակել
տնտեսագիտության բնագավառին ու գործարար ոլորտին
վերաբերող համապատասխան բառապաշար, զարգացնել
ուսանողների բանավոր խոսքը մասնագիտության ոլոր-
տում, օժանդակել գիտական զեկույցներ, էսսեներ գրելուն և
հետազոտություններ կատարելուն:
«Business English» դասագիրքը բաղկացած է 20 դասից:
Դասերում ներկայացված հիմնական նյութերն ընտրված են
տնտեսագիտության տարբեր բնագավառներից, որոնք
ներկայացնում են տնտեսագիտական և գործարար
ոլորտին առնչվող հիմնական հասկացություններ՝
ապահովագրություն, արժեթղթեր, փող, ապրանքներ և
ծառայություններ, միջազգային տնտեսական հարաբերու-
թյուններ, համաշխարհայնացում, գովազդ, բանկային
գործունեություն, թիմային աշխատանք, կորպորատիվ
մշակույթ և այլն:
Յուրաքանչյուր դաս սկսվում է մասնագիտական
որոշակի ոլորտին վերաբերող հարցաշարով, որի
քննարկումը կնպաստի ուսանողների բանավոր խոսքի
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հմտացմանը և տվյալ թեմաներով զրույց վարելու
կարողությունների զարգացմանը:
Տեքստի բովանդակության ընկալումն ավելի դյուրին
դարձնելու և ուսանողի բառապաշարը հարստացնելու
համար յուրաքանչյուր դասի տեքստին հաջորդում է
մասնագիտական բառապաշարից բառացանկ, որտեղ
տրվում է բառի հնչյունական տառադարձումը, խոսք-
իմասային պատկանելությունը և թարգմանությունը:
Տեքստին առնչվող վարժությունները խթանում են վերջինիս
բովանդակության ընկալումը, որոնք, իրենց հերթին,
նպաստում են մասնագիտական տեքստերի
ընթերցանության և ընկալման հմտությունների զարգաց-
մանը:
Վարժությունների գերակա մասը միտված է կուտակելու
առավելապես մասնագիտական բառապաշար, ներառյալ
տնտեսագիտությանը և գործարար ոլորտին վերաբերող
եզրեր և հիմնաբառեր: Առկա են նաև վարժություններ,
որոնք ուղղված են զարգացնելու ուսումնառողների գրավոր
խոսքը, մասնավորապես ձեռք բերելու էսսեներ գրելու
կարողություններ, ներառյալ բառապաշար, որը կօգնի
ուսանողին ներկայացնել որևէ խնդրահարույց հարցի
վերաբերյալ իր կողմ կամ դեմ լինելու պատճառները և
փաստարկները: Մի շարք վարժությունների, որոնք
www.ted.com և www.youtube.com կայքերից քաղված
կենդանի խոսքի հատվածներ են, նպատակն է
կատարելագործել ուսանողների բանավոր խոսքի
ընկալման հմտությունները:
Դասագրքի վերջում տրվում է ընդլայնված բառարան՝
հիմնված ներկայացվող ամբողջ նյութի վրա, ինչպես նաև
անգլերենի քերականական հիմնական թեմաների
համառոտ նկարագիր:
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CONTENTS
UNIT I. CULTURE OF CONSUMPTION:

GOODS AND SERVICES..................................7
UNIT II. SECRETS OF BRANDING......................................17
UNIT III. REALM OF ADVERTISING..................................30
UNIT IV. INTERNATIONAL TRADE....................................44
UNIT V. GLOBALIZATION:
A CURSE OR A BLESSING?..................................51
UNIT VI. WORLD WITHOUT MONEY:

CAN YOU IMAGINE IT?........................................62
UNIT VII. E-COMMERCE........................................................73
UNIT VIII. BANKING INDUSTRY............................................83
UNIT IX. WORLD OF SECURITIES......................................93
UNIT X. HISTORY OF INSURANCE............................100
UNIT XI. ECONOMIC INEQUALITY...................................108
UNIT XII. ALL ABOUT SUCCESSFUL STARTUPS.............116
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UNIT XIII. MAGIC OF TEAMWORK...................................128
UNIT XIV. IT IS ALL ABOUT CULTURE...............................138
UNIT XV. CORPORATE CULTURE.......................................147
UNIT XVI. BODY LANGUAGE IN BUSINESS................157
UNIT XVII.
.....................................................................................
WHAT MAKES A GOOD LEADER?....................168
UNIT XVIII. TIME MANAGEMENT........................................180
UNIT XIX. PUBLIC SPEAKING.............................................191
UNIT XX. BEING ECOFRIENDLY..........................................204
V O C A B U L A R Y....................................................................215
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UNIT I
CULTURE OF CONSUMPTION:
GOODS AND SERVICES
DISCUSSION
1. What are the social/environmental effects of buying many goods?
2. What are the benefits of mass consumerism?
3. How do brands, products, advertising and marketing change our
shopping habits? How has this changed over the last 75 years?
4. Is the economy based on shopping or consumerism?
5. Is it possible to be ‘green’ or conscious of the environment while
being a consumer?
6. Have festivals (Christmas, New Year’s Day, Easter, Valentine's
Day) become opportunities to sell products?
7. What is the difference between goods and services?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
I. Match the words below with their definitions.
1) consumer goods a) goods which, if used by one party, may not
be available for others, such as food and
clothing
2) producer goods b) a social and economic order that encourages
the acquisition of goods and services in
increasing amounts
3) single use goods c) goods which are collectively owned by the
society
4) consumerism d) goods which are directly used by the
consumer for the purposes of consumption
5) durable goods e) goods which are used in further production
6) public goods f) goods which are only used or consumed
once
7) private goods g) an activity of performing work for others
8) service h) goods which can be used for a considerably
long period of time
II. Fill in the gaps with some of the words presented in exercise I
in the appropriate grammatical form.
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1. A ____ is a product that one individual can consume without
reducing its availability to another individual, and from which no one is
excluded. 2. A ____ is not manufactured, transported or stocked. It is
produced and consumed simultaneously. 3. ____ is the theory that a
country that consumes goods and services in large quantities will be
better off economically. That is why, sometimes, this
phenomenon is referred to as a policy that promotes greed. 4.
____ are goods bought and used by consumers, rather than by
manufacturers for producing other goods. 5. ____ such as
refrigerators or cars usually continue to be useful for three or more
years of use.
III. Read the text and try to find in which paragraphs it is spoken
about
1. the description of services
2. the description of goods
3. the main differences between goods and services
4. the difficulties of service evaluation
5. certain examples of services
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GOODS AND SERVICES: MAIN DIFFERENCES
(1) At present, the success of the business lies in the combination
of best quality of goods and customer oriented services. “Goods” are
the physical objects while a “service” is an activity of performing
work for others.
(2) Goods refer to the tangible consumable products, articles,
commodities that are offered by the companies to the customers in
exchange for money. They are the items that have physical
characteristics, i.e. shape, appearance, size, weight, etc. and are
capable of satisfying human wants. Some items are made for one-time
use by the consumer while some can repeatedly be used. Goods are the
products which are traded on the market. There is a time gap in the
production, distribution, and consumption of goods. When the
buyer purchases goods and pays the price, the ownership is passed
from seller to buyer. Books, pens, bottles, bags, etc. are all examples of
goods.
(3) A service is an intangible economic product that is provided by
a person on the other person’s demand. It is an activity carried out for
someone else. They can only be delivered at a particular moment, and
hence they are perishable in nature. Services cannot
be distinguished from the service provider. The point of sale is the
basis for consumption of services. Services cannot be owned but can
only be utilized. You can understand this by an example: If you buy a
ticket for watching a movie at the multiplex, it doesn’t mean that you
purchased the multiplex, but you have paid the price of availing
services.
(4) Service receiver should fully participate when the service is
provided. Evaluation of services is a relatively tough task because
different service providers offer the same services but charge a
different amount. Postal services, banking, insurance, transport,
communication, etc. are all examples of services.
(5) The basic differences between goods and services are
mentioned below:
 Goods are the material items that the customers are ready to
purchase for a price. Services are the amenities, benefits or
facilities provided by other people.
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 Goods are tangible items i.e. they can be seen or touched
whereas services are intangible items.
 When the buyer purchases the goods by paying the
consideration, the ownership of goods moves from the seller to
the buyer. Conversely, the ownership of services is non-
transferable.
 The evaluation of services is difficult because every service
provider has a different approach of carrying out services, so it is
hard to judge whose services are better.
 Goods can be returned to or exchanged with the seller, but it is
not possible to return or exchange services, once they are
provided.
 Goods can be distinguished from the seller. On the other hand,
services and service provider are inseparable.
 A particular product will remain the same regarding physical
characteristics and specifications, but services can never remain
the same.
 Goods can be stored for future use, but services are time bound,
i.e. if not availed in the given time, then they cannot be stored.
 First of all the goods are produced, then they are traded and
finally consumed, whereas services are produced and consumed
at the same time.
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VOCABULARY NOTES
combination (n) /ˌkɒm.bɪˈneɪ.ʃən/ համակցում
oriented (adj) /-ɔː.ri.en.tɪd/ միտված
perform (v) /pəˈfɔːm/ կատարել
tangible (adj) /ˈtæn.dʒə.bəl/ շոշափելի
consumable /kənˈsjuː.mə.bl̩/ սպառողական
article (n) /ˈɑː.tɪ.kəl/ առարկա, ապրանք
exchange (n) /ɪksˈtʃeɪndʒ/ փոխանակում
item (n) /ˈaɪ.təm/ իր, ապրանք
shape (n) /ʃeɪp/ ձև
appearance (n) /əˈpɪə.rəns/ արտաքին տեսք
size (n) /saɪz/ չափս
weight (n) /weɪt/ քաշ
capable (adj) /ˈkeɪ.pə.bəl/ ունակ, ընդունակ
trade (v) /treɪd/ առևտուր անել
gap (n) /ɡæp/ հատված, բաց
distribution (n) /ˌdɪs.trɪˈbjuː.ʃən/ բաշխում
ownership (n) /ˈəʊ.nə.ʃɪp/ սեփականության
իրավունք
intangible (adj) /ɪnˈtæn.dʒə.bəl/ ոչ շոշափելի
carry out (v) /ˈkær.i aʊt/ իրականացնել,
կատարել
hence (adv) /hens/ այսպիսով
perishable (adj) /ˈper.ɪ.ʃə.bəl/ շուտ փչացող
nature (n) /ˈneɪ.tʃər/ բնույթ
distinguish (v) /dɪˈstɪŋ.ɡwɪʃ/ տարբերակել
point (n) /pɔɪnt/ տեղ, կետ
basis (n) /ˈbeɪ.sɪs/ հիմք
own (v) /əʊn/ ունենալ,
սեփականատեր լինել
utilize (v) /ˈjuː.təl.aɪz/ օգտագործել,
կիրառել
multiplex (n) /ˈmʌl.tɪ.pleks/ բազմադահլիճ
(կինոթատրոնի
մասին)
avail (v) /əˈveɪl/ օգտագործել, օգտվել
participate (v) /pɑːˈtɪs.ɪ.peɪt/ մասնակցել
evaluation (n) /ɪˌvæl.juˈeɪ.ʃən/ գնահատում
relatively (adv) /ˈrel.ə.tɪv.li/ հարաբերականորեն
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charge (v) /tʃɑːdʒ/ գանձել, գին
սահմանել
amenity (n) /əˈmiː.nə.ti/ հարմարանք,
հարմարություն
benefit (n) /ˈben.ɪ.fɪt/ շահ, օգուտ,
առավելություն
facility (n) /fəˈsɪl.ə.ti/ հարմարանք,
consideration (n) /kənˌsɪd.əˈreɪ.ʃən/ վճար
conversely /kənˈvɜːs.li/ ընդհակառակը
(adv)
non-transferable /nɒntransˈfəːrəb(ə)l/ ոչ փոխադրելի, ոչ
(adj) փոխանցելի
judge (v) /dʒʌdʒ/ դատել, կարծիք
կազմել
regarding (prep) /rɪˈɡɑː.dɪŋ/ վերաբերյալ,
կապված
specification (n) /ˌspes.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/ առանձնաահտկությո
ւն, որակ
store (v) /stɔːr/ պահպահել
bound (adj) /baʊnd/ կապված
IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

according to the text.
1. Goods are tangible items that have physical characteristics.
2. When a person buys goods, the ownership is passed from
the buyer to the seller.
3. A service is carried out by people on the demand of
others.
4. Services can be possessed and utilized.
5. It is an easy task to evaluate services.
6. Different amounts of money are paid for the same
service.
7. The ownership of a service is non-transferable when a person
buys it.
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V. Find in the text synonyms or equivalent word combinations to
the following definitions.
1. the mixture you get when two or more things are combined (par.
1)
2. real, able to be shown, touched, or experienced (par. 2)
3. the way a person or thing looks or seems to other people
(par. 2)
4. a period in which something does not happen (par. 2)
5. the right or state of being an owner (par. 2)
6. likely to decay or go bad quickly (par. 3)
7. a very large cinema building that has a lot of separate cinemas
inside it (par. 3)
8. to make use of something (par. 3)
9. the making of a judgement about the amount, or value of
something; assessment (par. 4)
10. to ask an amount of money for something, especially a
service or activity (par. 4)
11. something, such as a swimming pool or shopping centre, that
is intended to make life more pleasant or comfortable for
the people in a town, hotel, or other place (par. 5)
12. an amount of money as payment for a service (par. 5)
13. in an opposite way (par. 5)
14. not able to be used by another person (par. 5)
15. placed under legal or moral restraint or obligation (par. 5)
VI. Translate the following word combinations into English.

սպառողակենտրոն/սպառողամետ ծառայություններ,
շոշափելի սպառողական ապրանքներ, ֆիզիկական
բնութագրիչներ, բավարարել մարդկային կարիքները,
վաճառվել շուկայում, սեփականության իրավունքը
փոխանցվում է վաճառողից գնորդին, անշոշափելի
տնտեսական ապրանք, բնույթով շուտ փչացող,
օգտվել ծառայություններից, ծառայություն ստացող,
ֆիզիկական բնութագրիչներին և
առանձնահատկություններին վերաբերող,
պահպանվել հետագա օգտագործման համար
13
VII. Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions or adverbs where
necessary.
1. ____ present children under 14 are not permitted ____ bars. 2.
____ his speech, he referred ____ a recent trip ____ Canada. 3. It is
illegal ____ public officials to solicit gifts or money ____ exchange
____ favors. 4. This small estate had passed ____ his mother
____ him after her death. 5. They
carried ____ their plan without incident. 6. The problem is delicate
____ nature. 7. That is the fundamental difference ____ the two
societies.
VIII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

pairs.
specification, hence, to reserve, intangible, evaluation,
perishable, to own, immaterial, to store, bound,
appearance, to carry out, therefore, assessment,
easily spoiled, qualification, constrained, look, to
perform, to possess
b) In the following sentences replace the words in bold with

the words given below.
hence, owned, specification, evaluation, appearance
1. The cars have been built to a high qualification.
2. A better working environment improves people’s performance,
and therefore productivity. 3. You can change the whole look of
the room just by lighting it in a certain way. 4. I've never
possessed a car in my life. 5. Based on its assessment
of market conditions, the company had decided not to
repurchase shares at this time.
IX. Read each scenario presented below and decide whether you
are buying a service or a good.
1. You get your hair cut.
2. You buy a book from a garage sale.
3. You buy your mother a flower from a flower shop.
4. You hire someone to cut your lawn.
5. You visit the doctor for a checkup.
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6. You purchase a game to give as a birthday gift.
7. You buy an ice cream cone from an ice cream truck.
8. You take an airplane when you go on a trip.
SOME TIPS ON ESSAY WRITING

Nearly all essays follow this basic structure:
a) Introduction
b) Supporting paragraph 1
c) Supporting paragraph 2
d) Conclusion
In the essay introduction, you should start by repeating the question.
This does not mean that you should copy the question. You should say
the question again, but using different words that mean the same thing
(synonyms). Rewrite the question using completely different
vocabulary trying to retain the original meaning of the question. After
restating the question, give your opinion on the subject, which will give
an overview of what is to come in your essay.
After you have given your opinion, you need to back it up.
The best way to do this is to give examples. You can begin
supporting paragraph 1 with phrases like:
Personally, I believe that...
From my point of view...
I am convinced that...
In my opinion...
In my view...
In your next paragraph, you should look at the question from the
opposite viewpoint to yours and show that you have balance in your
writing. You can start this paragraph with phrases such as:
It can also be argued that...
Someone who held the opposing view would say that...
However, there is also another side to this discussion.
In contrast, some people hold the view that...
To finish off your essay, you need to summarise your whole
argument as a conclusion. Essentially, this means that you give your
opinion again that you stated in the introduction. You should try again
to use synonyms and not just copy your previous sentence. Now, you
15
can add your expanded arguments from supporting paragraph 1 into
your opinion.
WRITING
Write an essay on the following topic. Give reasons
for your answer and include any relevant example from
your own knowledge and experience. Write at least 250
words. Try to spend no more than 40 minutes on this
task.
We live in an era of consumerism and it's all about
desire-based consumerism and it has nothing to do with
things we actually need. What is youռ view? Discuss.
16
U N I T II
SECRETS OF BRANDING
DISCUSSION
1. What three global brands can you name?
2. What are three important aspects of a successful brand?
3. Do you have a favorite brand? What is it and why do you like it?
4. Why are brand names important?
5. Are popular celebrities good brand ambassadors? Why? Give an
example of a good one.
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) branding a) what the customers/public actually think
about the brand
2) brand b) knowing about a brand
3) brand image c) an overall experience of a customer that
distinguishes an organization or product
from its rivals in the eyes of the customer
4) market leader d) the process of creating a unique name and
image for a product in the consumer's mind,
mainly through advertising campaigns
5) premium brand e) always buying the same brand because you
like it and not buying products from a rival
brand
6) brand loyalty f) a brand with a high price for quality
products, e.g. ferrari
7) economy brand g) a product that sells more than all similar
products e.g. Coca Cola
8) target market h) a brand/products with very low prices
9) brand awareness i) a product that everyone wants
10) must-have item j) the ideal group of people that a company
aims a product at
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1. The mobile phone has become a ____ for children. 2. As a
result of her strong ____ to Samsung, Lucy has never purchased an
Iphone, even though she knows that Apple offers better apps. 3. The
Nike corporation has done an excellent job in ____ by making their
‘swoosh’ one of the most recognizable logos on the planet. 4. _____ is
the attributes of a brand as perceived by potential or actual customers.
5. Apart from the top brands, we also have a wide range of ____ in our
stock.
about
1. the companies that experienced a bad brand stretching
2. the advantages and benefits of successful branding
3. the company that benefited by influencing people’s emotional
values
4. the definition of a brand
5. the example of visual associations and perceptions of a certain
brand
BRAND AND BRANDING
(1) A brand is a set of associations that a person makes with a
company, product, service, individual or organization. These
associations may be intentional, actively promoted via marketing, or
they may be outside the company’s control. For example, a poor press
review for a new product might harm the product manufacturer’s brand
by raising negative associations in people’s minds.
(2) To illustrate the idea, let’s take what is the best-known product
or brand in the world: Coca-Cola. Although essentially just a soft
drinks product, Coca-Cola the drink is eclipsed by the sheer might of
Coca-Cola the brand. Typical perceptions for Coca-Cola might be its
recipe being secret and unsurpassed, that it’s all-American or maybe
global, that it’s youthful, energetic, refreshing and so on. Visual
associations might include the unmistakable red and white logo, or the
unique shape and tint of the glass bottles.
(3) If a brand results from a set of associations and perceptions in
people’s minds, then branding is an attempt to influence and control
these associations to help the business perform better. While absolute
control over a brand is not possible due to outside influences,
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intelligent use of design, advertising, marketing, service, corporate
culture and so on can all really help to generate associations in people’s
minds that will benefit the organization.
(4) Branding can help you stand out from your competitors and add
value to your offer. Branding is a way of highlighting what makes
your offer different to, and more desirable than, anyone
else’s. Effective branding elevates a product or organization from
being just one commodity amongst many identical commodities, to
become something with a unique character and promise. People are
generally willing to pay more for a branded product than they are for
something which is largely unbranded.
(5) Creating a connection with people is an important branding
strategy. Apple’s original launch of the iPod, for example, catapulted
the company from computer business to mass-market entertainment
brand, with iPod marketing influencing people’s emotional
relationship with their music. They continued their strategy with
introduction of the iPhone, iPad and App Store and created
mainstream consumer culture.
(6) Brand stretch is a proven way for brands to grow by extending
into new product or service areas. It is a potential growth avenue for
any companies with strong brands. Disney, for example, is the
poster-child for brand stretch. From founding in the 1920s through to
1955, they were a pure movie company. In 1955, the first Disneyland
opened in California. After this, the company has stretched and
stretched again. Today you can almost live a “Disney Life”.
(7) Many other brands have followed this path. For instance,
Dunhill has stretched from cigars to a luxury male clothing brands.
Cartier started out as a jeweller and later put its name
on watches and pens. There are examples of brands that stretched
unsuccessfully and did damage to the core brand. Xerox never
stretched successfully from copiers to computers. A natural cleaning
vinegar launched by Heinz bombed as a product because people
associate Heinz with food, not cleaning.
(8) Another possibility is to set up “endorsed” brands. This is
where you create a new brand in its own right but allow the “parent”
brand of your main company to feature as an endorsement of the new
brand. Playstation, for example, is a powerful brand in its own right,
19
but it has always been endorsed as Sony Playstation, leveraging the
reputation of Sony Corporation.
(9) In a nutshell, branding is the set of actions aimed at
cultivating a brand. When done right, branding becomes a beautiful
symphony of design, language and experience, all combining to
evoke a very specific feeling.
20
VOCABULARY NOTES
branding (n) /ˈbræn.dɪŋ/ բրենդավորում,բրենդի
նգ
brand (n) /brænd/ բրենդ, ապրանքանիշ
association (n) /əˌsəʊ.siˈeɪ.ʃən/ զուգորդում
intentional (adj) /ɪnˈten.ʃən.əl/ նպատակային
promote (v) /prəˈməʊt/ խթանել
via (prep) /ˈvaɪə/ միջոցով
press (n) /pres/ մամուլ
review (n) /rɪˈvjuː/ ակնարկ,
քննադատական
հոդված
essentially (adv) /ɪˈsen.ʃəl.i/ ըստ էության,
էականորեն
eclipse (v) /ɪˈklɪps/ խավարեցնել, ստվեր
գցել
sheer (adj) /ʃɪər/ բացարձակ,
լիակատար
might (n) /maɪt/ զորություն, ուժ
perception (n) /pəˈsep.ʃ n/
ə
ընկալում
unsurpassed (adj) /ˌʌn.səˈpɑːst/ աննախադեպ
youthful (adj) /ˈjuːθ.fəl/ երիտասարդական
refreshing (adj) /rɪˈfreʃ.ɪŋ/ զովացուցիչ,
թարմացնող
visual (adj) /ˈvɪʒ.u.əl/ տեսողական
unmistakable (adj) /ˌʌn.mɪˈsteɪ.kə.bəl/ ակնհայտ, ակներև
logo (n) /ˈləʊ.ɡəʊ/ պատկերանիշ
unique (adj) /juːˈniːk/ յուրօրինակ
tint (n) /tɪnt/ երանգ, նրբերանգ
attempt (n) /əˈtempt/ փորձ
intelligent (adj) /ɪnˈtel.ɪ.dʒənt/ խելացի
stand out (v) /stænd aʊt/ առանձնանալ, աչքի
ընկնել
highlight (v) /ˈhaɪ.laɪt/ ընդգծել, կարևորել
elevate (v) /ˈel.ɪ.veɪt/ բարձրացնել,
առանձնացնել
commodity (n) /kəˈmɒd.ə.ti/ ապրանք
identical (adj) /aɪˈden.tɪ.kəl/ նմանատիպ, նման
launch (n) /lɔːntʃ/ թողարկում, մեկնարկ
21
catapult (v) /ˈkæt.ə.pʌlt/ նետել, առաջ մղել
mass-market (n) /ˌmæs ˈmɑː.kɪt/ զանգվածային շուկա
entertainment (n) /en.təˈteɪn.mənt/ զվարճանք, հաճույք
mainstream (n) /ˈmeɪn.striːm/ հիմնուղի, հիմնական
ուղղություն
brand stretch /brænd stretʃ/ բրենդի ընդարձակում
prove (v) /pruːv/ ապացուցել
extend (v) /ɪkˈstend/ ընդլայնել, ընդարձակել
avenue (n) /ˈæv.ə.njuː/ պողոտա, ճանապարհ,
միջոց
Disney /ˈdɪzni/ Դիսնեյ՝ ամերիկյան
անդրազգային մեդիա
ընկերություն
poster-child (n) /ˈpəʊ.stə ˌtʃaɪld/ վառ օրինակ
pure (adj) /pjʊər/ զուտ, մաքուր
path (n) /pɑːθ/ ուղի, ճանապարհ
Dunhill Դանհիլ՝
տղամարդկանց
հագուստ արտադրող
անգլիական բրենդ
Cartier /ˈkɑːrtieɪ/ Քարտիեյ՝ զարդեր ար-
տադրող ֆրանսիական
բրենդ
jeweller (n) /ˈdʒuː.ə.lər/ ակնագործ, ոսկերիչ
core (adj) /kɔːr/ հիմնական
Xerox /ˈzɪə.rɒks/ Զիրոքս՝
պատճենահանող
մեքենաներ
արտադրող
ամերիկյան բրենդ
Heinz /ˈhainz/ Հայնզ՝ սնունդ
արտադրող
ամերիկյան բրենդ
vinegar (n) /ˈvɪn.ɪ.ɡər/ քացախ
bomb (v) /bɒm/ պայթել, փխբ.
ձախողել
possibility (n) /ˌpɒs.əˈbɪl.ə.ti/ հնարավորություն
endorse (v) /ɪnˈdɔːs/ աջակցել, սատարել
leverage (v) /ˈliː.vər.ɪdʒ/ օգտվել, օգուտ ունենալ
in a nutshell /ˈnʌt.ʃel/ մի խոսքով
22
cultivate (v) /ˈkʌl.tɪ.veɪt/ զարգացնել, բարելավել
symphony (n) /ˈsɪm.fə.ni/ սիմֆոնիա, համանվագ
evoke (v) /ɪˈvəʊk/ առաջացնել,
արթնացնել

1. Associations related to brands can be either purposefully exercised
by companies or be out of their control.
2. Coca-Cola is a favorite soft drink of many people due to its famous
logo.
3. Disney is a prominent exemplar of good brand stretch.
4. Cleaning vinegar produced by Heinz benefited the company, as
people associate its products with food.
5. The introduction of Iphone, Ipad and App store by Apple made the
company’s products even more popular with people.
6. Brand helps companies to influence people, whereas branding
contributes to shaping certain associations in people’s mind.
7. Dunhill and Cartier used the practice of Disney and proved to be
successful to do so.
1. a feeling or thought related to something (par. 1)
2. planned or intended (par. 1)
3. power, strength, or force (par. 2)
4. making you feel less hot or tired, pleasantly different and
interesting (par. 2)
5. not likely to be confused with something else (par. 2)
6. a small amount of a colour (par. 2)
7. the act of trying to do something, especially something difficult
(par. 3)
8. to attract attention to or emphasize something important
(par.4)
9. to make someone or something more important or to
improve something (par. 4)
10. to throw someone or something with great force, to suddenly
experience a particular state, such as being famous (par. 5)
23
11. the way of life or set of beliefs accepted by most people
(par. 5)
12. to make something last longer (par. 6)
13. a person or thing that is seen as a typical example of
something (par. 6)
14. to use something that you already have in order to achieve
something new or better (par. 8)
15. a piece of music written to be played by an orchestra (par. 9)

զուգորդումների շարք, ակտիվորեն խթանել,
մարդկանց մտքում առկա ընկալումներ, բրենդի
նկատմամբ բացարձակ վերահսկում, արտաքին
ազդակների շնորհիվ, առանձնանալ մրցակիցներից,
նմանատիպ ապրանքներ, բրենդավորման
ռազմավարություն, ընկերությունը առաջ մղվեց,
բրենդի ընդարձակում, գնալ այդ ճանապարհով, մի
խոսքով, զարգացնել բրենդը, դիզայնի, լեզվի և փորձի
գեղեցիկ համանվագ

necessary.
1. His difficulty ____walking results ____ a childhood illness.
2. The company's sales department does not have any control ____ the
department of branding. 3. We had many applicants ____ this job but
one stood ____ ____ the rest. 4. He started ____ as a teacher and only
began writing ____ his thirties. 5. ____ a nutshell, branding is a set
____ strategies aimed ____ promoting a product's sales. 6. The
company should use a branding strategy that will not do damage ____
the brand.
VIII. Choose the correct word given in brackets.
BRAND NAMING
Brand names are an important aspect in 1. (setting/sitting) the
tone and personality of your brand, as well as being a key element in
marketing activity. Along 2. (with/for) design, a name can be a 3.
24
(means/meaning) of differentiation and should 4. (reflect/to
reflect) the 5. (all in all/overall) brand strategy you’ve developed.
6. (Choosing/choose) a name can be a difficult task, but it’s
made even 7. (harder/hard) because so many are already in use and
trademarked. 8. (Make/Do) sure to check 9. (carefully/ careful) that
any names you’re 10. (considered/considering) for a company,
product or service aren’t already in use and protected by law.
11. (On/In) the whole, a name should have the 12.
(following/ followed) attributes. These attributes are:
Descriptive
Names which simply say what the company 13. (do/does). For
example, Easyjet (makes flying easy), Toys ‘R’ Us (all about toys),
General Motors (vehicle manufacturer).
Evocative
Names which suggest 14. (sensations/associations) to the brand
but do not try to describe the offer precisely. For example, First Direct
(first bank to offer instant telephone banking), Innocent (natural purity
of the fruit juice), Nike (the goddess of victory), Amazon (the
largest river in the world).
Invented
Invented names are fanciful fabrications that are often 15.
(build/built) from Latin, 16. (Greek/Greece), or other foreign root
words. For example, Kodak, Xerox, and Verizon are all great
examples of invented names that have managed to build great brand
equity over the years.
Acronyms
Acronyms are just short versions of descriptive names. Kentucky
Fried Chicken switched 17. (to/for) KFC, because fried chicken
didn’t sound healthy, and the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Bank
changed to HSBC to help the bank expand globally, whereas IBM
stands 18. (in/for) International Business Machines, etc.
IX. Read the text about the design of different logos and try to
match them with their explanations.
1) in this logo a fruit is bitten
25
2) this logo shows that this company sells every
imaginable product
3) this logo contains a part of a flag
4) the letters contained in this logo show a person's
face
5) this logo shows the number of the company's
product range
6) this logo shows collaboration expressed in a
handshake
7) a tick in this logo symbolizes success
8) this logo symbolizes the difficulties that should be
beaten
It turns out that some of the most well-known logos in the world
were designed to indicate something much more than simple beauty.
In fact, it seems that in some cases, every line, curve and color has
meaning behind it.
Here are some famous logos with hidden meanings that we never
noticed before. Fascinating!
Many people are inclined to think that the logo of the South
Korean conglomerate Hyundai is simply the first letter of its name.
But actually, the letter ’Н’ symbolizes two people (a client and
a representative of the company) shaking hands.
The name Adidas is derived from that of its
founder, Adolf Dassler. The company’s logo has
changed over time, but it’s always included three
stripes. The current configuration is three stripes
at an angle which together form a triangle.
This symbolizes a mountain, which in turn
represents the challenges which all athletes have to overcome.
26
Rob Yanov, the designer who created with the
world-famous Apple company logo, has
explained how he came up with the idea: “I
bought a whole bag of apples, placed them
in a bowl, and spent time drawing them for
a week, trying to break the image down into
something simple. Taking a bite out of an apple was part of the
experiment, and completely by coincidence I realised that “bite”
sounded exactly the same as the computer term “byte”.
At first glance, Amazon’s logo appears
to be nothing special. But it was designed with
the philosophy of the company in mind. The orange arrow is similar
to a smile, as the company wants its customers to be satisfied. The
arrow is also stretched between the letters “A” and “Z”, in a hint that
the company sells absolutely every product imaginable (“from
A to Z”).
The pink-colored areas of the "BR" part
of the logo here make
up the number 31, which
is the number
of different flavors of ice
cream that Baskin-Robbins used to famously
sell.
It’s often supposed that the central part
of the BMW logo symbolizes the rotating blades
of an airplane, in line with the company’s
early history of aviation technology, but
it is in fact simply a part of the Bavarian
flag — the area of Germany where the
company originated.
The logo of the South
Korean electronics
company LG
27
is a stylized image of a person’s face.
According to the company, this represents its
aspiration to maintain ordinary, human relations
with its customers.
The NIKE’s logo “swoosh” closely
resembles the check mark which is commonly
used. The check mark, tick mark or “ok” mark
(✓) is used to inform or indicate “yes”,
“correct” or “success”. This symbol is what a
global brand aspires for in building its
acceptance and value.
MINI PRESENTATION
In pairs invent a new product and give it a name. Think about the
following points:
1. What is special or unusual about your product?
2. Why would people want to use or buy it?
3. How does the name relate to the product?
Once you have chosen the name for your product prepare a short
oral presentation to give to the rest of the class. In your presentation
you should describe your product and explain how and why you chose
its name.
Here are some useful phrases that may help you with your
presentation:
 We would like to introduce our new product…
 We chose the name… because…
 You can use it to…
28
U N I T III
REALM OF ADVERTISING
DISCUSSION
1. Do you think that advertising is a form of art? Why (not)?
2. In some countries tobacco advertising is banned on television,
radio and newspapers. Is it banned in your country? Do you think it
should be? Why (not)?
3. What are the funniest three advertisements you have ever seen?
4. What factors do you think make a good advertisement?
5. What advantages of your university would you advertise as a
student?
6. How advertising has changed over 50 years, and how it will look in
the future?
7. Have you ever bought anything just because you saw it advertised
on TV?
8. What famous advertising slogans can you remember? Why are they
so memorable?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) advertisement a) a planned series of advertisements that
will be used in particular places to
advertise a product or service and
persuade people to buy it or use it
2) advertising b) understanding the market or consumer
behavior that is people’s wants and
interests, best means to communicate
with them, what competitors are doing
etc.
3) outdoor advertising c) a means of communication with the

users of a product or service
4) product placement d) a short video or a piece of text
conveying a message that tries to
persuade people to buy a product or
service, etc.
29
5) advertising campaign e) a piece of paper containing information
about a particular product
6) leaflet f) an advertising technique to promote
products through a nontraditional
advertising technique, usually through
appearances in film, television, or
other media
7) marketing survey g) advertising outside, for example beside
the road using billboards, or at sports
games, etc.
8) packaging h) a pattern of gradual change in process,
output, sales over a considerable period
of time
9) product range i) the process of putting products into
containers so that they can be sold or
sent somewhere
10) trend j) all the types of products that a
company sells
1. An online e-commerce company needs to have a good ____ system
in order to ensure the product is delivered in perfect condition. 2. ____
was recently conducted by Sephora to understand which cosmetic
brands are most popular among consumers. 3. Salespersons handed out
____ to passers-by in order to promote awareness about the newly
launched product. 4. Coca Cola’s new ____ has increased their sales by
20%.
5. We are a media agency that understands how to communicate with
people on the move through ____.
about
1. the type of advertising that will show in detail how your product
or service work
30
2. the type of advertising that can be seen by somebody who
commutes to work by bus
3. the type of advertising that can reach the people who look for
products on various websites
4. a company which encouraged the idea that people should always
give something a try
5. a company which encouraged people to share their product with
someone else
6. a company which tends to be quite realistic about the capabilities
of their own product
TYPES OF ADVERTISING
(1) A successful advertising campaign will spread the word about
your products and generate sales. There are many options to advertise
your products and services.
(2) Newspaper advertising can promote your business to a wide
range of customers whereas advertising in a specialist magazine can
reach your target market quickly and easily. Readers tend to read
magazines at their leisure which gives your advertisement multiple
chances to attract attention.
(3) If your target market listens to a particular radio station, then
regular advertising on the radio can attract new customers. However,
sound has its limitations. Listeners can find it difficult to remember
what they have heard and sometimes the impact of radio advertising is
lost. The best way to overcome this is to repeat your message regularly
– which increases your costs significantly. Television has an extensive
reach and is ideal if you cater to a large market. Television
advertisements have the advantage of sight, sound, movement and
colour to persuade a customer to buy from you. They are particularly
useful if you need to demonstrate how your product or service works.
(4) There are many ways to advertise outside and on the go.
Outdoor billboards can be signs by the road or hoardings at sport
stadiums. Transit advertising can be posters on buses, taxis and
bicycles.
(5) Being on the internet can be a cost-effective way to attract new
customers. You can reach a global audience at a low cost. Many
customers research businesses online before deciding who to buy from.
A well-designed website can entice customers to buy from you.
31
(6) Whatever channel of advertising you use, it should have an
inspirational marketing campaign to have a significant impact on the
growth of the brand as the following most successful advertisements of
all times managed to do.
(7) Coke: Share a Coke
Big brands are often hard-pressed to do something unusual when
they’re already so big. Coca-Cola company appealed to individuals by
putting their names on each bottle. The Share a Coke campaign began
in Australia in 2011, when Coca-Cola personalized each bottle with
the 150 most popular names in the country. It was a breaking story
across the marketing and advertising industry and many consumers
were enchanted by it.
What marketers can learn: Coke fans are regular buyers, and the
company relied on that sense of individual ownership with full force.
Wondering what name you’ll get out of the vending machine was a
fun thrill even if it isn’t yours, it encourages you to “share a Coke”
with whoever’s name is on the front.
(8) Nike: Just Do It.
At one point in time Nike’s products were almost exclusively
catered to marathon runners, and Reebok was actually selling more
sneakers than the retail giant. Trying to overpass Reebok, Nike
created the “Just Do It” campaign in the late 1980s. Backed by
superstar athletes like Michael Jordan, the campaign was a resounding
success and has become one of the most recognizable advertising
slogans in the world. It was created to embody what people feel when
they exercise. Don’t feel like working out? Just do it. Don’t want to run
an extra mile today? Just do it. Don’t want walk up four flights of
stairs? Just Do It.
What marketers can learn: You should always be thinking about
what problems your product can solve. When you can consistently
convey that through your marketing, it’s bound to be successful.
(9) Volkswagen: Think Small
Many marketing professionals like to call Volkswagen’s “Think
Small” campaign the gold standard. Created in 1960, the campaign set
out to answer one question: How do you change peoples’ perceptions
not only about a product, but also about an entire group of people?
32
See, Americans always tended to buy big American cars and even
15 years after WWII ended, most Americans were still not buying
small German cars. So what did this Volkswagen advertisement do? It
cleverly met the audience’s expectations. You think I’m small? Yeah, I
am. They never tried to be something they were not.
What marketers can learn: Don’t try to sell your company,
product, or service as something it’s not. Consumers recognize and
appreciate honesty.
VOCABULARY NOTES
campaign (n) /kæmˈpeɪn/ արշավ
generate (v) /ˈdʒen.ə.reɪt/ առաջացնել, ստեղծել
option (n) /ˈɒp.ʃən/ ընտրություն,
տարբերակ
range (n) /reɪndʒ/ շարք, թիվ
target market /ˈtɑː.ɡɪt ˈmɑː.kɪt/ թիրախային շուկա
tend (v) /tend/ միտում ունենալ
leisure (n) /ˈleʒ.ər/ ազատ ժամանակ,
ժամանց
multiple (adj) /ˈmʌl.tɪ.pəl/ բազմաթիվ
regular(adj) /ˈreɡ.jə.lər/ պարբերաբար,
կանոնավոր
limitation (n) /ˌlɪm.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən/ սահմանափակում
cost (n) /kɒst/ ծախս, արժեք
significantly (adv) /sɪɡˈnɪf.ɪ.kənt.li/ զգալի կերպով
extensive (adj) /ɪkˈsten.sɪv/ լայնածավալ,
ընդարձակ
cater(v) /ˈkeɪ.tər/ սպասարկել
sight (n) /saɪt/ տեսարան
persuade (v) /pəˈsweɪd/ համոզել
demonstrate (v) /ˈdem.ən.streɪt/ ցուցադրել
outdoor (adj) /ˈaʊtˌdɔːr/ դրսի հետ կապված,
բացօթյա
billboard (n) /ˈbɪl.bɔːd/ գովազդային վահա-
նակ
sign (n) /saɪn/ նշան
hoarding (n) /ˈhɔː.dɪŋ/ հայտարարություններ
ի տախտակ
transit (adj) /ˈtræn.zɪt/ տարանցիկ
33
poster (n) /ˈpəʊ.stər/ հայտարարություն,
աֆիշ
cost-effective (adj) /ˌkɒst.ɪˈfek.tɪv/ էժան, արդյունավետ
entice (v) /ɪnˈtaɪs/ գայթակղել
channel (n) /ˈtʃæn.əl/ միջոց
inspirational (adj) /ˌɪn.spɪˈreɪ.ʃən.əl/ ոգեշնչող
hard-pressed (adj) /ˌhɑːdˈprest/ շատ ճնշված
appeal (v) /əˈpiːl/ հրապուրել, գրավել
personalize (v) /ˈpɜː.sən.əl.aɪz/ անձնավորել,
անհատականացնել
enchanted (adj) /ɪnˈtʃɑːn.tɪd/ հմայված
sense (n) /sens/ զգացում
wonder (v) /ˈwʌn.dər/ հետաքրքրվել
vending machine /ˈven.dɪŋ ˌməˈʃiːn/ վաճառքի սարք
thrill (n) /θrɪl/ հուզմունք
Nike (n) /ˈnaɪ.ki/ Նայքի
(մարզահագուստ
արտադրող
ընկերություն)
exclusively (adv) /ɪkˈskluː.sɪv.li/ բացառիկ կերպով
marathon (n) /ˈmær.ə.θən/ մարաթոն
sneaker (n) /ˈsniː.kər/ սպորտային կոշիկներ
giant (n) /ˈdʒaɪ.ənt/ հսկա
overpass (v) /ˈəʊ.və.pɑːs/ գերազանցել
back (v) /bæk/ սատարել
athlete (n) /ˈæθ.liːt/ մարզիկ
resounding (adj) /rɪˈzaʊn.dɪŋ/ աղմկահարույց
recognizable (adj) /ˈrek.əɡ.naɪ.zə.bəl/ ճանաչելի
slogan (n) /ˈsləʊ.ɡən/ կարգախոս
embody (v) /ɪmˈbɒd.i/ մարմնավորել
consistently (adv) /kənˈsɪs.tənt.li/ հաստատուն կերպով,
մշտապես
convey (v) /kənˈveɪ/ փոխանցել
bound (adj) /baʊnd/ հաստատ
set out (v) /set aʊt/ սկսել, ձեռնամուխ
լինել
entire (adj) /ɪnˈtaɪər/ ամբողջ
cleverly (adv) /ˈklev.əl.i/ խելացի կերպով
appreciate (v) /əˈpriː.ʃi.eɪt/ գնահատել
34
honesty (n) /ˈɒn.ə.sti/ ազնվություն
1. Television has the largest opportunities to show the options of your
product or service.
2. One can come across transit advertising at schools, offices and
universities.
3. Online advertising is considered to be quite a cheap means of
advertising.
4. The Share a Coke campaign used the most popular names in the
world in 2011.
5. At first, “Just Do It” campaign created by Nike was not a success.
6. Nike encourages people to lead an active lifestyle.
7. In the 1960s Americans preferred to buy big cars rather than small
ones.
1. something that you can choose to do in preference to one or
more alternatives (par. 1)
2. a number of different things of the same general kind (par. 2)
3. to be likely to behave in a particular way (par. 2)
4. the time when you are not working or doing other duties (par.
2)
5. happening or doing something often (par. 3)
6. the act or process of putting a limit on something (par. 3)
7. the amount of money needed to buy, do, or make something
8. something that is in someone's view (par. 3)
9. in the process of being done or produced (par. 4)
10. to persuade someone to do something by offering
them something pleasant (par. 5)
11. a way of making a product, information, etc. available (par. 6)
12. making you feel full of hope or encouraged (par. 6)
13. to interest or attract someone (par. 7)
14. a type of light, comfortable shoe that is suitable for
playing sports (par. 8)
35
15. the feeling that good things are going to happen in the future
(par. 9)
հաջող գովազդային քարոզարշավ, թիրախային շուկա,
ուշադրություն գրավելու բազմաթիվ
հնարավորություններ, իրենց ազատ ժամանակ,
էականորեն բարձրացնել ծախսերը, ունենալ
ընդարձակ հասանելիություն, ցուցադրել ինչպես է
աշխատում ապրանքը կամ ծառայությունը,
գայթակղել հաճախորդներին, մանրածախ առևտրի
հսկա, ճանաչված գովազդային կարգախոսներ,
փոխել ապրանքի մասին մարդկանց ընկալումը,
գնահատել ազնվությունը
necessary.
1. You can take the documents home and study them ____
your leisure. 2. I think what appeals ____ me about this
advertisement is the use of colours. 3. I heard a good
programme ____ the radio last night. 4. Internet advertising caters
mostly ____ business people. 5. If the company has got a budget
squeeze, it should find the ways to advertise its products ____ a low
cost. 6. Advertisements have a great impact ____ the sales ____
products.

pairs.
exclusively, consistently, recognizable, to communicate, bound,
comprehensive, resounding, booming, constantly, to convey, to
value, certain, solely, extensive, titan, to support, to appreciate,
giant, noticeable, to back
giant, backed, exclusively, extensive, resounding, bound
1. They say he's certain to get a nomination for the best
advertisement. 2. Too often we make decisions based solely on what
we see in magazines. 3. The occasion was a booming success. 4. The
36
story generated comprehensive comment on social media. 5. The
country's two richest business titans met yesterday to discuss issues
related to the country’s economy. 6. He supported the hardworking
people.
IX. A slogan is a catchphrase or small group of words that are

combined in a special way to identify a product or company.
In many ways, they're like mini-mission statements. Match the
companies with their corresponding slogans.
M&M I'm Lovin' It
Mercedes Taste the Rainbow
Apple The Best or Nothing
L'Oréal Paris Finger Lickin’ Good
BMW Ideas for Life
Lay's Melts in Your Mouth, Not in Your Hands
Audi Don’t be Evil
McDonald's Think Different
KFC It Gives You Wiiiings!
Skittles Designed for Driving Pleasure
Red Bull Advancement Through Technology
Jaguar Betcha Can't Eat Just One
Panasonic Because You're Worth It
Google Grace, Space, Pace
X. Put the sentences in order to get the success story of one of the
most famous jewelry companies - De Beers
DE BEERS – A DIAMOND IS FOREVER
a) They were searching for an advertising campaign that would
motivate men to buy diamond rings.
b) Anyone over the age of 5 knows that when a man proposes to a
woman, he offers her a diamond ring as a symbol of his love,
because a diamond is forever.
c) By 1951, eight out of 10 brides in the US had a diamond
engagement ring, and today, women write songs about “putting a
ring on it.”
37
d) In 1948, De Beers’ sales of diamond rings were plummeting in the
wake of the Great Depression.
e) Believe it or not, this was not always the case.
f) Prior to this advertising campaign (De Beers continues to use the
slogan to this day, and it is considered one of the most powerful
advertising slogans of all time), buying an engagement ring was
not a prerequisite to a proposal.
g) In creating the “A Diamond is Forever” campaign, De Beers not
only boosted their diamond sales, but they also literally created the
concept of an engagement ring, which is still popular today and
shows no signs of slowing down.
XI. Read the text and choose the correct word given in brackets.
MARLBORO CIGARETTES – THE MARLBORO MAN
Beginning with ads as early as 1955, the Marlboro Man
1. (quick/quickly) became a cultural 2. (iconic/icon) more so than a
cigarette brand spokesman. He became an 3. (endure/ enduring)
symbol of American 4. (masculine/masculinity) around the world. Prior
to the campaign, filtered cigarettes were
5. (saw/seen) as something only for women. When Marlboros were
first 6. (introduced/introduction), the brand went by the slogan, “Mild
as May,” and were 7. (marketed/marketing) to women.
They created the Marlboro Man to show that “real men” 8.
(smoking/smoked) Marlboro cigarettes. He was a free 9.
(roamed/roaming) cowboy who didn’t have a care in the world. It was
the lifestyle that men at the time wanted, which 10. (as a
result/resulted) in skyrocketing sales. By 1972, Marlboro was the
world’s 11. (higher/highest) selling tobacco brand and the Marlboro
Man was known 12. (worldwide/ all world). Even as consumers 13.
(learned/learning) more about the dangers of cigarettes and tobacco ads
were 14. (ban/banned) in 1971, the power of the Marlboro Man
endured in 15. (printing/print).
INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT ADVERTISING
1. A York University study revealed that US pharmaceutical companies
spend twice as much on advertising as they do on research.
38
2. The famous Marlboro Man ads began in 1955. Three men who
appeared in the advertisements later died of lung cancer, earning the
brand the nickname “Cowboy Killer.”
3. More than $500 billion a year is spent on advertising worldwide.
4. The American Psychological Association reports that children under
eight years old are not able to critically understand advertisements
and that they regard them as truthful, accurate, and unbiased.
5. The average child in America watches over 40,000 television
commercials in a year, or over 100 a day.
6. Average American watches TV for almost 5 hours daily that also
includes more than one hour of ads.
WRITING
Write an essay on one of the following topics. Give
reasons for your answer and include any relevant
example from your own knowledge and experience.
Write at least 250 words. Try to spend no more than 40
minutes on this task.
1. Advertising discourages people from being different
individuals by making us want to be and to look the
same. To what extent do you agree or disagree?
2. Some of the methods used in advertising are unethical
and unacceptable in today's society. To what extent do
you agree with this view?
LISTENING
Language has a powerful influence over people and their
behaviour. This is especially true in the fields of marketing
and advertising. The choice of language to convey specific
messages with the intention of influencing people is vitally
important. In this video you will be provided with the
information on how to use words correctly to make subtle
differences in creating a good advert. Visit the
following website:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHoKygaajYg
and complete the tasks below:
1. What is the most important part of the advert?
2. How is the slogan defined in the video?
39
3. What does alliteration mean?
4. What does assonance mean?
5. What is the slogan of Odeon?
6. When creating an advertisement advertisers should
ensure they do not evoke unpleasant associations in
customers. True/False
7. Besides using the technique of alliteration what else
does the slogan “First for Films” use and how would you
explain it?
8. A successful slogan should be s____ and s_____.
9. Slogan sentences should be up to 20 words. True/False
10.Could you give examples of other slogans that use
alliteration?
40
U N I T IV
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
DISCUSSION
1. How would you define international trade?
2. Do you think it is important for a country to have economic
relations beyond its borders? Why?
3. What kinds of goods are imported to your country and what goods
are exported from your country?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) bill of lading a) cost, insurance and freight: includes
insurance and shipping to named port
2) c.&f. b) a document that shows where goods come
from
3) c.i.f. c) government tax or duty on imported
goods; the place at border where
travelers’ bags are examined for taxable
goods
4) cargo d) list of goods and shipping instructions;
waybill
5) customs e) goods or products that are being
transported or shipped
6) certificate of origin f) huge box to hold goods for transport
7) to import g) to carry or send a commodity to another
country
8) container h) cost & freight: includes shipping to named
port but not insurance
9) to declare i) to make a statement of taxable goods
10) quay j) a solid, artificial landing place for
(un)loading ships; wharf
11) letter of credit k) to send or transport by land, sea or air
12) packing list l) a government tax on imports or exports
13) tariff m) a letter from a bank authorising a person
to draw money from another bank
14) to ship/despatch n) a document that is sent with goods to show
41
that they have been checked
15) to export o) to bring merchandise into a country from
another country
1. The crane lifted the ____ off the ship. 2. ____ is an official
document that states where a product was produced and by
which company. 3. The ship was carrying a ____ of wool. 4. The US
has imposed new ____ on chocolate from Brazil. 5. You don’t have to
pay ____ on any alcohol or tobacco brought for your own consumption
in another EU country. 6. ____ is a legal document between a shipper
and carrier detailing the type, quantity and destination of the goods
being shipped. 7. With a ____ contract, the price of the goods includes
the cost of the goods and the freight to the named destination.
about
1. the nature of such phenomena as “import” and “export”
2. the difficulties countries have when exporting their products
3. the advantages of imports
4. the advantages of exports
5. the variety of wealth the country possesses
IMPORTING AND EXPORTING
(1) The lifeblood of the global market is trade. A country may be
both an exporter and importer of goods. An export is the sale of
goods to a foreign country, while an import is the purchase of
foreign manufactured goods in the buyer's domestic market.
(2) Countries often import goods that can be more effectively and
cheaply produced by another country and focus on producing and
exporting the goods in which it excels at producing.
(3) Every country is endowed with certain advantages in resources
and skills. For example, some countries are rich in natural resources,
such as fossil fuels, timber, fertile soil or precious metals and
minerals, while other countries have shortages of many of these
resources.
42
(4) Countries often need to import goods that are either not
available domestically or are available cheaper overseas. Individual
consumers also benefit from the locally produced products with
imported components as well as other products that are imported into
the country. Oftentimes, imported products provide a better price or
more choices to consumers, which help increase their standard of
living.
(5) Importing is not necessarily a bad thing because it gives us
access to important resources and products. If you import more than
you export, more money is leaving the country than is coming in
through export sales.
(6) On the other hand, the more a country exports, the more
domestic economic activity is occurring. More exports mean more
production, jobs and revenue.
(7) Exporting is not always an easy endeavor. Countries often face
trade barriers that hinder the export of their products. A common
barrier is a tariff, which is a special type of tax that is imposed on
goods imported into a country. Tariffs often make the imported item
more expensive than its domestic equivalent. For example, a tariff
imposed on the company's tablets may make it more expensive than a
domestic tablet when it would have been cheaper if the tariff was not
imposed. Thus, tariffs are often imposed to protect domestic
companies.
VOCABULARY NOTES
lifeblood (n) /ˈlaɪf.blʌd/ (փոխ.) կյանքի աղբյուր
export (v) /ɪkˈspɔːt/ արտահանել
import (v) /ɪmˈpɔːt/ ներմուծել
focus (on smth) (v) /ˈfəʊ.kəs/ կենտրոնանալ
excel (at smth) /ɪkˈsel/ գերազանցել
endow (v) /ɪnˈdaʊ/ օժտել, պարգևել
fossil fuel /ˈfɒs.əl ˌfjʊəl/ վառելիք, վառելանյութ
timber (n) /ˈtɪm.bər/ փայտանյութ
fertile (adj) /ˈfɜː.taɪl/ բերրի, պարարտ
soil (n) /sɔɪl/ հող
precious (adj) /ˈpreʃ.əs/ թանկարժեք
metal (n) /ˈmet.əl/ մետաղ
43
mineral (n) /ˈmɪn.ər.əl/ հանքաքար
shortage (n) /ˈʃɔː.tɪdʒ/ պակաս,
սակավություն
overseas (adj, adv) /ˌəʊ.vəˈsiːz/ արտասահմանյան
benefit (from smth)(v) /ˈben.ɪ.fɪt/ օգուտ, շահույթ ունենալ
necessarily (adv) /ˈnes.ə.ser.ɪl.i/ անհրաժեշտորեն
access (to smth)(n) /ˈæk.ses/ մուտք,
հասանելիություն
revenue (n) /ˈrev.ən.juː/ եկամուտ
endeavor (n) /ɪnˈdev·ər/ ջանք, փորձ
hinder (v) /ˈhɪn.dər/ խանգարել, խոչըն-
դոտել
barrier (n) /ˈbær.i.ər/ արգելք, պատնեշ
tariff (n) /ˈtær.ɪf/ սակագին
impose (on smth) (v) /ɪmˈpəʊz/ հարկել, հարկադրել
equivalent (n) /ɪˈkwɪv.əl.ənt/ համարժեք
protect (v) /prəˈtekt/ պաշտպանել
1. Trade is considered to be the key component of global market.
2. Imports are goods produced in an exporting country and bought by
the domestic market.
3. Countries export products they are good at producing.
4. All countries share the same variety of resources and skills.
5. Consumers always benefit from imported products and increase
their standard of living.
6. The more exported goods a country has, the higher is its economic
performance.
7. Tariffs do not influence the price of exported goods.
1. the most important thing that someone or something needs in
order to continue to exist or operate (par. 1)
2. to give a lot of attention to one particular person, subject, or
thing (par. 2)
3. to be extremely good at something (par. 2)
4. of great value because of being rare, or important (par. 3)
5. a situation in which there is not enough of something(par. 3)
44
6. connected with another country (par. 4)
7. receive an advantage; profit (par. 4)
8. on many occasions (par. 4)
9. the income that a company receives regularly (par. 6)
10. to happen (par. 6)
11. an effort or attempt to do something: (par. 7)
12. to limit the ability of someone to do something, or to limit
the development of something (par. 7)
13. a charge on goods entering a country (par. 7)
14. a small, flat computer that is controlled by touching the screen
(par. 7)
15. to officially force a tax (par. 7)
արտասահմանյան երկիր, կենտրոնանալ
ապրանքների արտադրության և արտահանման վրա,
տեղում (երկրում) արտադրված ապրանքներ, բնական
ռեսուրսներ, հանածո վառելիք, հաճախ, լինել էժան
արտասահմանյան երկրներում, ավելի շատ ընտրու-
թյուն առաջարկել սպառողին, տարածված խոչընդոտ,
պաշտպանել ազգային ընկերությունները
necessary.
1. The negotiations would focus ____ the issues ____ the
cooperation ____ two companies. 2. Their biggest advantage is that
they excel ____ manufacturing small, gas-efficient
vehicles ____ low cost. 3. There's a shortage ____ resources ____
most African countries. 4. Both sides have benefited ____ the talks. 5.
The main access ____ the building is ____ the side. 6. Very
high taxes have recently been imposed ____ cigarettes.
VIII. Match the two halves to get meaningful sentences.

1. International trade not a) that aim to exchange capital, goods,
only results in increased and services between foreign
efficiency countries across their international
borders.
45
2. International trade allows b) the exchange of goods and services
us between countries.
3. The exchange of goods c) but also allows countries to
and services participate in a global economy.
4. International trade is d) on a global level has a significant
impact on a national economy.
5. International trade is a set e) to expand our markets for both
of actions goods and services that otherwise
may not have been available to us.
46
UNIT V
GLOBALIZATION: A CURSE OR A
BLESSING?
DISCUSSION
1. What could you say about the title of this unit?
2. What areas of life are most affected by globalization?
3. Why do many people oppose or support globalization?
4. How does globalization affect the English language?
5. At present, English is the world's lingua franca. Would you support
English as the official language of Earth? Why/not?
6. Do you think countries might lose their individual identities?
7. Would you support a one-world government? Why/not?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) globalization a) a policy to eliminate discrimination against
imports and exports
2) multinational b) the world viewed as a community in which
corporation distance and isolation have been
dramatically reduced by electronic media
(such as television and the Internet)
3) free trade c) the process in which people, ideas and
goods spread throughout the world
4) global economy d) an agreement in which one company hires
another company to be responsible for an
activity that is or could be done internally
5) global village e) an enterprise operating in several countries
but managed from one (home) country
6) outsourcing f) the way in which the wealth and income
of the world are divided among nations
7) national identity g) the system of industry and trade around the
world that has developed as the result of
globalization
8) wealth distribution h) a sense of a nation as a whole, as
represented by distinctive traditions,
culture, and language
47
1. The two main characteristics of ____ are their large
size and the fact that their worldwide activities are
controlled by the parent companies. 2.
People sometimes refer to the world as a ____ when
they want to emphasize that all the different parts of the world form
one community linked together by the internet. 3. ____ occurs
when a business pays an outside supplier to provide goods and
services, rather than doing the work in-house. 4. In 1912, Italian
sociologist and statistician Corrado Gini developed a means of
measuring ___ within societies known as the Gini index or Gini
coefficient. 5. One of the advantages of ____ is that it provides access
to a variety of products from several nations.
about
1. the definition of globalization
2. the history of globalization
3. a diversity of things you use due to globalization
4. the benefits of globalization for companies
5. the predictions related to the future of globalization
6. the period of the highest peak of globalization
DEFINITION OF GLOBALIZATION
(1) This morning you woke up and put on a shirt that read “made in
China” on the inside tag. You then went to your garage and got in a car
that had parts that were manufactured in all parts of the world. You
drove that car to the grocery store where you bought grapes that were
grown in Chile, sugar from Jamaica, and curry from India. You did all
of this because of globalization. In simple words, globalization is the
process in which people, ideas and goods spread throughout the world,
causing more interaction and integration between the world's
cultures, governments and economies.
(2) The term “globalization” is most frequently used in reference
to creating an integrated global economy marked by free trade, the
free flow of capital and corporate use of foreign labor markets to
maximize returns. However, some use this term more broadly,
48
applying it to the movement of people, knowledge, technology and
culture across international borders.
(3) Globalization as a term appeared in the 1980s. Although many
consider this process a relatively new phenomenon, globalization has
been happening for millennia. In ancient times, for example,
traders traveled vast distances to buy rare commodities such as salt,
spices and gold, which they would then sell in their home countries.
Similarly, the Roman Empire spread its economic and governing
systems across the ancient world for centuries.
(4) Globalization has flowed throughout history, with periods of
expansion, as well as retrenchment. The 21st century has witnessed
both. Economic downturns in one country can affect other countries'
economies through the domino effect. For example, when Greece
experienced a debt crisis in 2010, all Europe felt the impact.
However, the early 21st century has seen a dramatic increase in the
pace of global integration resulting primarily from advances in
technology. In general, money, technology, knowledge, ideas and
cultures flow more swiftly across national boundaries today than they
ever had in the past.
(5) Through globalization, corporations can gain a competitive
advantage from lower operating costs, and access to new raw
materials and markets. In addition, multinational corporations can
manufacture, buy and sell goods worldwide. For example, a Japan-
based car manufacturer can manufacture auto parts in
several developing countries, ship the parts to another country for
assembly and sell the finished cars to any nation.
(6) Globalization has its proponents and its critics. Some
proponents believe it allows developing countries to catch up with
industrialized nations through economic expansion and improvements
in living standards. China is a good example of a national economy that
has benefited immensely from globalization. On the other hand, some
critics say that the elimination of barriers has undermined national
policies and destabilized labor markets in favor of lower-cost wages
elsewhere. Similarly, some proponents point to the rising economies of
poor countries that benefited from companies moving operations
there, this way minimizing their costs. Some critics say such moves
49
could lower living standards in developed countries by eliminating
jobs.
(7) Experts acknowledge the future of globalization is unknown.
They note the rapid pace of globalization in the early 21st century
could be slowed or even reversed by potentially rising levels of
protectionism happening in a number of countries.
VOCABULARY NOTES
tag (n) /tæɡ/ պիտակ
manufacture (v) /ˌmæn.jəˈfæk.tʃər/ արտադրել
grocery (n) /ˈɡrəʊ.sər.i/ նպարեղեն
curry (n) /ˈkʌr.i/ կարի (համեմունք)
cause (v) /kɔːz/ պատճառել
interaction (n) /ˌɪn.təˈræk.ʃən/ փոխազդեցություն
integration (n) /ˌɪntɪˈɡreɪʃən/ ինտեգրում,
միավորում
term (n) /tɜːm/ եզր, եզրույթ
in/with reference to /ˈref.ər.əns/ կապված ինչ-որ
բանի հետ
mark (v) /mɑːk/ բնորոշել
returns (n) /rɪˈtɜrnz/ եկամուտ
apply (to) /əˈplaɪ/ վերաբերել
border (n) /ˈbɔː.dər/ սահման
consider (v) /kənˈsɪd.ər/ քննարկել, հաշվի
առնել
relatively (adv) /ˈrel.ə.tɪv.li/ հարաբերականորեն,
համեմատաբար
phenomenon (n) /fəˈnɒm.ɪ.nən/ երևույթ
millennium (n) /mɪˈlen.i.əm/ հազարամյակ
spice (n) /spaɪs/ համեմունք
vast (adj) /vɑːst/ մեծ, հսկայական
expansion (n) /ɪkˈspæn.ʃən/ ընդլայնում, զարգա-
ցում
retrenchment (n) /rɪˈtrentʃ.mənt/ նվազում
the domino effect /ˈdɒm.ɪ.nəʊ ɪˌfekt/ իրավիճակ (սովորա-
բար անբարենպաստ),
որը պատճառում է
հետագա իրադարձու-
թյունների նմանատիպ
զարգացում, փխբ.
50
շղթայական ռեակցիա
dramatic (adj) /drəˈmæt.ɪk/ կտրուկ
pace (n) /peɪs/ տեմպ
primarily (adv) /praɪˈmer.əl.i/ գլխավորապես
swiftly (adv) /ˈswɪft.li/ արագ կերպով
boundary (n) /ˈbaʊn.dər.i/ սահման
gain (v) /ɡeɪn/ ձեռք բերել, եկամուտ
բերել
operating (adj) /ɒpəreɪtɪŋ/ գործող
raw material /ˌrɔː məˈtɪə.ri.əl/ հումք
multinational (adj) /ˌmʌl.tiˈnæʃ.ən.əl/ բազմազգ
ship (v) /ʃɪp/ առաքել
proponent (n) /prəˈpəʊ.nənt/ կողմնակից
catch up with (v) /kætʃ/ հասցնել, ետ չմնալ
immensely (adv) /ɪˈmens.li/ հսկայական,
մեծածավալ
elimination /iˌlɪm.ɪˈneɪ.ʃən/ ոչնչացում
blame (v) /bleɪm/ մեղադրել
undermine (v) /ˌʌn.dəˈmaɪn/ քայքայել
destabilize (v) /ˌdiːˈsteɪ.bəl.aɪz/ ապակայունացնել
be in favor of /ˈfeɪ.vər/ ինչ-որ (բանի/մեկի)
օգտին
point (to) /pɔɪnt/ մատնանշել, ցույց
տալ
lower (v) /ˈləʊ.ər/ իջեցնել, ցածրացնել
acknowledge (v) /əkˈnɒl.ɪdʒ/ գիտակցել
reverse (v) /rɪˈvɜːs/ հակառակ ուղղու-
թյուն վերցնել
protectionism (n) /prəˈtek.ʃən.ɪ.zəm/ հովանավորչություն
(պետության քաղա-
քականությունը՝ սե-
փական տնտեսու-
թյունը օտարերկրյա
մրցակցությունից
պաշտպանելու հա-
մար)

51
1. Due to globalization you can use various products manufactured
in different countries.
2. Globalization is the creation of an integrated global economy
characterized by limited trade and the free flow of capital.
3. Globalization has been taking place in the world since ancient
times.
4. During its history globalization has had its ups and downs.
5. The world witnessed the peak of globalization in the 20th century.
6. Companies lose their competitiveness due to globalization.
7. According to some predictions, in future globalization will
increasingly advance.
1. a store that sells food and small things for the home (par. 1)
2. to represent or show a characteristic of a person or thing
or feeling (par. 2)
3. quite good, bad, etc. in comparison with other similar things (par.
3)
4. a period of 1,000 years, or the time when a period of
1,000 years ends (par. 3)
5. reduction in the extent or quantity of something (par. 4)
6. mainly, chiefly (par. 4)
7. quickly or immediately (par. 4)
8. involved in the operations of a business (par. 5)
9. to send something, usually a large object or a quantity of
objects to a place far away (par. 5)
10. a person who speaks publicly in support of a particular idea or
plan of action (par. 6)
11. extremely, enormously, hugely (par. 6)
12. in support or to the advantage of (par. 6)
13. to move something into a low position (par. 6)
14. to change the direction, order, result, etc. of something to its
opposite (par. 7)
15. the actions of government to help its country’s trade or industry by
taxing goods bought from other countries (par. 7)
52
պարզ ասած, աշխարհի մշակույթների միջև ավելի
շատ փոխազդեցություն և ինտեգրում պատճառել,
համաշխարհային տնտեսություն, որն առանձնանում է
ազատ առևտրով և կապիտալի ազատ հոսքով, այս
գործընթացը համարել համեմատաբար նոր երևույթ,
համաշխարհային ինտեգրման տեմպի զգալի աճ,
ծաղկման և նվազման ժամանակահատվածներ, բազ-
մազգ ընկերությունները կարող են արտադրել,
մեծապես շահել համաշխարհայնացումից, նվազեցնել
կենսամակարդակի չափանիշները զարգացած
երկրներում
necessary.
1. I am writing ____you ____reference ____the job advertised
____ yesterday's newspaper. 2. It’ll give them a chance to talk and
catch ____ ____ all their news. 3. This disease continues to spread
____ the world ____ an alarming rate. 4. That form is ____
UK citizens - it doesn't apply ____ you. 5. Any increase
____ production would be helpful. 6. ____ general, women
live longer than men. 7. ____ the past, this sort ____ work was all
done ____ hand. 8. The latest research is already pointing ____
more efficient solutions.

pairs.
to reverse, to manufacture, to point to, in reference to, boundary,
swiftly, to demonstrate, development, border, retrenchment,
immensely, to produce, significant, to change the direction,
regarding, quickly, expansion, reduction, enormously, dramatic
expansion, with/in reference to, border, point to, dramatic
immensely
1. He was enormously popular in his day. 2. I am writing
regarding your letter of 15 March. 3. Recent changes in the
53
weather pattern demonstrate the consequences of global warming. 4.
The Ural mountains mark the boundary between Europe and Asia. 5.
There has been a significant shift in public
opinion towards peaceful negotiations. 6. We need a dynamic
development of trade with other countries.
IX. Read the text and insert the words below in proper gaps.
DISADVANTAGES OF GLOBALIZATION
travelers, human, estimates, barriers, tsunami, environment, overseas,
poorer, inhumane, biggest, social damage
The general complaint about globalization is that it has made the
rich richer while making the non-rich 1. ____. Globalization is
supposed to be about free trade where all 2. ____ are eliminated but
there are still many barriers. The 3. ____ problem for developed
countries is that jobs are lost and transferred to lower cost countries.
According to some 4. ____by Robert Scott of the Economic Policy
Institute, granting China most favored nation status drained away 3.2
million jobs, including 2.4 million manufacturing jobs.
Multinational corporations are accused of 5. ____ injustice, unfair
working conditions (including slave labor wages, living and working
conditions), as well as lack of concern for 6. ____, mismanagement of
natural resources, and ecological 7. ____.
Building products 8. ____in countries like China puts our
technologies at risk of being copied or stolen, which is in fact
happening rapidly
Some experts think that globalization is also leading to the incursion
of communicable diseases. Deadly diseases like HIV/AIDS are being
spread by 9. ____ to the remotest corners of the globe.
Globalization has led to exploitation of labor. Prisoners and child
workers are used to work in 10. ____ conditions. Safety standards are
ignored to produce cheap goods. There is also an increase in 11. ____
trafficking. Globalization is an economic
12. ____that is sweeping the planet. We can’t stop it but there are many
things we can do to slow it down.
X. a) Here are some idioms with the word “world”. Match them
with their correct explanations.
54
1. to be worlds away a) the most ideal or desirable attributes of
(from something) two different things
2. not for the world b) to be very different (from something)
3. to mean the world to c) not for anything
(someone)
4. best of both worlds d) to do wonderful or exciting things that
cause a great sensation in the world
5. to set the world on e) sleeping very soundly
fire
6. dead to the world f) be loved by or exceptionally important
to someone
b) Fill in the gaps with the idioms presented in the box.

1. I wouldn't fly with that airline again! 2. My little daughter
____. I would do absolutely anything for her. 3. I believe that
living at college gives you ____: a place where both study and social
life can thrive. 4. As a girl, Janet dreamed of ____ as a famous actress.
5. Don't worry, the vacuum won't wake him—he's ____. 6.
Life in the country today is ____ from how it was
a hundred years ago.
55
XI. Make the following nouns plural.
a cactus, a species, an analysis, millennium, a phenomenon, a
potato, a hypothesis, a criterion, a syllabus, a foot, a stimulus, an
alumnus, a medium, datum
WRITING
1. Even though globalization affects the world’s
economies in a very positive way, its negative side
should not be forgotten.
What is you view? Discuss.
2. Some people say that globalization will lead to a loss of
cultural identity. Others think that globalization will
result in world peace and harmony. To what extent do
you agree with either sentence?
56
U N I T VI
WORLD WITHOUT MONEY:
CAN YOU IMAGINE IT?
DISCUSSION
1. How much money did you spend yesterday?
2. Which is more fun: spending money or saving money? Why?
3. How can people become rich?
4. Should students have a weekly “allowance” (pocket money)?
Why? / Why not? If “yes”, how much?
5. Are credit cards better than money?
6. When did people first begin to use money?
7. What did people do before money was invented?
8. What does the paper money from your country look like? Can you
describe it?
9. Can a person be poor but still be happy?
10. If you won a major lottery, what would be the first thing you do
with your money?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) to cost an arm and a a) to earn money for your family to live on
leg
2) easy money b) to earn just enough money to be able to
buy the things you need
3) to bring home the c) to spend less money because there is less
bacon available
4) cheapskate d) a person or company’s main source of
income
5) to make ends meet e) to pay a lot of money for something
6) to tighten f) without money
(someone’s) belt
7) bread and butter g) money earned through little effort
(perhaps illegally)
8) it’s a steal h) a person who does not like to spend
money
9) to be broke i) to reserve money for a time when it
57
might be needed unexpectedly
10) to save money for a j) used to indicate that something is very
rainy day cheap
1. My friend is such a ____ that he cuts his hair himself.
2. I can't afford to go on holiday this year - I'm ____. 3. I'm an
artist on the weekends, but being a tutor is my____. 4. My father
earned very little and there were four kids, so we could hardly ____ .
5. I got this pot at shop sale and it was only 10 cents! That's a ____ !
6. Buying a new car has cost us a lot of money, it means that we will
have to ____ for the next few months.
about
1. the first paper money
2. different goods that served as money in prehistoric times
3. the nature of money value
4. the earliest system of buying goods
5. the interaction between the country’s currency value and its
economic stability
6. the money that cannot be seen or touched, but it is still powerful
form of payment
7. modern payment applications
HISTORY OF MONEY:
FROM BARTER TO VIRTUAL CURRENCY
(1) Money, in and of itself, is nothing. It can be a shell, a metal
coin, or a piece of paper with a historic image on it, but the value that
people give to it has nothing to do with the physical value of the
money. Money derives its value by being a medium of exchange, a
unit of measurement and a storehouse for wealth. Money allows
people to trade goods and services indirectly, understand the price of
goods and gives us a way to save for larger purchases in the future.
Money is valuable merely because everyone knows everyone else will
accept it as a form of payment.
58
(2) Money, in some form, has been part of human history for at least
the last 3000 years. Before that time, it is assumed that a system
of bartering was likely used. In its simplest form, bartering is the
exchange of one valuable product for another between two individuals.
Person A has two chickens but wants to get some apples; meanwhile,
Person B has apples but wants some chickens. If the two can find each
other, Person A might trade one of his chickens for Person B's apples.
No medium of exchange is used.
(3) Slowly, a type of prehistoric currency involving goods like
animal skins, salt and weapons developed over the centuries. These
traded goods served as the medium of exchange even though the unit
values were still negotiable. This system of barter and trade spread
across the world, and it still survives today on some parts of the globe.
(4) Sometime around 1100 BC, the Chinese moved from using
actual tools and weapons as a medium of exchange to using miniature
replicas of the same tools cast in bronze. Gradually, the first coins
appeared. Later, in 600 BC, the Chinese moved from coins to paper
money. In the place where the American bills say "In God We Trust,"
the Chinese inscription warned "All counterfeiters will be
decapitated."
(5) In Europe the shift to paper money increased the amount
of international trade that could occur. Banks started buying currencies
from other nations and created the first currency market. The stability
of a particular monarchy or government affected the value of the
country's currency and the ability for that country to trade on an
international market. The competition between countries often led to
currency wars, where competing countries would try to affect the value
of the competitor's currency by driving it up and making the enemy's
goods too expensive, by driving it down and reducing the
enemy's buying power (and ability to pay for a war), or by
eliminating the currency completely.
(6) The 21st century gave rise to two disruptive forms of currency:
mobile payments and virtual currency. A mobile payment is money
paid for a product or service through a portable electronic device.
Mobile payment technology can also be used to send money to friends
or family members. Increasingly, services like Apple
59
Pay and Samsung Pay are vying for retailers to accept their
platforms for payments.
(7) Bitcoin, invented in 2009 by the pseudonymous Satoshi
Nakamoto, became the gold standard for virtual currencies. Virtual
currencies have no physical coinage. The appeal of virtual currency is
that it offers the promise of lower transaction fees than traditional
online payment mechanisms and is operated by a decentralized
authority, unlike government issued currencies.
60
VOCABULARY NOTES
barter (n) /ˈbɑː.tər/ ապրանքափոխանակու
թյուն
shell (n) /ʃel/ խեցի
coin (n) /kɔɪn/ մետաղադրամ
value (n) /ˈvæl.juː/ արժեք
derive (v) /dɪˈraɪv/ բխել, ածանցել, ստանալ
medium (n) /ˈmiː.di.əm/ միջոց
unit (n) /ˈjuː.nɪt/ միավոր
measurement /ˈmeʒ.ə.mənt/ չափ, չափում
(n)
storehouse (n) /ˈstɔː.haʊs/ պահեստ
wealth (n) /welθ/ հարստություն
indirectly (adv) /ˌɪn.daɪˈrekt.li/ անուղղակիորեն
purchase (n) /ˈpɜː.tʃəs/ գնում
merely (adj) /ˈmɪə.li/ պարզապես, լոկ, միայն
form (n) /fɔːm/ ձև
payment (n) /ˈpeɪ.mənt/ վճար
assume (v) /əˈsjuːm/ ենթադրել
meanwhile (adv) /ˈmiːn.waɪl/ միևնույն ժամանակ
prehistoric (adj) /ˌpriː.hɪˈstɒr.ɪk/ նախապատմական
currency(n) /ˈkʌr.ən.si/ արժույթ
skin(n) /skɪn/ մաշկ
weapon(n) /ˈwep.ən/ զենք
negotiable (adj) /nəˈɡəʊ.ʃə.bəl/ քննարկելի, բանակցելի
spread (v) /spred/ տարածել
survive (v) /səˈvaɪv/ գոյատևել
globe (n) /ɡləʊb/ երկիր
miniature (adj) /ˈmɪn.ə.tʃər/ փոքրիկ, նուրբ
replica (n) /ˈrep.lɪ.kə/ կրկնօրինակ
cast (v) /kɑːst/ ձևավորել, սարքել,
կաղապարել
inscription (n) /ɪnˈskrɪp.ʃən/ մակագրություն
counterfeiter (n) /ˈkaʊn.tə.fɪt.ər/ կեղծող (փող)
decapitate (v) /dɪˈkæp.ɪ.teɪt/ գլխատել
shift (n) /ʃɪft/ անցում, փոփոխություն
stability (n) /stəˈbɪl.ə.ti/ կայունություն
particular (adj) /pəˈtɪk.jə.lər/ որոշակի,
61
առանձնահատուկ
monarchy (n) /ˈmɒn.ə.ki/ միապետություն
affect (v) /əˈfekt/ ազդել
competition(n) /ˌkɒm.pəˈtɪʃ.ən/ մրցակցություն
eliminate (v) /iˈlɪm.ɪ.neɪt/ ոչնչացնել
completely /kəmˈpliːt.li/ ամբողջապես
disruptive (adj) /dɪsˈrʌp.tɪv/ 1.կործանիչ, ավերիչ 2.
նորարական
mobile (adj) /ˈməʊ.baɪl/ շարժուն
virtual (adj) /ˈvɜː.tʃu.əl/ վիրտուալ,
համացանցային
electronic (adj) /ˌel.ekˈtrɒn.ɪk/ էլեկտրոնային
device (n) /dɪˈvaɪs/ սարք
increasingly (adv) /ɪnˈkriːsɪŋli/ ավելի ու ավելի
vie (v) /vaɪ/ մրցել, մրցակցել
pseudonymous (adj) /sjuːˈdɒnɪməs/ կեղծանուն ունեցող
standard (n) /ˈstæn.dəd/ չափանիշ
coinage (n) /ˈkɔɪ.nɪdʒ/ դրամական համակարգ
appeal (n) /əˈpiːl/ գրավչություն
transaction(n) /trænˈzæk.ʃən/ գործարք
fee (n) /fiː/ վճար
mechanism (n) /ˈmek.ə.nɪ.zəm/ մեխանիզմ,
կառուցակարգ
operate (v) /ˈɒp.ər.eɪt/ կառավարել, ղեկավարել
decentralized (adj) /ˌdiːˈsentrəlaɪzd/ ապակենտրոնացված
authority (n) /ɔːˈθɒr.ə.ti/ իշխանություն,
լիազորություն
issue (v) /ˈɪʃ.uː/ /ˈɪs.juː/ թողարկել, տպել

1. The value of money is totally based on people’s perception of it.
2. In bartering system there was no medium of exchange.
3. Money is as old as human history itself.
4. Prehistoric currency such as animal skins, salt and weapons served
as the medium of exchange in the trade.
5. Another type of money was small copies of tools and weapons
which were made from bronze.
6. Paper money decreased the performance of international trade.
62
7. People like the idea of Bitcoin, as it is virtual, and they cannot
touch it.
1. to originate or emerge from a particular source (par. 1)
2. the dimension, quantity determined by measuring (par. 1)
3. at the same time (par. 2)
4. relating to the era before recorded history (par. 3)
5. capable of being discussed in an effort to reach an
agreement (par. 3)
6. a copy or reproduction, especisally one on a scale smaller than the
original (par. 4)
7. to give up by leaving or ceasing to operate (par. 4)
8. to cut off the head of; behead (par. 4)
9. a state ruled or headed by a monarch (par. 5)
10. to get rid of; remove (par. 5)
11. changing the traditional way that something operates,
especially in a new and effective way (par. 6)
12. existing as or by means of digital media (par. 6)
13. more often or to a greater degree (par. 6)
14. having or using a false or assumed name (par. 7)
15. a public agency or corporation with administrative powers in a
specified field (par. 7)
63
փոխանակման միջոց, չափման միավոր, վճարման ձև,
ապրանքափոխանակման համակարգ,
նախապատմական արժույթ, երկրագնդի տարբեր
մասերում, փոքր կրկնօրինակներ, անցումը դեպի
թղթադրամ, որոշակի միապետության կայունությունը,
ամբողջապես ոչնչացնել արժույթը, արժույթի երկու
նորարական ձևերը, առցանց վճարման
մեխանիզմներ, կառավարության կողմից թողարկվող
արժույթ

necessary.
1. This is a decision that gives rise ____ arguments. 2. I have
decided to save this cake ____ tomorrow’s event. 3. The shift ____
paper money significantly facilitated international trade. 4. You
may request an exchange ____ any of your shares into
another mutual fund. 5. ____ its simplest form, communication is
defined as a transmission ____ a message ____ a source ____ a
receiver.

pairs.
meanwhile, progressively, to vie, a replica, a device, to assume, a
mode, to eradicate, a form, increasingly, to cast, certain, to
compete, to shape, at the same time, copy, to eliminate, to imply,
gadget, particular
vying, devices, meanwhile, replica, forms
1. It's an authentic copy of an ancient Greek urn.
2. Thousands of applicants are competing for the same job. 3.
Smartphones and other electronic gadgets have become an
inseparable part of our lives. 4. With the advance of technologies,
new modes of communication have appeared.
64
5. You can set the table, and, at the same time, I'll start cooking
dinner.
IX. Choose the best word to go with the first word.
1. save money/ debt/ bank account
2. open debt/ a bank account/ money
3. lend somebody/ borrow/ $5
4. pay a bill/ too many/ on a bill
5. spend too many/ a debt/ too much
6. to be in saving/ in debt/ a debt
7. earn a lot/ bank account/ some bills
8. to be in rich/ at debt/ very poor
X. Choose the right answer to the following questions.
1. What is the name of money you borrow from the bank?
1) Loan 2) Salary
2. What is the currency of the UK?
1) Pound Sterling 2) Euro
3. What are the DOW Jones, Wall Street and the FTSE?
1) Famous streets 2) Stock Exchanges
4. What is the name of the automatic machine from which you take
cash?
1) Vending machine 2) ATM
5. What is an adjective for a person with lots of money?
1) Well-off 2) Reach
6. Is counterfeit money legal?
1) Yes 2) No
7. What is the name of the money you borrow to buy a house?
1) Debt 2) Mortgage
8. What was the currency of France in the past?
1) Franc 2) Euro
9. What is the word for the money you receive in your job, usually
once a month?
1) Income 2) Salary
10. What do you do if you bargain?
1) Try to return the product 2) Try to get the price down
11. How would you feel if you got a letter from the bank manager
saying you were overdrawn?
65
1) Happy 2) Sad
12. How would you feel if you were totally broke?
1) Happy 2) Sad
13. How would you feel if someone wanted to pay you next to nothing
for your car?
1) Happy 2) Sad
14. How would you feel if you found a good bargain at the local book
store?
1) Happy 2) Sad
15. How would you feel if your local restaurant overcharged you?
1) Happy 2) Sad
WRITING
1. Money makes the world go round.
2. Money doesn’t grow on trees.
LISTENING
Currency - the bills and coins you carry in your wallet
and in your bank account - is founded on marketing, on the
belief that banks and governments are trustworthy. Paul
Kemp-Robertson walks us through a new generation of
currency, supported by that same marketing ... but on behalf
of a private brand. Visit the following website:
https://www.ted.com/talks/
paul_kemp_robertson_bitcoin_sweat_tide_meet_the_future
_of_branded_currency and complete the tasks
below:
1. What is Bitcoin according to Paul Kemp-Robertson?
2. When and by whom was Bitcoin founded?
3. Bitcoin is run by the network. True/False
4. List four reasons why Bitcoin has succeeded.
66
5. Bitcoin is gaining more and more trust and some serious
companies already accept it as a payment currency.
True/False
6. People tend to trust more people who are successful in
business rather than companies and government.
True/False
7. Starbucks currency is only valid within their system.
True/False
67
U N I T VII
E-COMMERCE
DISCUSSION
1. Do you like the idea of online shopping?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of online shopping?
3. Have you ever bought something online?
4. Was it a good or bad experience?
5. What kind of items would you not consider buying online and
why?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) Fitting room a) an amount of money that is returned to you
when you are not happy with a product or
service that you have bought
2) Price tag b) someone buying things at a store
3) Receipt c) a list of all the things that you want to buy
when you go shopping
4) Refund d) the selling of goods in large amounts to
shops and businesses
5) Size e) a shop in which goods are sold at low prices
6) Shopper f) a piece of paper with a price
7) Discount store g) a room in which you can put on clothes
before buying them
8) Shopping list h) how large or small something is
9) Checkout i) putting clothes on to find out whether they
fit
10) Try on j) to be fitted to, to befit
11) Suit k) to be able to buy something
12) Afford l) the place in a store where you pay for your
goods
13) Retail m) a bill
14) Wholesale n) the activity of selling goods direct to the
public, usually in small quantities
68
1. Look at the ____! This shirt is too expensive. You can’t ____ it. 2. I
missed my train because I was queuing at the ____ in the supermarket.
3. I am going to buy her the red dress. This colour ____ her very much.
4. I have lost the ____, but I want to return this shirt. Is that possible?
5. Go to the ____ and try this dress on. 6. We go to ____ because it
sells products at lower prices. 7. Lucy lost the ___ and forgot to buy
cheese. 8. I would like to return this toaster. Can I get the ____?
about
1. The inventor of online shopping
2. The financial means necessary for online shopping
3. The pluses of online shopping
4. The evolution of online shopping
5. The online shopping process details
6. The types of goods delivery
7. The types of customers using online shopping
ONLINE SHOPPING
(1) Today most of us take online shopping for granted, we don’t

even need a desktop computer or laptop anymore. Just a mobile device
with an app or browser. We can find nearly every retail product
available, at the lowest prices and we can do so from any location
without worrying about going to the store. Retailers don’t even need a
traditional outlet when they serve customers via e-commerce, and it
reduces their overheads and improves efficiency. No wonder it’s still
one of the fastest growing industries in the world.
(2) The history of e-commerce dates back further than you might
think. There is always a hero. Someone who comes out of nowhere and
does something unusual. E-commerce has its own hero. Michael
Aldrich is the man. It was the year 1979 when Aldrich was on a stroll
in a supermarket with his wife. Suddenly, he was hit by an idea which
changed it all for e-commerce. Aldrich connected domestic TV and a
computer with telephone lines so as to start selling groceries online via
69
this model, which later helped him launch the business of online
shopping.
(3) The earliest online stores went into business in 1992,
and online retailing has taken over a significant segment of the
retail market during the first decade of the twenty-first century, as
ownership of personal computers increased and established retailers
began to offer their products over the Internet.
(4) Online shopping requires access to a computer, and some form
of payment such as a bank account, credit card, or Paypal account.
Online shoppers are most likely to belong to the middle and upper
classes, but as the growth of technology has made computers less
expensive and available to more people, and increased the ease of
connecting to the Internet, the customer base has expanded.
(5) Consumers find a product of interest by using a search engine
that offers price and quality comparisons. Most online retailers use
shopping cart software that allows the customer to select multiple
items to add to an order. Once the order is complete, the customer
moves through a "checkout" process during which payment and
delivery information is collected. Some stores allow consumers to sign
up for an online account that keeps payment information and shipping
addresses on permanent record so that the checkout process can be
automated. The consumer is typically sent an e-mail confirmation
once the transaction is complete.
(6) Once a payment has been accepted the goods or services can be
delivered in a number of ways:
 Download: This is the method often used for digital media
products such as software, music, movies, or images.
 Shipping: The product is shipped to the customer's address.
 Postal service: The merchant uses regular mail services to send
the product.
 In-store pickup: The customer orders and pays online, finds a
local store using locator software and picks the product up at the
closest store.
 If the purchase is an admission ticket or a gift card, the customer
may receive a numerical code, or a ticket that can be printed out
and presented at the gate.
(7) Online shopping has some advantages over shopping in retail
stores, including the ability to easily compare prices from a range of
70
merchants, access to a wide selection of merchandise, and the
convenience of not having to drive to a physical store. However,
online shopping cannot replace the experience of shopping in a retail
store or the entertainment of going to a mall or market.
71
VOCABULARY NOTES
e-commerce (n) /ˌiːˈkɒm.ɜːs/ առցանց/էլեկտրոնային
առևտուր
take something for / teɪk fər ɡrɑːntid/ շատ բնական համարել
granted
retail (n) /ˈriː.teɪl/ մանրածախ վաճառք,
առևտուր
location (n) /ləʊˈkeɪ.ʃən/ վայր, տեղադրություն,
դիրք
outlet (n) /ˈaʊt.let/ վաճառքի կետ
overheads (n) /ˈəʊvəhedz/ ծախսեր /ընկերության/
efficiency (n) /ɪˈfɪʃ.ən.si/ արդյունավետություն
date back (v) /deɪt bæk/ սկիզբ առնել, թվագրվել
stroll (n) /ˈstrōl / զբոսանք
domestic (adj) /dəˈmes.tɪk/ տնային, հայրենական
significant (adj) /sɪɡˈnɪf.ɪ.kənt/ զգալի, էական
segment (n) /ˈseɡ.mənt/ հատված
decade (n) /ˈdek.eɪd/ տասնամյակ
established (adj) /ɪˈstæb.lɪʃt/ կայացած,
հաստատված
account (n) /əˈkaʊnt/ հաշիվ /բանկային/
ease (n) /iːz/ անկաշկանդություն,
հեշտություն
customer base /ˈkʌs.tə.mər beɪs/ մշտական
հաճախորդների թից
expand (v) /ɪkˈspænd/ ընդլայնել
search engine /sɜːtʃ ˈen.dʒɪn/ որոնողական
համակարգ
comparison (n) /kəmˈpær.ɪ.sən/ համեմատություն
order (n) /ˈɔː.dər/ պատվեր
complete (adj) /kəmˈpliːt/ ավարտված
checkout (n) /ˈtʃek.aʊt/ վճարման կետ
sign up (v) /saɪn ʌp/ գրանցվել, հաշիվ բացել
(սովորաբար առցանց
հարթակում)
shipping address /ˈʃɪp.ɪŋ əˈdres/ առաքման հասցե
permanent (adj) /ˈpɜː.mə.nənt/ մշտական
automated (adj) /ˈɔ·t̬əˌmeɪ·t̬ɪd/ ավտոմատացված
confirmation (n) /ˌkɒn.fəˈmeɪ.ʃən/ հաստատում
72
deliver (v) /dɪˈlɪv.ər/ առաքել
digital (adj) /ˈdɪdʒ.ɪ.təl/ թվային
range (n) /reɪndʒ/ շարք,
բազմազանություն
merchant (n) /ˈmɜː.tʃənt/ առևտրական
merchandise (n) /ˈmɜː.tʃən.daɪz/ ապրանք
convenience (n) /kənˈviː.ni.əns/ հարմարավետություն
replace (v) /rɪˈpleɪs/ փոխարինել
experience (n) /ɪkˈspɪə.ri.əns/ փորձ, փորձառություն

1. Any electronic gadget is enough for an online shopping transaction
as long as it has an app or a browser.
2. Online retailers do not significantly benefit from their business, as
it increases their costs.
3. Online shopping business significantly developed at the turn of the
twenty-first century.
4. Michael Aldrich conceived the idea of e-commerce when he was
doing shopping at the supermarket.
5. The advantages of online shopping prevail over those of usual
shopping in terms of greater enjoyment that people have.

1. regular and necessary costs, such as rent and heating involved in
operating a business (par. 1)
2. a person, shop, or business that sells goods to the public for
final consumption (par. 1)
3. ability to accomplish a job with a minimum expenditure of time
and effort (par. 1)
4. to have existed for a particular length of time or since
a particular time (par. 2)
5. a leisurely walk (par. 2)
6. to begin something such as a plan or introduce something new
such as a product (par. 2)
7. important or noticeable (par. 3)
73
8. the fact that one possesses something (par. 3)
9. the clients to whom a business repeatedly sells products and
services (par. 4)
10. a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the
World Wide Web (par. 5)
11. very many of the same type, or of different types (par. 5)
12. a request to make, supply or deliver goods (par. 5)
13. lasting for a long time or forever (par. 5)
14. recording or storing information as series of the numbers 1
and 0, to show that a signal is present or absent (par. 6)
15. the fact that is suitable for your purposes and causes no difficulty
for your schedule or plans (par. 7)

մանրածախ շուկայի զգալի հատված, մտքով
անցնել/մտահղանալ, կայացած մանրածախ
վաճառողներ, առաջարկել ապրանքներ համացանցի
միջոցով, ընդլայնել մշտական հաճախորդների քա-
նակը, զբոսնել, բիզնես սկսել, նվազեցնել ծախսերը,
խթանել արդյունավետությունը, առաքման հասցե,
ընտրել բազմաթիվ ապրանքներ, կիրառել
որոնողական համակարգ, ամենաարագ աճող
արդյունաբերությունը, թվագրվել/ծագում ունենալ,
առցանց հաշիվ բացել
VII. Read the text and choose the correct word given in brackets.
Web Site Design
Customers 1. (elect/ choose/ opt) online shopping because of its 2.
(higher/ high/ highest) level of convenience and competitive 3. (costs/
pricing/ expenses). For a retailer, a shopping web site increases sales,
increases customer access to its products, and strengthens brand 4.
(aware/ awareness/ ware) and customer 5. (loyalty/ devotion/
dedication). Good web site 6. (design/ designer/standard) is crucial to
the success of an online shopping web site. Many retailers continue 7.
74
(to encounter to/ to face/ to meet) challenges in creating a satisfactory
online shopping 8. (experiences/ experience/ results) for their
customers.
User-centered design is very important. The purpose of an online
shopping site is to build relationships with customers and 9. (do/ make/
deal) money. The primary 10. (centre/ focus/ point) of the web site
should be satisfying the consumers' 11. (experience/ expectations/
choices), not supporting the organization’s culture and brand name. 12.
(Consumers/ Retailers/ Wholesalers) seek efficiency, good customer
service, and a 13. (touch/ sense/ experience) that the company cares
about them. An organization must invest 14. (substantial/
substantially/ substance) resources to define, design, develop, test,
implement, and maintain a shopping web site.
VIII. Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions or adverbs where

necessary.
Online shopping and retail shopping
1. Online shopping offers certain advantages, but it will never replace
the experience ____ shopping ____ a retail store. 2. A customer who
knows exactly what he or she wants can look it ____ online and
purchase ____ the site that offers the best price. 3. A shopper who just
enjoys browsing ____ items _____ display, will prefer a retail store
where the merchandise can be seen and sampled. 4. For many people,
going shopping ____ a mall or department store is a form ____
entertainment. 5. Many people who are currently unfamiliar ____
computers and do not feel comfortable using the Internet are not likely
to shop online. 6. Some items, like clothing and shoes, may need to be
tried ____ before the customer can be certain that they are the right
size. 7. Many computer literate people take online shopping ____
granted. 8. Access ____ a computer is one of the requirements ____
online shopping. 9. To have payment information and shipping address
____ permanent record you should sign ____ ____ an online account.
10. Almost any product or service can be offered ____ e-commerce,
____ books and music ____ financial services and plane tickets.
IX. Use the words in brackets to form a word that fits in the space.
Advantages of online shopping
75
Online stores are 1. (availability) 24 hours a day, and many 2.
(consumption) have Internet access both at work and at home. A visit
to a 3. (convention) retail store requires travel and must take place
during business hours. During the holiday season and on weekends,
shoppers in retail stores must contend with crowds and long lines.
4. (Browser) an online catalog can be faster than the aisles of a
physical store. One 5. (advantageous) of shopping online is being able
to quickly seek out and 6. (comparison) prices for items or services
from many 7. (difference) vendors using search engines and online
price 8. (compare) services. In certain market 9. (segmental) such as
books and music, computers and consumer electronics, shoppers find a
greater 10. (selected) online and may be able to locate refurbished or
second-hand items at much lower prices.
11. (Collect) and hobbyists can find supplies and 12. (rarely) items
online that are seldom available in 13. (retailer) stores, and can use
auction sites to sell and research collectibles, antiques and one-of-a-
kind pieces.
Some online stores 14. (provide) or link to 15. (supplemental)
product information, such as 16. (instruct), safety procedures, 17.
(demonstrate), advice, or how-to guides. Many shopping sites allow
customers to 18. (rated) their items.
WRITING
task.
1. Buying things on the Internet, such as books, air tickets
and groceries, is becoming more and more popular.
Do the advantages of shopping in this way outweigh the
disadvantages?
76
U N I T VIII
BANKING INDUSTRY
DISCUSSION
1. What services do banks offer?
2. Do you or your parents have a bank account?
3. Why are banks important to our society?
4. How do banks make money?
5. Do you have many banks in your country? Are they mostly local or
global banks?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) banking a) Automated Teller Machine: a machine from
which you can take money out using a
special card
2) to borrow b) to put money into something to make
a profit
3) to lend c) the amount of money in a bank account
4) loan d) to give someone money expecting them
to pay back later
5) to invest e) to take money from a bank and pay it
back over a period of time
6) ATM f) the business of opereating a bank;
the activity of managing the
money in your bank accounts
7) bank balance g) a payment, especially into a bank account
8) deposit h) a printed record of the money put into and
removed from a bank account
9) cash i) money which is owed to someone else
10) credit card j) sums of money paid by a customer for a
bank's services
11) debt k) a plastic card which can be used as a method
of payment
12) bank l) money in the form of notes and coins, rather
statement than checks or credit cards
77
13) interest rate m) the percentage amount that you pay for
borrowing money, or get for lending money,
for a period of time
14) bank n) a sum of money which is borrowed from a
charges bank and has to be paid back, usually
together with an additional amount of
money that you have to pay as a charge for
borrowing
1. To open an account, you need to make a minimum ____
of $500. 2. A ____ is the ending cash balance appearing on the bank
statement for a bank account. 3. Is there an ____ near here? I need to
get some money out. 4. The National Bank has set the ____ at 6%.
5. They piled up such a huge ____ that they soon went
bankrupt. 6. Will you pay by credit card or in____ ?
about
1. the types of loans provided by banks
2. the origins of banking industry
3. the main function of banks
4. the regulations of banks by governments
5. onlline banking industry
THE NATURE OF BANKS

(1) The banking industry is an enormous sector of business and
finance that has existed in human civilization in some form for
thousands of years. In the modern world, the banking industry plays a
large part in financial dealings, as it is a major and popular means for
investing, borrowing, and storing money. Banks exist all over the
world, and are usually heavily regulated by world governments in
order to prevent corruption and protect the money of the general
public.
(2) Though there is some evidence of a banking industry in
ancient Greece and throughout other early civilizations, the Middle
78
East and Asia are believed to have played an important part of the
development of a banking industry. The word “check” derives from
an old Arabic word for a promise of payment on delivery, and
historical records show some evidence of an international
banking trade between Islamic nations and China as early as the 9th
century.
(3) Many historians trace the foundations of modern banking to
14th century Italy, where wealthy Italian families established banks for
the lending and investing of money on trade and commerce. Banks
sprang up throughout Europe during the following centuries,
concentrating in the great ports of the old world where commerce was
a part of daily life. With the shift from precious metal currency to fiat
money systems, the banking industry was less limited by finite
resources and could expand ever further. The development of
computer technology also playing a critical part in creating a global
industry, since users were no longer limited by the need to physically
visit a bank to manage transactions.
(4) The banking industry provides clients with a variety of
services and options. The most basic function of a bank is to provide
customers with a safe, guaranteed record of their accumulated
money, usually done through a checking account that can be easily
accessed for withdrawals and deposits. Banks also provide savings
accounts, which are also easily accessed but provide a slightly higher
interest rate for funds. For many people, involvement with
the banking industry is limited to these two basic accounts, but this is
only a bare minimum of what the industry offers.
(5) Banks play a major part in the investing and loaning of money.
Most banks can use the funds deposited in accounts to loan out money
or make investments; this practice allows a constant flow of lending
and borrowing that keeps money circulating throughout the economy.
Loans that many banks offer include commercial loans, property
loans, vehicle loans, and lines of credit. Investment services offered by
many banks include retirement and certificate of deposits.
VOCABULARY NOTES
enormous (adj) /ɪˈnɔː.məs/ ահռելի, մեծ
invest (v) /ɪnˈvest/ ներդնել
79
borrow (v) /ˈbɒr.əʊ/ պարտք վերցնել
store (v) /stɔːr/ պահպանել, պահել
regulate (v) /ˈreɡ.jə.leɪt/ կարգավորել
prevent (v) /prɪˈvent/ կանխել
corruption (n) /kəˈrʌp.ʃən/ կաշառակերություն
evidence (n) /ˈev.ɪ.dəns/ վկայություն, փաստ
ancient (adj) /ˈeɪn.ʃənt/ հին, հնագույն
the Middle East /ˌmɪd.əl ˈiːst/ Միջին Արևելք
derive (v) /dɪˈraɪv/ ծագել, սերել
record (n) /ˈrek.ɔːd/ գրառում, գրանցում,
տվյալ
trace (v) /treɪs/ հայտնաբերել,
հետազոտել
foundation (n) /faʊnˈdeɪ.ʃən/ հիմք
establish (v) /ɪˈstæb.lɪʃ/ հիմնել
lend (v) /lend/ գումար տալ պարտքով
commerce (n) /ˈkɒm.ɜːs/ կոմերցիա, առևտուր
spring up (v) /sprɪŋ ʌp/ առաջանալ, տարածվել
port (n) /pɔːt/ նավահանգիստ
fiat money /ˈfʌɪat/ օրինական
/ˈfiː.æt ˈmʌn.i/ վճարամիջոց
finite (adj) /ˈfaɪ.naɪt/ սահմանափակ
expand (v) /ɪkˈspænd/ ընդլայնվել, տարածվել
guarantee (v) /ˌɡær.ənˈtiː/ երաշխավորել
accumulate (v) /əˈkjuː.mjə.leɪt/ կուտակել
checking account /ˈtʃek.ɪŋ əˌkaʊnt/ ընթացիկ հաշիվ
withdrawal (n) /wɪðˈdrɔː.əl/ գումարի հանումը
հաշվից
deposit (n) /dɪˈpɒz.ɪt/ ավանդ
savings account /ˈseɪ.vɪŋz əˌkaʊnt/ խնայողական հաշիվ
slightly (adv) /ˈslaɪt.li/ չնչին, մի քիչ
interest rate /ˈɪn.trəst ˌreɪt/ տոկոսադրույք
fund (n) /fʌnd/ հիմնադրամ
involvement (n) /ɪnˈvɒlv.mənt/ ներգրավվածություն
bare (adj) /beər/ հիմնական, կարևոր
loan (n) /ləʊn/ վարկ
practice (n) /ˈpræk.tɪs/ գործելաոճ
constant (adj) /ˈkɒn.stənt/ հաստատուն,
մշտական
80
flow (n) /fləʊ/ հոսք
circulate (0 /ˈsɜː.kjə.leɪt/ շրջանառվել
commercial (adj) /kəˈmɜː.ʃəl/ առևտրային
property (n) /ˈprɒp.ə.ti/ գույք, ունեցվածք,
սեփականություն
vehicle (n) /ˈvɪə.kəl/ փոխադրամիջոց
credit line /ˈkred.ɪt laɪn/ / վարկային գիծ
retirement (n) /rɪˈtaɪə.mənt/ թոշակ

1. Banks exist everywhere in the world.
2. Money used to exist in the form of precious metals.
3. Banks emerged in Europe in the 14th century.
4. Savings accounts are easily accessed and they
include retirements and deposit accounts.
5. Banks are strictly monitored to eliminate corruption
and protect the money of the public.
6. The word “check” comes from an old Arabic word
meaning “account”.
7. Trade relations existed between Islamic nations and
China in the 9th century.

1. extremely large (par. 1)
2. human society with its well-developed social organizations
(par. 1)
3. to stop something from happening or someone from doing
something (par. 1)
4. illegal, bad, or dishonest behaviour, especially by people in
positions of power (par. 1)
5. one or more reasons for believing that something is or is
not true (par. 2)
6. of or from a long time ago, having lasted for a very long time
(par. 2)
7. obtain something from a specified source (par. 2)
81
8. to find and discover by investigation (par. 3)
9. to start to exist suddenly (par. 3)
10. of great value because of being rare, expensive, or important
(par. 3)
11. paper money made legal tender by a government decree (par. 3)
12. one thing that can be chosen from a set of possibilities (par. 4)
13. the amount of money taken (par. 4)
14. something that is regularly done, often as a habit or tradition
(par. 5)
15. the period in someone’s life after they have stopped working
because of having reached a particular age (par. 5)

ֆինանսական գործարքներ, կանխել
կաշառակերությունը, մեծապես կարգավորված լինել,
պատմական գրառումներ, կենտրոնացած լինել խոշոր
նավահանգիստներում, ամենօրյա կյանքի մի մաս
լինել, ծառայությունների և ընտրության բազ-
մազանություն, հասանելի լինել գումարների հանման
և ավանդների համար, ավելի բարձր տոկոսադրույք
VII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

pairs.
to monitor, finite, evidence, to emerge, shift, bare,
no longer, port, variety, to regulate, change, limited,
to spring up, base, proof, not anymore, diversity,
basic, foundation, harbour
bare, evidence, finite, port, shift, sprung up
1. We only have a limited amount of time to
complete this task – we can't continue indefinitely. 2. He
only told me the basic facts about what happened. 3. There is
no proof that these devices actually work. 4. Thousands of new
businesses have emerged in the past couple of years. 5. There
has been a dramatic change in public opinion towards
82
peaceful negotiations. 6. The Central harbor area will
be closed to all marine traffic from 3 p.m. to 4 p.m.
VIII. Use the words in brackets to form a new word that fits into
the gap.
HOW TO OPEN A BANK ACCOUNT
Opening a bank account can seem 1. (difficulty). Fortunately,
getting your account open is just a matter of 2. (provision) certain
details and funding your account. Once the formalities are 3. (did), you
can start 4. (to use) your account and save time and money.
The easiest way to open an account is to visit the institution’s
website. The 5. (advantageous) of opening accounts online is that you
can do it at any time, from anywhere. However, if you're only 6.
(comfort) opening accounts in person, you can show up at the branch
during business hours. Before you 7. (leaving) the house, be sure to
have the 8. (to follow) items ready:
 9. (Identify) (government-issued ID like a driver’s license,
passport)
 Your 10. (Society) Security Number
 Your physical and mailing address
 An initial deposit (if required at the time of opening)
Pick the Product You Want
Any financial institution will have a 11. (various) of account types
and services that you can 12. (choice) from. Banks often give their
products 13. (uniqueness) names that can be 14. (confusion), but
they’re basically products at every institution:
 Checking accounts for making 15. (to pay) and direct deposit.
 Savings accounts for 16. (to earn) interest.
 Money market accounts for slightly more interest (while keeping
access to your cash)
 Certificates of deposit (CDs) for earning even more when you
lock up your funds.
 Loans of all types (auto, home, personal loans, and more)
Pick the 17. (optional) that has a mix that is right for you. For
example, if you are going to keep a 18. (lower) balance in the
account, just open an account that keeps fees at a 19. (minimal).
83
IX. Read the text and match the banks given below with their
corresponding functions.
TYPES OF BANKS
Online banks, Central banks, Investment banks, Commercial
banks, Retail banks
There are different types of banks, all serving different types of
needs.
1. _____ are probably the banks you’re most familiar with. Your
checking and savings accounts are held at a retail bank, which focuses
on consumers as customers. These banks give you credit cards, offer
loans, and they’re the ones with numerous branch locations in
populated areas.
2. _____ focus on business customers. Businesses need checking
and savings accounts just like individuals do. But they also need more
complex services, and the dollar amounts or the number of transactions
can be much larger. They might need to accept payments from
customers, rely heavily on lines of credit to manage cash flow.
3. _____ help businesses work in financial markets. If a business
wants to go public or sell debt to investors, they’ll often use
an investment bank.
4._____ manage the monetary system for a government. For
example, the Federal Reserve Bank is the US central bank responsible
for managing economic activity and supervising banks.
5._____operate entirely online – there are no physical branch
locations available to visit with a teller or personal banker.
Many brick-and-mortar banks also offer online services, such as the
ability to view accounts and pay bills online, but internet-only
banks are different: they offer competitive rates on savings
accounts.
WRITING
task.
84
1. Why to choose banking as a career.
85
U N I T IX
WORLD OF SECURITIES
DISCUSSION
1. What are the largest business centers of the world that you know?
2. What are the biggest Stock Exchanges that you know?
3. What do you know about Wall Street?
4. If you were offered to buy some company’s stocks, which
company would it be? Why?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) stock market a) part of the ownership of a company that can be
bought by members of the public
2) securities b) an official document stating that
the information on it is true
3) investment c) financial instruments (shares, stocks, bonds)
that are bought and sold to make a profit
4) certificate d) a company's profits in a particular period
5) earnings e) the aggregation of buyers and sellers of stocks
which represent ownership claims on businesses,
stock exchange
6) capital f) an asset or item acquired with the goal of
generating income
7) stock g) money and possessions used for producing
more wealth or for starting a new business
1. The government wanted an inflow of foreign ____. 2. A ____
is a facility where people can buy or sell stocks and securities through
brokers and traders. 3. The rise in the value of the dollar has depressed
the company’s ____ this year. 4. We put $20,000____
into the business, but we're unlikely to see any return for a
few years. 5. When a person buys a stock, he/she receives a ____
86
stating that he/she is the owner of this stock. 6. ____
prices fell yesterday in heavy trading.
about
1. the procedures and ways of buying and selling stocks
2. the types and nature of stocks
3. the stock market as an important place for investments
4. the people who own stocks and shares
THE STOCK MARKET

(1) A stock market is a place where investors trade certificates
that indicate partial ownership in businesses for a set price. Through
these transactions, companies can raise the initial capital necessary for
various operations, and those who buy the certificates become entitled
to a portion of the business' assets and earnings. Although the value
of the certificates is not static and depends to a large extent on public
perception, the stock market remains one of the major means of
investment and can be used as an indicator of overall economic
health.
(2) When companies need money for various goals, one option they
have for getting capital is to divide ownership of their businesses up
into parts known as shares. They sell these shares and use the funds
for tasks like developing products or buying buildings and equipment.
To provide some proof of this ownership division, they print
certificates called stock, and individuals who purchase the certificates
are called stockholders. Many people use the words "stocks" and
"shares", "stockholder" and "shareholder" interchangeably.
(3) As partial owners in a company, shareholders are entitled to a
percentage of the assets and earnings of the business, otherwise known
as dividends. They usually hope that the business in which they have
invested will make money, because then they will receive some of the
profits. In fact, the basic goal usually is to buy stock when the price is
low and sell it when the value is high. With common stock, they
usually have voting rights and they generally receive annual or
quarterly reports that let them know how the company is doing
financially. Preferred stocks don't usually give voting rights, but many
87
people like them because they give more of the earnings and assets to
the shareholders, and because they give investors payment priority if
the company goes bankrupt and liquidates what it owns.
(4) At the most basic level, the stock market provides an
organized way for businesses to connect with potential investors who
might want to purchase stocks and become partial owners. When a
corporation wants to sell shares of its company, it usually lists
its stock on an exchange, which is an organization that hosts all the
activities related to buying and selling certificates. A business typically
has to meet specific requirements to get on an exchange, so investors
usually see them as less risky when compared to businesses that sell
"over the counter" (OTC), or without being listed.
VOCABULARY NOTES
stock market/exchange /ˈstɒk ˌmɑː.kɪt/ ֆոնդային բորսա
initial (adj) /ɪˈnɪʃ.əl/ սկզբնական,
նախնական
capital (n) /ˈkæp.ɪ.təl/ դրամամիջոցներ,
կապիտալ
be entitled to something /ɪnˈtaɪ.təld/ ինչ-որ բանի
իրավունք ունենալ
portion (n) /ˈpɔː.ʃən/ մաս, բաժին
assets (n) /ˈæs.et/ ունեցվածք,
ակտիվներ
earnings (n) /ˈɜː.nɪŋz/ վաստակ, շահույթ,
օգուտ
static (adj) /ˈstæt.ɪk/ անշարժ, անփոփոխ
perception (n) /pəˈsep.ʃən/ ընկալում
indicator (n) /ˈɪn.dɪ.keɪ.tər/ ցուցանիշ
overall (adj) /ˌəʊ.vəˈrɔːl/ ընդհանուր
share (n) /ʃeər/ բաժնեմաս
proof (n) /pruːf/ ապացույց
stock (n) /stɒk/ բաժնետոմս
stockholder (n) /ˈstɒkˌhəʊl.dər/ բաժնետեր
percentage (n) /pəˈsen.tɪdʒ/ տոկոս
dividend (n) /ˈdɪv.ɪ.dend/ շահութաբաժին
common stock /ˈkɒm.ən stɒk/ սովորական
բաժնետոմս
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vote (v) /vəʊt/ քվեարկել
right (n) /raɪt/ իրավունք
annual (adj) /ˈæn.ju.əl/ տարեկան
quarterly (adj) /ˈkwɔː.təl.i/ եռամսյակային
preferred stock /prɪˈfɜːd stɒk/ արտոնյալ
բաժնետոմս
priority (n) /praɪˈɒr.ə.ti/ առաջնահերթություն
bankrupt (adj) /ˈbæŋ.krʌpt/ սնանկ
liquidate (v) /ˈlɪk.wə.deɪt/ լուծարել, ունեցվածքը
կանխիկացնել
list (v) /lɪst/ գրանցել,
ցուցակագրել
exchange (n) /ɪksˈtʃeɪndʒ/ բորսա
host (v) /həʊst/ կազմակերպել,
անցկացնել
requirement (n) /rɪˈkwaɪə.mənt/ պահանջ
over the counter /ˈəʊ.vər բորսայից դուրս
/ðiː ˈkaʊn.tər/ իրականացվող
(գործարք)

1. The value of certificates is dynamic.
2. Businesses that sell their shares on an exchange are viewed as more
reliable organizations.
3. Voting rights are provided by all the types of stocks.
4. The terms “stocks” and “shares” are used as synonyms by majority
of people.
5. The goal of shareholders is to buy and sell stocks regardless of
their price fluctuations.

1. a place where shares of companies are traded (par 1)
2. to buy and sell goods or services (par 1)
3. a piece of business, an act of buying or selling something (par 1)
4. an opinion, often held by people and based on how things
seem (par 1)
89
5. in general rather than in particular, or including all the people or
things in a particular group or situation (par 1)
6. one thing that can be chosen from a set of possibilities (par 2)
7. a fact that shows that something exists or is true (par 2)
8. a sum of money saved and made available for a particular purpose
(par 2)
9. in a way that can be exchanged without making any
difference (par 2)
10. an amount of something, often expressed as a number out of
100 (par 3)
11. to get or be given something (par 3)
12. happening four times a year (par 3)
13. to be unable to pay one's debts (par 4)
14. to make a company's shares available on a financial market (par 4)
15. not traded on an organized securities exchange (par 4)

Գնել և վաճառել վկայականներ, գործարքների
միջոցով, հասարակական ընկալում, տնտեսական
ընդհանուր վիճակի ցուցանիշ, ձայնի իրավունք,
արտոնյալ բաժնետոմսեր, վճարման
առաջնահերթություն, տարեկան կամ եռամսյա զե-
կույցներ, սովորական բաժնետոմսեր, բաժնետերերը
իրավունք ունեն

pairs.
Annual, shares, to buy, requirement, named, to satisfy, to own, be
in the red, profit, demand, priority, yearly, go bankrupt,
prerogative, earnings, to have, stocks, to purchase, called, to meet.
quarterly, in the red, over-the-counter, annual,
listed, earnings
1. Off-exchange trading is done directly between two parties,
without the supervision of an exchange. 2. The magazine will be
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published four times a year. 3. The company was already
bankrupt, owing more than three million dollars. 4. Last year,
eight new companies were registered on the Lahore stock exchange.
5. You will receive yearly pay increments every September. 6.
Sun Microsystems reported profits that were slightly better than the
market had been expecting.

necessary.
1. What products will be produced ___the company depends ____
what customers want. 2. The New York Stock Exchange is quite large
compared ____ other stock markets. 3. ____ a large extent their
business was successful. 4. Stocks can be traded ____ various
exchanges. 5. Stocks bought and sold ___ the counter are riskier than
those traded ____ regular exchanges.
6. The idea is to divide ____ the business ____ four production sectors.
IX. Read the text below and pose questions to it.

Wall Street is the financial capital of the US. It is a street in lower
Manhattan that is the original home of the New York Stock
Exchange and the historic headquarters of the largest US brokerages
and investment banks. The term "Wall Street" is also used as a
collective name for the financial and investment community, which
includes stock exchanges and large banks, brokerages, securities
and underwriting firms, etc.
Wall Street got its name from the wooden wall that Dutch colonists
built in lower Manhattan in 1653 to defend themselves from the British
and Native Americans. The wall was taken down in 1699, but the name
stuck. The area became a center of trade in the 1700s, and in the late
1790s, publicly traded investments were issued. The New York Stock
Exchange, the world's largest in terms of market capitalization
($19.223 trillion), can trace its roots to this time and area. It was
founded in 1792 and is owned by Intercontinental Exchange. Second
on the list is the tech-heavy NASDAQ founded in 1971, also in New
York, with a market capitalization of $6.831 trillion. It is owned by
NASDAQ, Inc, and is the first exchange to use electronic system in
trading.
91
UNIT X
HISTORY OF INSURANCE
DISCUSSION
1. How would you define insurance?
2. What types of insurance do you know?
3. Which biggest insurance companies do you know?
4. What would you like to be insured against?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) premiums a) to protect someone or something against
loss, damage, accident, etc., by insurance
2) lump sum b) a request to an insurance company
for payment relating to an accident,
illness, damage to property, etc.
3) policy c) a person who calculates insurance
premiums and dividends
4) to cover (smb) d) document showing an agreement you
against smth have made with an insurance company
5) claim e) the regular payments you make to an
insurance company
6) actuary f) a quantity of money paid all at once, not in
parts
1. I asked an outstanding ____ the other day to make me some
calculations. 2. After her house was burgled, she made a ____ on her
insurance. 3. Car insurance ____ have increased this year. 4.
Does your travel insurance ____ you against the loss or theft
of cash?
about
1. the history of marine insurance
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2. the start of life insurance
3. the catastrophe that happened in the UK in the 17th century
4. the first evidence of insurance that was in writing
HISTORY OF INSURANCE
(1) The main concept of insurance—that of spreading risk among
many—has been around as long as human existence. The first written
insurance policy appeared in ancient times on a Babylonian obelisk
monument with the code of King Hammurabi carved into it. The
Hammurabi Code was one of the first forms of written laws. These
ancient laws were extreme in most respects, but one offered basic
insurance in that a debtor didn't have to pay back his loans if some
personal catastrophe made it impossible (disability, death, flooding,
etc.).
(2) In the late 1600s, shipping was just beginning between the New
World and the Old as colonies were being established and exotic
goods were ferried back. A coffeehouse owned by Edward Lloyd, later
of Lloyd's of London, was the primary meeting place for merchants,
ship owners and others seeking insurance. A basic system for funding
voyages to the New World was established. In the first stage,
merchants and companies would seek funding from venture
capitalists. The venture capitalists would help find people who wanted
to be colonists, usually those from the more desperate areas of
London, and would purchase provisions for the voyage. In exchange,
the venture capitalists would be guaranteed some of the returns from
the goods the colonists would produce or find in the Americas. After
the voyage was secured by venture capitalists, the merchants and ship
owners would go to Lloyd's and hand over a copy of the ship's cargo
to be read to the investors and underwriters who gathered there. The
people interested in taking the risk for a set premium would sign at
the bottom of the manifest beneath the figure indicating what share of
the cargo they were taking responsibility for (hence, underwriting). In
this way, a single voyage would have multiple underwriters who
would try to spread their own risk by taking shares in several different
voyages.
(3) By 1654, Blaise Pascal, the Frenchman who gave us the first
calculator, discovered a way to express probabilities and, thereby,
93
understand levels of risk. Pascal's triangle led to the
first actuary tables that were, and still are, used when calculating
insurance rates. This formalized the practice of underwriting and made
insurance more affordable.
(4) In 1666, the great fire of London destroyed around 14,000
buildings. London was still recovering from the plague that ravaged it
a year earlier, and many survivors found themselves without homes.
As a response to the chaos that followed the burning of London,
groups of underwriters who had dealt exclusively in marine insurance
formed insurance companies that offered fire insurance.
(5) Armed with Pascal's triangle, these companies quickly
expanded their range of business. By 1693, the first mortality
table was created using Pascal's triangle and life insurance soon
followed.
VOCABULARY NOTES
existence (n) /ɪɡˈzɪs.təns/ գոյություն
insurance policy /ɪnˈʃɔː.rənsˌpɒl.ə.si/ ապահովագիր
obelisk (n) /ˈɒb.əl.ɪsk/ կոթող
monument (n) /ˈmɒn.jə.mənt/ հուշարձան
code (n) /kəʊd/ օրենսգիրք
carve (into) /kɑːv/ փորագրել
extreme (adj) /ɪkˈstriːm/ ծայրահեղ
in most respects /rɪˈspekt/ տարբեր
առումներով
loan (n) /ləʊn/ վարկ,
փոխառություն
catastrophe (n) /kəˈtæs.trə.fi/ աղետ
disability (n) /ˌdɪs.əˈbɪl.ə.ti/ անկարողություն
flooding (n) /ˈflʌd.ɪŋ/ ջրհեղեղ
colony (n) /ˈkɒl.ə.ni/ գաղութ
establish (v) /ɪˈstæb.lɪʃ/ ստեղծել, հիմնադրել
ferry (v) /ˈfer.i/ բեռնափոխադրել,
առաքել
primary (adj) /ˈpraɪ.mər.i/ առաջնային
merchant (n) /ˈmɜː.tʃənt/ վաճառական
stage (n) /steɪdʒ/ փուլ
venture (n) /ˈven.tʃər/ ձեռնարկատիրությու
94
ն
colonist (n) /ˈkɒl.ə.nist/ գաղութաբնակ
desperate (adj) /ˈdes.pər.ət/ սարսափելի,
ծայրահեղ վատ
վիճակում գտնվող
provision (n) /prəˈvɪʒ.ən/ պաշար, մթերք
return (n) /rɪˈtɜːn/ եկամուտ
hand (over) (v) /hænd/ փոխանցել
underwriter (n) /ˈʌn.dərˌaɪ.tər/ ապահովագրող
set (adj) /set/ ֆիքսված
premium (n) /ˈpriː.mi.əm/ ապահովագին
manifest (n) /ˈmæn.ɪ.fest/ նավաբեռի
հայտարարագիր
hence (adv) /hens/ ուստի, այսպիսով
probability (n) /ˌprɒb.əˈbɪl.ə.ti/ հավանականություն
thereby (adv) /ˌðeəˈbaɪ/ հետևաբար
actuary (n) /ˈæk.tʃu.ə.ri/ ապահովագրական
մաթեմատիկա,
ապահովագրական
ռիսկերը գնահատող
անձ
formalize (v) /ˈfɔː.mə.laɪz/ պաշտոնականացնել
affordable (adj) /əˈfɔː.də.bəl/ մատչելի, հասանելի
plague (n) /pleɪɡ/ ժանտախտ
ravage (v) /ˈræv.ɪdʒ/ կործանել, քայքայել
survivor (n) /səˈvaɪ.vər/ ողջ մնացած
chaos (n) /ˈkeɪ.ɒs/ քաոս
exclusively (adv) /ɪkˈskluː.sɪv.li/ բացառապես,
միմիայն
marine insurance /məˈriːn ɪnˌʃɔː.rəns/ ծովային
ապահովագրություն
armed (adj) /ɑːmd/ զինված
mortality (n) /mɔːˈtæl.ə.ti/ մահացություն
life insurance /ˈlaɪf ɪnˌʃɔː.rəns/ կյանքի
ապահովագրություն

1. The ancient laws of insurance were extraordinary.
95
2. Marine insurance was born in the 17th century.
3. The Hammurabi Code was written on a piece of stone.
4. In the 16th century, people were already able to calculate risk
levels.
5. The venture capitalists went on a voyage hoping to find some
precious goods overseas.
1. a tall stone column with four sloping sides and a pointed top,
made in honour of an important person or event (par. 1)
2. an amount of money that is borrowed, often from a bank, and
has to be paid back, usually together with an extra amount
of money that you have to pay as a charge for borrowing (par.
1)
3. an illness, injury, or condition that makes it difficult for
someone to do the things that other people do (par. 1)
4. a country controlled politically by a more powerful state (par. 2)
5. a new activity, usually in business, that involves risk (par. 2)
6. an amount or thing supplied or provided (par. 2)
7. a person or company that sells insurance policies (par. 2)
8. very many of the same type, or of different types (par. 2)
9. the level of possibility of something happening or being true
(par. 3)
10. a person who compiles and analyzes statistics and calculates
insurance risks and premiums (par. 3)
11. to make something official (par. 3)
12. to cause great damage to something (par. 4)
13. limited to a specific thing or group (par. 4)
14. the number of deaths within a particular society and within a
particular period of time (par. 5)
15. an arrangement of facts and numbers, usually in rows on
a page, that makes information easy to understand (par. 5)
96
ապահովագրության հիմնական հասկացություն,
մարդու գոյություն, առաջին փուլում, գնել պաշար
ծովային ճամփորդության համար, հաստատագրված
ապահովագին, բացահայտել հնարավորությունները,
հաշվարկել ապահովագրության չափադրույքը,
պաշտոնականացնել ապահովագրության
գործունեությունը, ի պատասխան քաոսի,
ապահովագրություն հրդեհի դեմ

pairs.
primary, to fund, voyage, underwriter, to make formal, insurer, to
guarantee, insurance charge, set, to discover, to finance, to
formalize, affordable, initial, to ensure, premium, fixed, to find
out, inexpensive, cruise

to fund, insurer, to ensure, premiums, formalized
1. We guarantee that our products are 100% safe.
2. Health insurance charges went up again this year. 3. The trade
agreement was made formal with Congress’s approval of the bill. 4.
The company is Britain's biggest motorcycle underwriter. 5.
The city council has refused to finance the project.

necessary.
1. ____ most respects, the new film is better than
the original. 2. Can you lend me some money? I’ll be able to pay
you ____ next week. 3. The project is ____ its final stage and
should be completed ____ August. 4. We were ordered to hand ____
our passports. 5. Jerry hid the letter ____ a pile of papers. 6.
Reducing speed limits should lead ____ fewer deaths ____
the roads. 7. Responses ____ our advertisement have been
disappointing.
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discrimination, decision, cause, drivers, with,
rationale, decades, news
CAR INSURANCE
Britain’s system of car insurance has been turned on its head by the
European Court of Justice. For 1)____, British motorists have paid
insurance premiums based on their sex. The 2)____ for this was that
men were far more likely to have accidents than women, and the
average repair bill for men was higher. Britain’s insurance industry has
until December 2012 to comply 3) ____ the new ruling. The court’s
4) ____ is bad news for women, who are expected to pay an extra 25
per cent for their motor insurance. Young female 5) ____aged between
17 and 26 are likely to be hit hardest. Industry analysts claim their
premiums could jump by as much as 40 per cent. It’s good 6) ____ for
men as they will see their rates fall by 10 per cent.
The insurance ruling was designed to end what the court saw as
gender 7) ____ in Britain’s car insurance industry. However, many
insurance companies are up in arms at the decision with one insurer
calling it “breathtaking stupidity”. They say statistics clearly show that
men, especially those in the 17-26 age bracket, 8) ____ the most
accidents and are therefore a higher risk.
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U N I T XI
ECONOMIC INEQUALITY
DISCUSSION
1. In your opinion, what are the main differences between developed
and developing countries?
2. Should rich countries help and support the poor ones?
3. Should developing countries put more focus on research?
4. How can the process of brain drain from developing countries be
slowed down or ceased?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) income a) a state with a less developed economic
base, seeking to become more
advanced
2) a developed b) a useful or valuable possession of a
country country, organization or person
3) a developing c) per unit of population
country
4) wealth d) any resource owned by the business
5) resource e) a large amount of money or other valuable
possessions
6) per capita/per f) money that a business receives for
person providing a good or service
7) asset g) a state that has an advanced economy
and technological infrastructure
1.The sharp fall in ____ income was one of the signs of the
financial crisis. 2. Average income per resident is lower in ____ and
residents have limited access to quality health care and education. 3. A
company's ____ can consist of cash, investments or specialist
knowledge. 4. During a successful business career, she accumulated a
great amount of ____. 5. Britain's mineral ____
include coal and gas deposits.
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about
1. the characteristics of developed countries
2. the criteria of countries’ categorization into developed and
developing ones
3. the criteria of economic inequality of countries
4. the countries having the lowest per capita income
5. the characteristics of moderately developed countries
DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

(1) When you walk around almost any city or town you can see
different-sized houses, different types of cars, and different activities
occurring. These differences can be indicators of economic
inequality, which is the difference between individuals or populations
in terms of their wealth, assets, or income.
(2) The world has been divided into two types of countries. The two
categories are based mainly on per capita income, which is the
average income per person.
(3) The first economic category is developed nations, which can
generally be categorized as countries that are more industrialized and
have higher per capita income levels. To be considered a developed
nation, a country generally has a per capita income around or above
$12,000. The list of developed nations may include the United States,
Canada, Japan, Republic of Korea, Australia, New Zealand,
Scandinavia, Singapore, Taiwan, Israel, countries of Western
Europe, and some Arab states. In addition to having high per capita
income and stable population growth rates, developed nations are also
characterized by their use of resources. In developed countries, people
consume large amounts of natural resources per person.
(4) The second economic category is developing nations, which is
a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialized and
have lower per capita income levels. Developing nations can be
divided further into moderately developed or less developed countries.
(5) Moderately developed countries have an approximate per
capita income of between $1,000 and $12,000. The average per capita
income for moderately developed countries is around $4,000. Some of
100
the most recognizable countries that are considered moderately
developed include Mexico, China, Indonesia, Jordan, Thailand, Fiji,
and Ecuador. In addition to these specific countries, many others from
Central America, South America, northern and southern Africa,
southeastern Asia, Eastern Europe, the former U.S.S.R., and many
Arab states, are all considered moderately developed countries.
(6) Less developed countries are the second type of developing
nations. They are characterized by having the lowest income, with a
general per capita income of approximately less than $1,000. The
countries listed as less developed are found in eastern, western, and
central Africa, India, and other countries in southern Asia.
VOCABULARY NOTES
inequality (n) /ˌɪn.ɪˈkwɒl.ə.ti/ անհավասարություն
in terms of /ɪn tɜrmz əv/ առումով, հաշվի
առնելով
asset (n) /ˈæs.et/ ակտիվներ,ունեցվածք
per capita (adv) /pə ˈkæp.ɪ.tə/ մեկ շնչի հաշվով
industrialized(adj) /ɪnˈdʌs.tri.ə.laɪzd/ արդյունաբերական
Canada /ˈkæn.ə.də/ Կանադա
Japan /dʒəˈpæn/ Ճապոնիա
Korea /kəˈriː.ə/ Կորեա
Australia /ɒsˈtreɪ.li.ə/ Ավստրալիա
New Zealand /ˌnjuː ˈziː.lənd/ Նոր Զելանդիա
Scandinavia /ˌskæn.dɪˈneɪ.vi.ə/ Սկանդինավիա
Singapore /ˌsɪŋ.əˈpɔːr/ Սինգապուր
Taiwan /taɪˈwɑːn/ Թայվան
Israel /ˈɪz.reɪl/ Իսրայել
Western Europe /ˈwes.tən ˈjʊə.rəp/ Արևմտյան Եվրոպա
Arab States /ˈær.əb steɪts/ Արաբական երկրներ
characterize (v) /ˈkær.ək.tə.raɪz/ բնութագրել
consume (v) /kənˈsjuːm/ սպառել
broad (adj) /brɔːd/ լայն, ընդգրկուն
moderately (adv) /ˈmɒd.ər.ət.li/ չափավոր
approximate (adj) /əˈprɒk.sɪ.mət/ մոտավոր
Mexico /ˈmek.sɪ.kəʊ/ Մեկսիկա
China /ˈtʃaɪ.nə/ Չինաստան
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Indonesia /ˌɪn.dəˈniː.ʒə/ Ինդոնեզիա
Jordan /ˈdʒɔː.dən/ Հորդանան
Thailand /ˈtaɪ.lænd/ Թաիլանդ
Fiji /ˈfiː.dʒiː/ Ֆիջի
Ecuador /ˈek.wə.dɔːr/ Էկվադոր
northern (adj) /ˌnɔː.ðən/ հյուսիսային
southern (adj) /ˈsʌð.ən/ հարավային
southeastern (adj) /ˌsaʊθˈiː.stən/ հարավարևելյան
Asia /ˈeɪ.ʒə/ Ասիա
former (adj) /ˈfɔː.mər/ նախկին
list (v) /ˌlɪs.t/ ցուցակագրել,
թվարկել
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1. In developed countries people consume more natural resources
than in the developing ones.
2. The list of less developed countries includes Ecuador, Jordan and
some other countries.
3. Less developed countries have income per person that is over $
1000.
4. Denmark, Norway, Sweden are considered to be developed
countries.
5. Developed nations have a per capita income that is about or over
$12000.

1. something that shows what a situation is like (par 1)
2. something valuable belonging to a person or organization that can
be used for the payment of debts (par 1)
3. in relation to something (par 1)
4. the unfair situation in society when some people have more
opportunities, money (par 1)
5. for each person (par 2)
6. having developed industry (par 3)
7. a sovereign city-state and island country in Southeast Asia (par
3)
8. a sovereign island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the
capital of which is Wellington (par 3)
9. including a wide range of things; general (par 4)
10. in a way that is neither small nor large in size, amount, degree,
or strength (par 4)
11. familiar because of having been seen or experienced before (par
5)
12. not completely accurate but close (par 5)
13. a country in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia,
Peru and the Pacific Ocean and the capital of which is Quito (par
5)
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14. a country at the center of the Southeast Asian Indochinese
peninsula, the capital of which is Bangkok (par 5)
15. of or in an earlier time; before the present time or in the past
(par 5)

զարգացող երկիր, զարգացած երկիր, մեկ շնչի հաշվով,
տնտեսական անհավասարություն,
արդյունաբերական երկիր, բնակչության կայուն աճ,
սպառել բնական ռեսուրսների մեծ քանակություն,
ընդգրկուն եզրույթ, մոտավոր եկամուտ, քիչ
զարգացած երկրներ

necessary.
1. The company provides a compensation package ____ addition
____ the employee's salary. 2. Common characteristics ____
developing countries are low levels ____ living characterized ____ low
income, poor health and inadequate education. 3. Is there
any significant difference ____ these two items? 4. The
categorization ____ countries is based ____ some criteria. 5. We were
walking ____ the premises to see whether we could find an open bank.
VIII. Choose the correct word given in brackets.

The causes of income inequality can 1. (vary/ varied/ variable)
significantly by region, gender, education and social status.
A 2. (developed/ developing/ overdeveloped/ country is a country
with a less developed industrial base relative 3. (to/ in/ for) other
countries. However, this definition is not 4. (universal/ universally)
agreed upon. There is also no clear 5. (agreement/ agreed/ agree) on
which countries fit this category. A nation's GDP per
capita compared with other 6. (nations/ nationalities/ nationals) can
also be a reference point.
The term "developing" describes a current situation and not a 7.
(changeable/changing) dynamic or expected direction of progress.
Since the late 1990s, developing countries tended to demonstrate 8.
(high/ highest/ higher) growth rates than developed
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countries. Developing countries include 9. (newly/ new) industrialized
countries, 10. (emerging/ emerged) markets, etc.
Developing countries tend to have some characteristics in common.
For example low levels of 11. (access/ accessible) to safe drinking
water, sanitation and hygiene; energy poverty; high levels of 12.
(pollution/ pollutants/ polluted); high number of road traffic accidents.
IX. Match the two halves to get meaningful sentences.
1) In developed countries a) whole of society rather than simply

people comparing different income groups.
2) Income inequality is b) to the unequal distribution of assets in
the extent a group of people.
3) The Gini coefficient c) who are considerably worse-off than
measures inequality the majority of the population.
across the
4) Wealth inequality d) to which income is distributed
therefore refers unevenly in a group of people.
5) People in poverty are e) consume more natural resources than
those in the developing ones.
WRITING
1. Developed countries often give financial aid to
developing countries, but it does not solve poverty
problems. What can be done to improve this situation?
Should developed countries give other types of help
to the poor countries rather than financial aid?
2. An increasing number of professionals, such as doctors,
teachers, and computer programmers are leaving their
own countries to work in developed countries. What
problem does this cause? What can be done to deal with
this situation?
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106
U N I T XII
ALL ABOUT SUCCESSFUL STARTUPS
DISCUSSION
1. What do you know about startups?
2. Could you name any famous successful startups?
3. Do you think a startup business model is a new better way to start
a company?
4. What are the advantages of startup companies?
5. What are the difficulties that startups might face?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) startup a) a person who sets up a business, taking on
financial risks in the hope of profit
2) entrepreneur b) a newly emerged business venture that aims
to develop a viable business model to meet a
marketplace need or problem
3) funding c) someone who establishes an organization
4) founder d) a person who sets up a business concerned
with computers or similar technology
5) technopreneur e) a person or a company that is very important,
powerful, clever, etc.
6) titan f) money made available for a particular
purpose
1. Lucy is trying to get ____ for her research. 2. ____ are
very vulnerable in the business world and they need to generate
revenue quickly. 3. He’s a ____ who made his money
in computer software. 4. René Descartes is regarded as the ____ of
modern philosophy. 5. The soft drink ____ (= big companies who
produce these drinks) are struggling for control of the market.
about
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1. the ability to do something at exactly the right time and be
successful
2. the words of a famous technopreneur according to which people
sometimes do acknowledge their needs
3. the professionals who follow a famous inventor’s theory
4. the necessity to fail before succeeding
5. having not enough energy and drive to continue the business
SINK OR SWIM: WHY SOME STARTUPS SUCCEED

AND OTHERS DON'T
(1) Inventor Thomas Edison once famously said: “I have learned
fifty thousand ways it cannot be done and therefore I am fifty
thousand times nearer the final successful experiment.” These days
many tech industry experts are taking a leaf from Edison's book and
embracing this philosophy of "failing fast" in order to finally win.
(2) Common Silicon Valley wisdom says that most founders' light
bulb moments are more likely to burn out than become the next Uber.
So, the fact that failure is a prerequisite for eventual success should be
welcome news for aspiring technopreneurs. Of course, the real value
comes in learning from your fails—or preferably from someone else's
—and using that knowledge to inform future plans.
Here are some reasons an overwhelming majority of startups fail
and one crucial ingredient in startup success.
(3) Not enough money
Everyone knows that without enough cash a business enterprise is
doomed. But there are a number of areas where startups can get
tripped up on this seemingly simple piece of the puzzle. One
important hurdle is successfully managing to secure startup
investment. This not only involves creating an effective financial plan,
but also managing day-to-day operations costs effectively.
(4) Growing too slowly
Becoming a titan—a tech startup valued at $1 billion—is the dream
of most founders. But if it doesn't happen fast, it may not happen at all.
Insufficient momentum to sustain growth can keep new firms from
securing the funding needed to sustain the next phase of their business
lifecycle. And angel investors' eyes aren't the only ones companies
need to catch. The problem is that when aggressive growth isn't part of
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the plan, someone else will bypass you quickly and potentially make
your business obsolete. Or at least less relevant.
(5) Growing up too fast
Many startups suffer from the same syndrome as a lot of teenagers:
they want to grow up too fast. And a rapid growth does come with a
distinct set of obstacles. One such obstacle is the temptation to
overlook the boring parts of business: sales development, managing
cash flow, daily operations. Founders that are enthusiastic about their
product or innovation are highly susceptible to this, and companies
often lack necessary organizational skills to keep it from becoming a
serious problem.
(6) No market for the product
Putting a product or service out there before making sure that there
is indeed a market for it seems like a rookie mistake. But as the late,
great Steve Jobs once said: “A lot of times, people don’t know what
they want until you show it to them.” Sadly, while every founder hopes
their idea will turn out to be the next best thing since the iPhone, the
reality is a little more mundane.
(7) Now, here's the number one reason startups win.
Ninety percent of tech startups may fail. But that also means that
one out of every ten wins. So what's the key to their success? To
explore that question, Bill Gross, founder of the tech
incubator, Idealab, decided to take a deep dive into the stories of the
more than one hundred Idealab graduates, some successful, some not.
At first, Gross believed that ideas were the secret sauce. But after
analyzing the data, he found that ideas were not the most important
factor by far. Same with funding, business planning and teams.
Ultimately, Gross concluded that timing was the determining factor
in the success of industry titans like Airbnb, Uber and YouTube, as
well as the failure of other startups like Z.com. Wait, what is
Z.com? Exactly.
VOCABULARY NOTES
therefore (adv) /ˈðeə.fɔːr/ հետևապես
tech (abb. /tek/ տեխնիկական
technical) (adj)
expert (n) /ˈek.spɜːt/ մասնագետ
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leaf (n) /liːf/ էջ (գրքի)
embrace (v) /ɪmˈbreɪs/ ընդունել, հետևել
common (adj) /ˈkɒm.ən/ սովորական,
տարածված
wisdom (n) /ˈwɪz.dəm/ իմաստություն,
խոհեմություն
founder (n) /ˈfaʊn.dər/ հիմնադիր
light (n) /laɪt/ լույս
bulb (n) /bʌlb/ էլեկտրական լամպ
burn out (v) /bɜːn aʊt/ վառվելով մարել
Uber /uː.bər/ Ուբեր՝ միջազգային
տաքսի ծառայություն,
որը գործում է
հեռախոսային հավել-
վածով
prerequisite (n) /ˌpriːˈrek.wɪ.zɪt/ նախապայման
welcome (adj) /ˈwel.kəm/ սպասված, ցանկալի
aspiring (adj) /əˈspaɪə.rɪŋ/ տենչող, ձգտող
technopreneur (n) /ˌtɛknəʊprəˈnə/ տեխնոձեռնարկատեր
overwhelming /ˌəʊ.vəˈwel.mɪŋ/ ճնշող, մեծաքանակ
(adj)
crucial (adj) /ˈkruː.ʃəl/ կարևոր
ingredient (n) /ɪnˈɡriː.di.ənt/ բաղադրիչ
doomed (adj) /duːmd/ դատապարտված
trip (up) (v) /trɪp/ սայթաքել
puzzle (n) /ˈpʌz.əl/ գլուխկոտրուկ
hurdle (n) /ˈhɜː.dəl/ խոչընդոտ,
դժվարություն
secure (v) /sɪˈkjʊər/ ապահովել, անվտանգ
դարձնել
day-to-day (adj) /ˌdeɪ.təˈdeɪ/ առօրյա, ամենօրյա
operation (n) /ˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/ գործունեություն,
գործողություն
effectively (adv) /ɪˈfek.tɪv.li/ արդյունավետ կերպով
titan (n) /ˈtaɪ.tən/ հսկա
insufficient (adj) /ˌɪn.səˈfɪʃ.ənt/ անբավարար
momentum (n) /məˈmen.təm/ շարժիչ ուժ,
արագություն
sustain (v) /səˈsteɪn/ պահել, պահպանել
funding (n) /ˈfʌn.dɪŋ/ ֆինանսավորում
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phase (n) /feɪz/ փուլ
lifecycle (n) /ˈlaɪf ˌsaɪ.kəl/ կենսաշրջան,
պարբերաշրջան
angel (n) /ˈeɪn.dʒəl/ հրեշտակ, անմեղ
aggressive (adj) /əˈɡres.ɪv/ լայնածավալ,
մեծամաշտաբ
bypass (v) /ˈbaɪ.pɑːs/ շրջանցել, կողքով
անցնել
obsolete (adj) /ˌɒb.səlˈiːt/ հնացած,
ոչգործածական
relevant (adj) /ˈrel.ə.vənt/ տեղին, հարմար,
պատշաճ, էական
syndrome (n) /ˈsɪn.drəʊm/ ախտանիշ
distinct (adj) /dɪˈstɪŋkt/ տարբերվող, տարբեր
set (n) /set/ հավաքածու,
հավաքակազմ
obstacle (n) /ˈɒb.stə.kəl/ խոչընդոտ,
temptation (n) /tempˈteɪ.ʃən/ գայթակղում,
հրապուրում
overlook (v) /ˌəʊ.vəˈlʊk/ չնկատել, բաց թողնել
boring (adj) /ˈbɔː.rɪŋ/ տաղտկալի, ձանձրալի
cash flow /ˈkæʃ ˌfləʊ/ դրամական հոսք
susceptible (adj) /səˈsep.tə.bəl/ դյուրազգաց,
դյուրընկալ
lack (v) /læk/ պակաս ունենալ
indeed (adv) /ɪnˈdiːd/ իրապես, իրականում
rookie (n) /ˈrʊk.i/ սկսնակ, անփորձ,
նորեկ
the late (adj) /leɪt/ հանգուցյալ
mundane (adj) /mʌnˈdeɪn/ սովորական,
աշխարհիկ
explore (v) /ɪkˈsplɔːr/ բացահայտել
deep dive /diːp daɪv/ մանրակրկիտ
ուսումնասիրություն
graduate (n) /ˈɡrædʒ.u.ət/ շրջանավարտ
sauce (n) /sɔːs/ սոուս, համեմունք
data (n) /ˈdeɪ.tə/ տվյալներ
ultimately (adv) /ˈʌl.tɪ.mət.li/ վերջին հաշվով, վերջ ի
վերջո
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conclude (v) /kənˈkluːd/ եզրակացնել,
եզրահանգել
timing (n) /ˈtaɪ.mɪŋ/ ճիշտ ժամանակը
ընտրելու
զգացողություն
determining (adj) /dɪˈtəːmɪnɪŋ/ որոշիչ, վճռական
failure (n) /ˈfeɪ.ljər/ ձախողում
exactly (adv) /ɪɡˈzækt.li/ ճշգրիտ կերպով, ճիշտ
այդպես
1. According to Thomas Edison failing many times is the right way
to finally succeed.
2. There is a widespread idea in Silicon Valley that most startup
companies are likely to fail rather than instantly become
successful.
3. Having insufficient funding is the only reason why startups fail.
4. If startups are not enough ambitious, their competitors are likely to
become more successful.
5. The plans of growing up very quickly will only contribute to the
success of startup companies.
6. Startups should make sure that their product is really demanded by
people before producing it.
7. According to Bill Gross, great ideas of a startup are a key factor
for leading the company to success.

1. for that reason; consequently (par. 1)
2. accept (a belief, theory, or change) willingly and enthusiastically
(par. 1)
3. the quality of having knowledge, and good judgment (par. 2)
4. a thing that is required as a prior condition for something else to
happen or exist (par. 2)
5. directing one's ambitions towards becoming a specified type of
person (par. 2)
6. very great in amount (par. 2)
7. likely to have an unfortunate outcome; ill-fated (par. 3)
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8. a problem or difficulty that must be overcome (par. 3)
9. not enough; inadequate (par. 4)
10. the series of changes in the life of an organism including
reproduction (par. 4)
11. closely connected or appropriate to what is being done or
considered (par. 4)
12. a group of symptoms which consistently occur together, or a
condition characterized by a set of associated symptoms
(par. 5)
13. a person who is new to an organization or an activity (par. 6)
14. very ordinary and therefore not interesting (par. 6)
15. the ability to do something at exactly the right time (par. 7)

վերջնական փորձ, ընդունել «արագ ձախողելու»
փիլիսոփայությունը, ձախողումը հավանական
հաջողության նախապայման է, հաջողության ձգտող
տեխնոձեռնարկատերեր, բիզնես ձեռնարկությունը
դատապարտված է, սայթաքել այս թվացյալ պարզ
գլուխկոտրուկի վրա, արդյունավետ կառավարել,
ամենօրյա գործունեության ծախսեր, պահպանել
իրենց գործնական պարբերաշրջանի հաջորդ փուլը,
տուժել միևնույն ախտանիշից, սկսնակին բնորոշ
սխալ, բացահայտել տվյալ հարցը, պատմությունները
մանրակրկիտ ուսումնասիրության ենթարկել,
վերլուծել տվյալները, որոշիչ գործոն

necessary.
1. Fire officials let the fire burn itself ____. 2. Good self-esteem
is a prerequisite ____ a happy life. 3. At the exam, I tripped ____
____ a couple of questions. 4. We are expecting ____ least to
double our money. 5. She suffered ____ depression most of
her adult life. 6. Police officers here are very susceptible
____ corruption. 7. I’m sure it will all turn ____ well ____
the end. 8. To solve this problem, I’m going to take a deep dive ____
the data.
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pairs.
Expert, specialist, to embrace, prerequisite, condemned, to
neglect, welcome, large-scale, scarce, doomed, insufficient,
momentum, aggressive, to bypass, to overlook, to accept,
desirable, condition, impulse, to avoid
Aggressive, momentum, welcome, bypassed,
doomed, overlooked
1. In an attempt to give new drive to their plans, the committee
set a date for starting detailed discussions. 2. Both players won their
first-round matches in a large-scale style. 3. They avoided the
committee and went straight to senior management. 4. Their
tradition is that the traveler is a desirable guest. 5. She felt she
was condemned to work in an office all her life. 6. No one will be
neglected when we select players for the team.
IX. Read the stories of the most successful startups and, using
your background knowledge about the companies given below,
try to find out which company each story belongs to.
Instagram, Uber, Facebook, AirBnB, WhatsApp, Pinterest
THE INSIDE STORY OF THE MOST SUCCESSFUL STARTUPS

The most successful startups never had it good when they actually
started. In fact, for most of them, the product looked completely
different, served a different need and market! They all began with a
simple idea and look where they are.
1. ______
This is a story of 3 guys and how they went from renting mattresses
to a $10 billion company. In 2007, two designers couldn’t afford the
rent on their San Francisco apartment. There was a design conference
coming to San Francisco and the city’s hotels were fully booked, so
they came up with the idea of renting out three airbeds on their living-
room floor and cooking their guests breakfast. They set up a simple
blog and got three renters (two guys, one girl) for $80 each. After a
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small success, they enlisted a former flatmate and a computer science
graduate, Nathan Blecharczyk, to develop the website and join the
venture.
2. ______
This is a story of two guys who made an app in flat 8 weeks.
Kevin Systrom, a Stanford graduate who worked on Google’s Gmail,
spent his weekends building an app that allowed location-aware photo
and note-sharing, naming it Burbn. That’s how Kevin met Mike
Krieger, an early Burbn user and this startup's co-founder.
Later, Burbn was reduced to photos only.
3. ______
Raised by doctor parents, Ben Silbermann assumed he would follow
the same path. He attended Yale University starting in 1999 and soon
realized that he didn’t want to be doctor. After working for Google,
and a failed app, he came up with another idea. In 2009, Ben and two
friends started working on a site on which people could show
collections of things they were interested in, on an interactive pin-
board format. Ben personally wrote to the site’s first 7,000 users
offering his personal phone number and even meeting with some of its
users. Over Thanksgiving dinner, Ben’s girlfriend thought of a name
for it.
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4.______
After a conference in Paris, Travis Kalanick and Garrett Camp were
complaining about the many crappy things we all have to deal with in
life, including finding a cab. The next thing you know, the two were
already brainstorming, thinking about ways to find cars at the right
place, at the right time.
5. ______
Two friends and colleagues from Yahoo were frustrated with the
idea of having so many advertisements on any page. In 2007,
both left Yahoo and took a year to decompress. Both applied, and
failed, to work at Facebook. After a lot of ups and downs they launched
this company in 2009, with a clear purpose that their service would
definitely not carry any advertising and would maintain a focus on
delivering a reliable, friction-free user experience.
6. ______
A 19-year-old lad and a second-year Harvard student, Mark
Zuckerberg launched an internal social networking site for Harvard
students. Soon after the site got popular among students, it expanded its
reach to other universities. In 2004, the site moved its operations base
to Palo Alto, California and received its first investment from PayPal
co-founder Peter Thiel.
LISTENING
Bill Gross has founded a lot of start-ups, and incubated
many others -- and he got curious about why some
succeeded and others failed. So he gathered data from
hundreds of companies, his own and other people's, and
ranked each company on five key factors. He found one
factor that stands out from the others -- and surprised even
him.Visit the following website:
https://www.ted.com/talks/bill_gross_the_single_biggest_re
ason_why_startups_succeed and complete the tasks
below:
1. Why did Bill Gross name his company Idealab?
2. What are the five factors that Bill Gross examined
thoroughly?
116
3. What was the percent that the factor of timing gained
among the other factors?
4. Which company does Bill Gross mention as the one that
failed despite having a good business model and enough
funding?
5. Which companies does Bill Gross mention as the ones
having right timing and therefore great success?
6. Bill Gross always wanted to quote boxer Mike Tyson.
True/False
7. According to Bill Gross the companies that had intense
funding succeeded more. True/False
8. Today, it is very easy to get funding for startups.
True/False
117
U N I T XIII
MAGIC OF TEAMWORK
DISCUSSION
1. Do you agree with the statement ‘There is no ‘I’ in team’? Why?
2. What does it mean to be a member of a team? What can a team
accomplish that one person working alone cannot?
3. What positive and negative experiences have you had as a team
member?
4. The team’s effectiveness is likely to suffer due to style differences
among members. Do you agree or disagree?
5. Conflict is a healthy force in a team and it is likely to produce
positive outcomes. Do you agree or disagree?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) teamwork a) someone who puts aside his personal goals and
works well with others
2) team building b) complete and wholehearted fidelity
3) team player c) the ability to identify and motivate individual
employees to form a team that stays together,
work together, achieve together
4) dedication d) acting with less concern for yourself than for
the success of the joint activity
5) accountability e) flexibility to fit changed circumstances
6) adaptability f) responsibility to someone or for some activity
7) selflessness g) an active disagreement between people with
opposing opinions or principles
8) conflict h) the process of working collaboratively with a
group of people in order to achieve a goal
1. We wish to avoid ____ between our countries if at all
possible. 2. Her determination, ____ skills and leadership capabilities
convinced us that she was perfect for the job. 3. He was praised for his
____ to different situations. 4. You need to learn to become a ____
without losing your individuality. 5. In addition to her remarkable
____, she has also inspired others to get involved.
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about
1. the ability of team members to freely express their opinions.
2. the different abilities, opinions and standpoints that team members
can have
3. the fact that team members understand the overall goals of the
company.
4. new ideas being encouraged
5. team members work together to solve their problems and conflicts.
TEAMWORK MAKES THE DREAM WORK

(1) The old adage of two heads being better than one still holds
true, and when it comes to the business world, this couldn't possibly be
truer. In the business arena, cohesive teams create fresh, new ideas.
Teams have basic needs that must be acknowledged and fulfilled if
you expect them to experience the greatest success. Successful
teamwork is the cornerstone for creating a functioning, contributing
team. The following tips describe the environment that must occur
within the team for successful teamwork.
(2) The team understands the goals and is committed to attaining
them. This clear agreement on mission and purpose is essential for
effective teamwork. Team members must have an overall mission that
is agreed upon and this team clarity is reinforced when the
organization has clear expectations, goals, accountability, and
outcomes.
(3) The team creates an environment in which people are
comfortable taking reasonable risks in communicating, advocating
positions, and taking action. Team members trust each other. Team
members are not punished for disagreeing; disagreement is expected
and appreciated.
(4) Communication is open, honest, and respectful. People feel free
to express their thoughts, opinions, and potential solutions to problems.
People feel as if they are heard out and listened to by team members
who are attempting to understand. Team members ask questions for
clarity and listen deeply rather than form answers while their coworker
is speaking.
119
(5) Team members have a strong sense of belonging to the
group. They experience a deep commitment to the group’s decisions
and actions. This sense of belonging is enhanced when the team
spends the time to develop team norms or relationship guidelines
together.
(6) Team members are viewed as unique people with
irreplaceable experiences, points of view, knowledge, and opinions to
contribute. After all, the purpose of forming a team is to take advantage
of the differences. Otherwise, why would any organization approach
projects, products, or goals with a team? In fact, the more that a team
can bring out divergent points of view, that are presented and
supported with facts, the better.
(7) Creativity, innovation, and different viewpoints are expected
and encouraged. Comments such as, "we already tried that and it didn't
work" and "what a dumb idea" are not allowed or supported. The team
members recognize that the strength in having a team is that every
member tries to solve a problem, improve a process, reach a goal, or
create something new and exciting.
(8) The team has agreed upon procedures for diagnosing,
analyzing, and resolving teamwork problems and conflicts. The team
does not support member personality conflicts and clashes. Rather,
members work towards the mutual resolution of problems and
disagreements.
Here are the most essential teamwork skills one can possess. Utilize
these techniques and your chances of success will skyrocket.
VOCABULARY NOTES
adage (n) /ˈæd.ɪdʒ/ ասացվածք
arena (n) /əˈriː.nə/ ոլորտ
cohesive (n) /kəʊˈhiː.sɪv/ հետևողական
fulfill (v) /fʊlˈfɪl/ կատարել
experience (v) /ɪkˈspɪə.ri.əns/ փորձառություն
ունենալ, կիրառել
cornerstone (n) /ˈkɔː.nə.stəʊn/ անկյունաքար
contribute (v) /kənˈtrɪbjuːt/ նպաստել, օժանդակել
occur (v) /əˈkɜːr/ պատահել
committed (adj) /kəˈmɪt.ɪd/ նվիրյալ, նվիրված
120
attain (v) /əˈteɪn/ հասնել
mission (n) /ˈmɪʃ.ən/ առաքելություն
purpose (n) /ˈpɜː.pəs/ նպատակ
clarity (n) /ˈklær.ə.ti/ հստակություն
reinforce (v) /ˌriː.ɪnˈfɔːs/ խթանել
accountability (n) /əˌkaʊn.təˈbɪl.ə.ti/ պատասխանատվությ
ուն
outcome (n) /ˈaʊt.kʌm/ արդյունք
reasonable (adj) /ˈriː.zən.ə.bəl/ խելամիտ
advocate (v) /ˈæd.və.keɪt/ սատարել,
պաշտպանել
attempt (v) /əˈtempt/ փորձել
commitment (n) /kəˈmɪt.mənt/ նվիրվածություն
enhance (v) /ɪnˈhɑːns/ խթանել
norm (n) /nɔːm/ կարգ
guideline (n) /ˈɡaɪd.laɪn/ ուղեցույց
unique (adj) /juːˈniːk/ եզակի, միակ
irreplaceable (adj) /ˌɪr.ɪˈpleɪ.sə.bəl/ անփոխարինելի
otherwise (adv) /ˈʌð.ə.waɪz/ հակառակ դեպքում
divergent (adj) /ˌdaɪˈvɜːdʒənt/ տարբեր
innovation (n) /ˌɪn.əˈveɪ.ʃən/ նորարարությոքւն
support(v) /səˈpɔːt/ սատարել
procedure (n) /prəˈsiː.dʒər/ ընթացակարգ
diagnose(v) /ˈdaɪ.əɡ.nəʊz/ ախտորոշել
resolve(v) /rɪˈzɒlv/ լուծել, լուծում տալ
personality (n) /ˌpɝː.sənˈæl.ə.t̬i/ անհատականություն
clash (n) /klæʃ/ բախում
mutual (adj) /ˈmjuː.tʃu.əl/ փոխադարձ,
երկկողմանի
essential (adj) /ɪˈsen.ʃəl/ էական
possess(v) /pəˈzes/ ունենալ, տիրապետել
technique (n) /tekˈniːk/ հնարք
skyrocket (v) /ˈskaɪˌrɒk.ɪt/ կտրուկ աճել

1. The old proverb of two heads being better than one applies to
business domain up till now.
121
2. Clarity means that all team members understand an overall
mission of the company.
3. Expressing disagreement and own opinions is not welcome in a
good team working environment.
4. The sense of commitment is developed when team members
develop team relationship guidelines together.
5. In a good working team, people should have the same
personalities, abilities and opinions.
6. In a good working atmosphere, innovative ideas should be
immediately implemented without any discussion.

1. a particular area of activity, especially one that is competitive and
attracts a lot of attention (par. 1)
2. to accept, or recognize something, or the truth of something
(par. 1)
3. something of great importance that everything else depends
on (par. 1)
4. to reach or succeed in getting something (par. 2)
5. the quality of being clear and easy to understand (par. 2)
6. the fact of being responsible for what you do and able to give
a satisfactory reason for it (par. 2)
7. to publicly support or suggest an idea, or way of doing
something (par. 3)
8. to listen to someone until the person is finished
speaking (par. 4)
9. a willingness to give your time and energy to something that you
believe in, or a promise to do something (par. 5)
10. information intended to advise people on how something
should be done or what something should be (par. 5)
11. too special, or valuable to replace with something else (par. 6)
12. different from each other (par. 6)
13. (the use of) a new idea or method (par. 7)
14. to recognize and name the exact character of a disease or
a problem, by examining it (par. 8)
122
15. to rise extremely quickly or make extremely quick progress (par.
8)

հիմնական կարիքներ, որոնք պետք է գիտակցվեն և
բավարարվեն, գործող, օժանդակող թիմի ստեղծման
անկյունաքարը լինել, նպատակներին հասնելու
նվիրյալ լինել, հստակությունը հիմնավորված է,
խելամիտ ռիսկերի գնալ, դիրքորոշումները
պաշտպանել, անփոխարինելի փորձառություններ,
գործընթացների վերաբերյալ համաձայնության գալ,
չխրախուսել անդամների միջև անձնական
կոնֆլիկտները և բախումները, հաջողության քո
հնարավորությունները կտրուկ կբարձրանան
necessary.
1. John says the compensation that he failed to report was not
agreed____. 2. They have broken the terms of the agreement
____ human rights. 3. Who does this book belong ____?. 4. At
least hear me ____ before making up your mind. 5. His version
____the story was not well supported ____ the facts and arguments.
pairs.
clarity, basis, to occur, to own, to happen, responsibility, to
support, operating, to enhance, committed, accountability,
devoted, to skyrocket, cornerstone, to reinforce, to rise,
explicitness, to possess, functioning, to advocate
committed, accountability, cornerstone,
reinforces , skyrocketed
1. Responsibility is important these days and managers aren’t
always willing to adopt risky strategies. 2. Housing prices have risen
in recent months. 3. In most countries, the family unit is still the
basis of society. 4. The final report on the accident enhances
123
the findings of initial investigations. 5. Endowment savings
plans are for the devoted, long-term investor.
attention, skill, to like, ability, intelligence,
time, slow, setting, listened to, guess
If a team of people in any group are going to work well together, it
is important to listen to one another's ideas. Too often in a business 1.
____, you have a group of people simply waiting for their turn to
speak, not paying any 2.____to the people on their left or right. So it is
a good teamwork 3. ____ to have the ability to listen. In order to assure
that everyone is being 4. ____, have the group speak and expand on
each individual's ideas once they have finished their speech.
When working in a team, it is important to recognize that not
everyone is going 5.____ each other all the time. There might even be
people in your group that you really can't stand. 6. ____ what? That
doesn't matter. Show equal respect to each and every person, and work
to your best 7. ____.
If one of your teammates does not understand an idea, or task that
is being completed, take the necessary 8. ____to explain it to them.
There are no weak links when everyone helps one another. Some take
longer to learn than others, but that doesn't mean that they are of less 9.
____. In fact, it has been shown that some 10. ____learners are much
better at specific skills once they learn them.
WRITING
task.
1. John C. Maxwell once mentioned that teamwork
makes the dream work, but a vision becomes a nightmare
when the leader has a big dream and a bad team.
To what extent do you agree with this statement?
LISTENING
124
There are three billion working people on this planet,
and only 40 percent of them report being happy at work.
Michael C. Bush shares his insights into what makes
workers unhappy and how companies can benefit their
bottom lines by fostering satisfaction. Visit the
following website:
michael_c_bush_this_is_what_makes_employees_happy_at
_work and complete the tasks below:
1. To feel happy at work people want different things.
True/False
2. About 1.2 billion people all over the world are happy at
work. True/False
3. People are not happy at their work because they do not
get enough perks. True/False
4. People feel happy when they feel their employers’ and
colleagues’ fair attitude towards them. True/False
5. People want to get an attitude to themselves which will
take into consideration their status, gender, age, etc.
True/False
6. Listening to an employee means trying to show that you
appreciate their opinion so much you are ready to change
your mind. True/False
7. One should be open to changes if they want to feel
happy at work. True/False
8.
125
U N I T XIV
IT IS ALL ABOUT CULTURE
DISCUSSION
1. In your opinion, what components are involved in culture?
2. Cultures vary from country to country and they do so not only in
business sphere. Can you provide examples proving the above-
mentioned statement?
3. “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” is a famous proverb. To
your mind, what does it show?
4. How would you describe the Armenians in terms of doing
business?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) Stereotype a) the way of life for an entire society
2) Globalization b) a condition of confusion and anxiety
affecting a person suddenly facing an alien
culture
3) Cultural diversity c) beliefs of a person or social group in which
they have an emotional investment
4) Cultural shock d) the social process whereby societies achieve
an advanced stage of development
5) Culture e) the process of transformation of local
phenomena into global ones
6) Civilization f) a fixed idea that people have about what
someone or something is like
7) Values g) the fact or quality of cultures being
different
126
1. Egypt is considered to be a cradle of____. 2.____ is a process of
combining economic, technological, sociocultural and political forces.
3. The term ____ includes codes of manners, dress, language, religion,
norms of behavior, and systems of belief as well as the art. 4. The word
____ is used to refer to members of some kind of collective: firemen
are courageous, blondes are less intelligent, Italians are noisy, and so
forth. 5. The first time she went to Japan, Lucy got a huge ____.
about
1. the distance between business partners
2. different interpretations of words expressing agreement
3. speech tones that vary from culture to culture
4. temporal availability of people representing different cultures
5. the importance of considering cultural specificities when
advertising a product
6. avoiding conflict if the countries of the negotiating parties have
disagreements between each other
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN BUSINESS - ARE YOU AWARE

OF THEM?
(1) All of us have been confronted with cultural differences at some
point. They often lead to amusing misunderstandings, but can also
have a serious impact on your career. The following factors should be
taken into account when doing business on an international level.
(2) Language Barriers
In some countries, like the United States and Germany, it is
common for people to speak loudly and be more assertive or
aggressive when sharing ideas or giving direction. In countries like
Japan, people typically speak softly and are more passive about sharing
ideas or making suggestions. When interacting with people from
different cultures, speaking in a neutral tone and making an effort to
be considerate of others' speech, even if it is given in a manner to
which you are not accustomed, can help foster effective business
communication.
127
(3) Target Audience
When launching a marketing campaign or advertising to members
of a different culture, always research the target market prior to
beginning the campaign. Levels of conservatism, gender views and
ideologies can vary greatly between cultures. Presenting a campaign
that is not in line with specific cultural norms can insult the target
audience and greatly hinder the campaign.
(4) Technology
Due to globalization, people from various cultures and countries
conduct business with each other. Technology enables people to easily
connect with people around the world but there are a few rules to
remember before doing so. If making an international phone or video
conferencing call, be conscious of the time zone differences and make
sure to set a reasonable time for all involved parties to interact. It is
important to remember that cultural differences can also affect
availability. For instance, just because you schedule a conference call
for the middle of the business day does not mean that the time will be
favorable for the people you are conducting business with. Many
Spanish cultures have longer lunch breaks than Americans are
accustomed to, which means there may be a two- to three-hour time
period during the day in which the person you would like to meet with
is unavailable. Asking for availability prior to making the call is the
best way to avoid any confusion.
(5) Politics
Political influences, both past and present, can potentially affect the
way a person or company does business. Conducting business with
people of differing cultures can impact negotiations if there are
political disputes between the parties' countries of origin. To avoid
conflict, it is best to avoid discussing any political matter that does not
directly pertain to the business at hand.
(6) Space
Different cultures have varying expectations about personal space
and physical contact. Many Europeans and South Americans usually
kiss a business partner on both cheeks in greeting instead of shaking
hands. While Americans are most comfortable at arms-length from
business associates, other cultures have no problem standing shoulder-
to-shoulder with people who they are speaking to.
128
(7) Cues
Western and Eastern cues have substantially different meanings in
business. The word "yes," for example, usually means agreement in
Western cultures. In Eastern cultures however, the word "yes," more
often than not means that the party understands the message, not
necessarily that he agrees with it. A period of silence during
negotiations with an Eastern business associate may signify
displeasure with your proposal. While frank openness may be
desirable in Western cultures, Eastern cultures often place more value
on saving face and avoiding disrespectful responses.
(8) Culture is a key component in business and has an impact on the
strategic direction of business. Improving your level of knowledge of
international cultural difference in business can help you build
international competencies and gain a competitive advantage.
VOCABULARY NOTES
confront (v) /kənˈfrʌnt/ բախվել
amusing (adj) /əˈmju·zɪŋ/ զվարճալի
misunderstanding (n) /ˌmɪs.ʌn.dəˈstæn.dɪŋ/ թյուրըմբռնում
impact (v) /ˈɪm.pækt/ ազդել
assertive (adj) /əˈsɜː.tɪv/ հաստատակամ
aggressive (adj) /əˈɡres.ɪv/ եռանդուն,
վճռական
interact (v) /ˌɪn.təˈrækt/ փոխազդել,
հաղորդակցվել
neutral (adj) /ˈnjuː.trəl/ չեզոք,
անկողմնակալ
tone (n) /təʊn/ տոն (ձայնի)
considerate (adj) /kənˈsɪd.ər.ət/ ուշադիր
accustomed /əˈkʌs.təmd/ սովոր լինել
(adj)
foster (v) /ˈfɒs.tər/ խթանել,
ուժգնացնել
target (n) /ˈtɑː.ɡɪt/ թիրախ
audience (n) /ˈɔː.di.əns/ լսարան,
հասարակություն
campaign (n) /kæmˈpeɪn/ քարոզարշավ
prior (to) (adj) /praɪər/ նախքան
conservatism (n) /kənˈsɜː.və.tɪ.zəm/ պահպանողական
129
ություն
gender (n) /ˈdʒen.dər/ սեռ
ideology (n) /ˌaɪ.diˈɒl.ə.dʒi/ գաղափարախոսո
ւթյուն
be in line (with) /biː ɪn laɪn/ հարիր, նման լինել,
insult (v) /ˈɪn.sʌlt/ վիրավորել
hinder (v) /ˈhɪn.dər/ խանգարել,
խոչընդոտել
globalization (n) /ˌɡləʊ.bəl.aɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/ համաշխարհայնաց
ում
conduct (v) /kənˈdʌkt/ վարել, տանել
conscious (adj) /ˈkɒn.ʃəs/ գիտակից,
իկրազեկ
party (n) /ˈpɑː.ti/ կողմ
schedule (v) /ˈʃedʒ.uːl/ պլանավորել
/ˈskedʒ.uːl/
favorable (adj) ˈfeɪ.vər.ə.bəl/ բարենպաստ
confusion (n) /kənˈfjuː.ʒən/ շփոթմունք
dispute (n) /dɪˈspjuːt/ բանավեճ
origin (n) /ˈɒr.ɪ.dʒɪn/ ծագում
pertain (v) /pərˈteɪn/ վերաբերել
at hand (v) /æt hænd/ ձեռքի տակ,
մոտակայքում
contact (n) /ˈkɒn.tækt/ հպում, շփում
cue (n) /kjuː/ ազդանշան, նշան
substantially (adv) /səbˈstæn.ʃəl.i/ զգալիորեն
negotiation (n) /nəˌɡəʊ.ʃiˈeɪ.ʃən/ բանակցություն
signify (v) /ˈsɪɡ.nɪ.faɪ/ նշանակել
displeasure (n) /dɪˈspleʒ.ər/ դժգոհություն
proposal (n) /prəˈpəʊ.zəl/ առաջարկ
frank (adj) /fræŋk/ անկեղծ
save face /seɪv feɪs/ հեղինակությունը
փրկել
disrespectful (adj) /ˌdɪs.rɪˈspekt.fəl/ անհարգալից
competence (n) /ˈkɒm.pɪ.təns/ իմացություն,
կարողություն
130
1. There is no person who hasn't had problems related
to cultural differences in his/her lifetime.
2. Americans speak softly and are not active when
sharing their ideas.
3. Neutral tone will lead you to a more productive
business communication.
4. When advertizing a product or service, businesses
should not take into account the existing cultural
norms of their customers.
5. In Spain, people devote more time to their lunch
breaks.
6. Business is business, and one should put aside all
political disagreements to avoid failures in business
communication.
7. Americans do not pay attention to such details as
personal space and physical contact.
8. Being aware of cultural differences in business will
help you to improve your career.
1. a failure to interpret something correctly (par 1)
2. caring about and respectful of others (par 2)
3. to encourage the development or growth of something
(par 2)
4. before something else (par 3)
5. a set of beliefs and principles, especially one on
which a political system, party, or organization is
based (par 3)
6. similar to, or at the same level as something (par 3)
7. to limit the development of something (par 3)
8. to organize and perform a particular activity (par 4)
9. knowing about and worried about a particular thing
or thinking that something is important (par 4)
10. to arrange that an event or activity will happen at a particular
time (par 4)
11. the beginning or cause of something (par 5)
131
12. to relate to or have a connection with something (par 5)
13. a signal for someone to do something (par 7)
14. to show, to mean (par 7)
15. the ability to do something well (par 8)
բախվել մշակութային առանձնահատկություններին,
զվարճալի թյուրըմբռնումներ, ավելի համոզիչ լինել,
մեղմ խոսել, քարոզարշավ սկսել, հարիր չլինել որոշակի
մշակութային նորմերին, հասարակության
թիրախային հատված, մեծապես խոչընդոտել
քարոզարշավին, բարենպաստ ժամանակ, նախքան
զանգելը, բիզնեսին ուղղակիորեն առնչվող,
անձնական տարածություն
pairs.
significantly, displeasure, to interact, to enhance, to plan, to be
used to, to hurt, to hinder, before a particular event, to
communicate, to be accustomed, prior to, to be conscious, to
schedule, to be aware, to foster, to insult, to prevent, substantially,
dissatisfaction
accustomed, aware, scheduled, prior to,
interacts, substantially
1.The meeting has been planned for tomorrow afternoon.
2. Lucy’s teacher says that she communicates well with the
other children. 3. It’s vital that management and shareholders fully
appreciate the risks and rewards before any merger.
4. During the past decade the economy of this country has significantly
grown. 5. People are becoming far more conscious
of environmental issues. 6. I'm not used to being treated like this.

necessary.
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1. When I took office, I was confronted ____ new guidelines. 2.
The documents pertain ____ the government's policies on
taxation. 3. The company's results are ___ line ____ stock market
expectations. 4. John always keeps his friends ____ arm's length,
so that no one gets close enough to hurt his feelings. 5. I know
all you want to chat, but we need to focus ____ the matter ____ hand.
6. We should be considerate ____ our parents.
7. Make sure all revisions are approved by the author prior ____
publication. 8. I am not accustomed ____ being treated like this.
IX. Choose the correct word given in brackets.

DIFFERENCES IN COMMUNICATION
If you have traveled a lot before, you know that there are 1.
(huge/hugely) differences in communication between people from one
country to another. In some cultures, people are 2. (loud/ loudly), direct
or even blunt and tend 3. (to interrupt/interpret) others during a
conversation. In others, people use 4. (flowery/flowered) or indirect
language and wait 5. (patient/ patiently) for others to finish their
sentence.
During a business meeting, try to adjust 6. (with/to the way) your
business partners communicate Always use 7. (latest/last) names and
titles unless you are invited to do 8. (otherwise/therefore). Failing to
acknowledge their status within the company or to greet them with due
respect can 9. (do/leave) a bad impression.
Cultural differences also become 10. (apparent/apparently) in
differing concepts of time. Is the scheduled time frame for a meeting
set in stone, or does it allow for some 11. (flexibility/ flexible)? Will
you fail a business deal by arriving late, or is it 12.
(perfectly/perfect) acceptable to let family matters, for example, take
precedence over business appointments?
Seeing how some cultures are more time-conscious 13.
(than/then) others, it is always 14. (best/better) to be punctual at
first and simultaneously adopt a relaxed attitude towards time
management. After 15. (a while/once), you will learn to adjust to
your business partners’ pace at work.
133
U N I T XV
CORPORATE CULTURE
DISCUSSION
Think of a company you admire and would like to work for and
discuss the following questions:
 What 10 words would you use to describe this company?
 What's really important for this company?
 Who gets promoted in this company?
 Around there what behaviors get rewarded?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) dress code a) a person who gives a less experienced
person advice related to work, school,
etc.
2) vision b) the beliefs and ideas that a company has
and the way it does business and treats its
employees
3) shifts c) something that is usually or regularly
done, often as a habit, tradition, or
custom
4) practice d) set periods of time when people work
from 6 am to 2 pm
5) mentor e) dismiss employees so they no longer have
a job
6) nap/napping f) special chairs, often used in workplace
pods environments and universities, that allow
people to nap
7) mission g) an accepted way of dressing in a
particular social group
8) to make h) a story or a description of events

redundant
9) corporate culture i) the result that a company is trying to
achieve through its plans or actions
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10) narrative j) view of how the company will be in the
future
1. To keep the company alive, half the workforce was
____. 2. He acted as a business ____ to many young
entrepreneurs. 3. Google’s ____ defines the strategies of the business,
such as the development of new products.
4. Companies such as Google and Zappos are installing ____ so
employees can rest and rejuvenate during the workday.
5. I’m working the day ____ this month, which finishes at 6 p.m.
about
1. the variety of opportunities that are offered to its employees by a
well-known search engine company
2. the history of corporate culture
3. the location of the company being one of the most important
components of a corporate culture
4. the myths of the origin of the company as an essential part of
corporate culture
5. the employees who highly appreciate the company’s culture
WHAT IS CORPORATE CULTURE?

(1) Among the many factors that affect an organization’s ability to
innovate, compete, and engage employees and customers is corporate
culture. Corporate culture is the set of values, vision, mission, and
the day-to-day aspects of communication, and operational goals that
create the organizational atmosphere that pervades the way people
work. It’s hard to define and even harder to get right. No amount of
modern furnishings, or young, hip workers can create a corporate
culture.
(2) Google is well known for its employee-friendly corporate
culture. It offers a plethora of employee perks, including free,
organic, chef-prepared meals, free health and dental insurance, nap
pods, video games, ping pong, onsite physicians and more. The
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company really understands that employees need to be taken care of
in all aspects of their lives to perform at the highest levels.
(3) Awareness of corporate or organizational culture in businesses
and other organizations such as universities emerged in the 1960s. The
term 'corporate culture' developed in the early 1980s and became
widely known by the 1990s. Corporate culture was used during those
periods by managers and sociologists to describe the character of a
company. This included beliefs and behaviors, company's value
systems, management strategies, employee communication and
relations, work environment and attitude. Corporate culture would go
on to include company origin myths and visual symbols such as
logos.
(4) The current awareness of corporate culture is more acute than
ever. There are some important characteristics of successful
corporate cultures. A great culture starts with a vision or mission
statement. Good vision statements can help orient customers,
suppliers, and other stakeholders. Companies often excel at
having compelling, simple vision statements. The Alzheimer’s
Association, for example, is dedicated to “a world without
Alzheimer’s.” And Oxfam envisions “a just world without
poverty.” Google’s modern and infamous slogan says “Don’t Be
Evil”. A vision statement is a simple but foundational element of
culture.
(5) While a vision shows a company’s purpose, values offer a set
of guidelines on the behaviours needed to achieve that vision.
McKinsey & Company, for example, has a set of values that are
prominently communicated to all employees and involve the way that
firm vows to serve clients, treat colleagues, and uphold professional
standards.
(6) Of course, values are of little importance unless they are
enshrined in a company’s practices. If an organization states “people
are our greatest asset,” it should also be ready to invest in people in
visible ways. For example, Netflix emphasizes the importance of
knowledge-based, high-achieving employees and, as such, Netflix pays
its employees the highest salaries.
(7) No company can build a coherent culture without people who
either share its core values or possess the willingness and ability to
136
embrace those values in order to enhance their overall culture.
The best firms are fanatical about recruiting new employees who are
not just the most talented but also the best suited to a particular
corporate culture.
(8) Any organization has a unique history — a unique story or a
narrative that is a core element of culture creation. The elements of
that narrative can be formal — like Coca-Cola that has a World of
Coke museum in Atlanta. Or, like those stories about how Steve
Jobs’ early fascination with calligraphy shaped the aesthetical
culture at Apple. But they are more powerful when identified, shaped,
and retold as a part of a firm’s culture.
(9) Why do tech firms cluster in Silicon Valley and financial firms
cluster in London and New York? There are obviously numerous
answers to these questions, but one clear answer is that place shapes
culture. Certain cities and countries have local cultures that may
reinforce or contradict the culture a firm is trying to create. Place
influences the values and behaviors of employees.
(10) There are other factors that influence culture. But these
components can provide a firm foundation for shaping a new
organization’s culture. And identifying and understanding them more
fully in an existing organization can be the first step to reshaping
culture in a company looking for change.
VOCABULARY NOTES
innovate (v) /ˈɪn.ə.veɪt/ վերափոխել,
բարեփոխել
compete (v) /kəmˈpiːt/ մրցել, մրցակցել
engage (v) /ɪnˈɡeɪdʒ/ ներգրավել
set (n) /set/ հավաքածու
vision (n) /ˈvɪʒ.ən/ տեսլական
operational (adj) /ˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən.əl/ գործառնական
pervade (v) /pəˈveɪd/ հագեցնել
define (v) /dɪˈfaɪn/ սահմանել, որոշարկել
furnishings (n) /ˈfɜː.nɪ.ʃɪŋz/ կահավորանք
hip (adj) /hɪp/ նորաձև, տեղյակ
plethora (n) /ˈpleθ.ər.ə/ առատություն
137
perk (n) /pɜːk/ արտոնություն
dental (adj) /ˈden.təl/ ատամնային
nap pod /næp /pɒd/ նիրհելու համար
նախատեսված
հարմարանք
onsite (adj) /ˌɒnˈsaɪt/ տեղում, վայրում
physician (n) /fɪˈzɪʃ.ən/ բժիշկ
perform (v) /pəˈfɔːm/ իրականացնել
awareness (n) /əˈweə.nəs/ իրազեկություն
sociologist (n) /ˌsəʊ.siˈɒl.ə.dʒɪst/ հասարակագետ
attitude (n) /ˈæt.ɪ.tʃuːd/ վերաբերմունք
myth (n) /mɪθ/ առասպել
current (adj) /ˈkʌr.ənt/ առկա, ներկա
acute (adj) /əˈkjuːt/ հրատապ, սուր
orient (v) /ˈɔː.ri.ənt/ կողմնորոշել
stakeholder /ˈsteɪkˌhəʊl.dər/ շահառու
compelling (adj) /kəmˈpel.ɪŋ/ գերող, գրավիչ
dedicated (adj) /ˈded.ɪ.keɪ.tɪd/ նվիրված
envision (v) /ɪnˈvɪz·ən/ պատկերացնել,
երևակայել
foundational (adj) /faʊnˈdeɪ.ʃən.əl/ հիմնարար, հիմնական
vow (v) /vaʊ/ խոստանալ, երդվել
uphold (v) /ʌpˈhəʊld/ պահել, պահպանել
enshrine (v) /ɪnˈʃraɪn/ պահպանել, փայփայել
asset (n) /ˈæs.et/ արժեք, հարստություն
visible (adj) /ˈvɪz.ə.bəl/ տեսանելի
coherent (adj) /kəʊˈhɪə.rənt/ կապակցված,
համաձայնեցված
willingness (adj) /ˈwɪl.ɪŋ.nəs/ ցանկություն
embrace (v) /ɪmˈbreɪs/ ընդունել, հարել,
ներառվել
fanatical (adj) /fəˈnæt.ɪ.kəl/ մոլեռանդ
recruit (v) /rɪˈkruːt/ աշխատանքի ընդունել
suited (adj) /ˈsuː.tɪd/ պատշաճ, հարմար
narrative (n) /ˈnær.ə.tɪv/ պատմություն
fascination (n) /ˈfæs.ən.eɪʃ.ən/ հիացմունք
calligraphy (n) /kəˈlɪɡ.rə.fi/ գեղագրություն
138
aesthetic (adj) /esˈθet.ɪk/ գեղագիտական
cluster (v) /ˈklʌs.tər/ հավաքվել
Silicon Valley /ˌsɪl.ɪ.kən ˈvæl.i/ Սիլիկոնային հովիտ
reinforce (v) /ˌriː.ɪnˈfɔːs/ ամրապնդել, խորացնել
contradict (v) /ˌkɒn.trəˈdɪkt/ հակասել

1. The notion of corporate culture emerged in the first half of the
twentieth century.
2. Professional approach to corporate culture developed in the
second half of the twentieth century.
3. Google’s employees have an opportunity to be examined by their
doctors at their workplaces.
4. Companies’ vision statements can guide people’s mentality.
5. Young and trendy employees can create a solid corporate culture.
6. Corporate culture only includes company related symbols such as
logos.
7. The Alzheimer’s Association envisions an idea according to which
there should be no people suffering from memory loss.

1. to introduce changes and new ideas (par. 1)
2. a mental image of what the future will or could be like. (par. 1)
3. the furniture, curtains, and decorations in a room or building
(par. 1)
4. an advantage or something extra, such as money or goods, that
you are given because of your job (par. 2)
5. to do an action or piece of work (par. 2)
6. a word or expression used in relation to a particular
subject, often to describe something official or
technical (par. 3)
7. to discover the position of yourself in relation to your
surroundings (par. 4)
8. forceful and persuasive (par. 4)
9. forming the base from which everything else develops (par. 4)
139
10. to make a determined decision or promise to do something
(par. 5)
11. to keep or defend a principle or law (par. 5)
12. to keep something as if in a holy place (par 6)
13. able to be seen (par. 6)
14. having its parts related in an organized and reasonable way
(par. 7)
15. an area in northern California where there are many
companies that make or use computer materials and
electronic devices (par. 9)

բարձր պահել մասնագիտական չափանիշները,
կորպորատիվ և կազմակերպչական մշակույթի մասին
իրազեկություն, երդվել ծառայել հաճախորդներին,
փնտրել փոփոխություններ, ազդել արժեքների և
վարքագծի վրա, կառուցել հետևողական մշակույթ,
պահպանվել ընկերության գործառություններում,
ունենալ ցանկություն և ունակություն, ձևավորել
մշակույթ, ուղեցույցների հավաքածու, իրականացնել
տեսլականը, գործընկերների հանդեպ վերաբերմունք
ցուցաբերել, ընկերության ծագման մասին առասպել

necessary.
1. Unemployment is likely to go ___ rising this year.
2. I have had a lifelong fascination ____ the sea and
small boats. 3. I didn't get a comprehensive answer ____
my question. 4. Before we consider each ____ these
factors, let us examine the practical and theoretical
foundations for them. 5. There is plethora ____ books
about economics ____ this library. 6. Gary is fanatical
____ football. 6. She is ideally suited ____ this job. 9.
Don't worry. I'll take care ____ the children.
pairs.
140
doctor, plethora, to pervade, stakeholder, critical, to
cluster, foundational, to enhance, to go on,
fundamental, to gather, beneficiary, to spread
through, to continue, physician, to involve, to
engage, to foster, acute, a large amount

logo, to enhance, acute, foundational, plethora,
clustered, physician
1. The problem of poverty is particularly critical in
rural areas. 2. The first part of this book is fundamental
and impressive. 3. Students gathered around the
noticeboard to read the exam results. 4. A large
amount of taxing regulations were developed to control
companies working for profit. 5. You should always
consult a doctor if you develop a high fever. 6. The
professor was trying to foster an interest in the theory
of economics in his students.
IX. Match the two halves to get meaningful sentences.
1) Nepotism can a) working with or managing that
include person can become a highly sensitive
matter.
2) Some companies b) a key factor in determining an
encourage high employee's promotion or pay
turnover, increase.
3) In cases where a c) favoritism towards relatives,
colleague or friends, friends of relatives and
subordinate is a close friends of friends.
relative of a senior
executive,
4) The phrase “corporate d. that characterize how a company
culture” implies organizes itself, conducts business
formal rules and and treats its staff.
informal customs
5) Some organizations e) in order to keep wages down and
141
make seniority, or years squeeze maximum effort out of eager
of experience, new recruits.
LISTENING
Most companies operate on a set of policies: mandated
vacation days, travel guidelines, standard work hours,
annual goals. Patty McCord, the iconic former chief talent
officer at Netflix, shares the key points of building a
successful company. Visit the following
website:
patty_mccord_8_lessons_on_building_a_compa
ny_people_enjoy_working_for?language=en#t-
95381 and complete the task below:
1. The job of managers is creating successful
companies. True/False
2. According to Patty McCord employess should
often change their workplaces to enjoy their
career. True/False
3. Everyone in the company should be
cooperative. True/False
4. When providing feedback, employers
should try to praise their employees even if
they do not deserve it. True/False
5. If the employer is not punctual, it will not
affect the employees' attitude towards the
company's values. True/False
6. Companies should be open to changes and
it will lead to success. True/False
142
U N I T XVI
BODY LANGUAGE IN BUSINESS
DISCUSSION
1. What is body language and how is it different from spoken
language?
2. Why and when do people use body language?
3. What emotions or moods can you express through body language?
4. Can you think of some gestures that have different meanings in
different countries?
5. When you meet someone for the first time, how do you greet him
or her?
6. How do you greet your friends and your family members?
7. Describe three gestures you use frequently and say what they
mean.
8. How do you signal a waiter in your country, or that someone has
a phone call, or that someone is crazy?
9. How do you signal that you're bored? tired? angry?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) handshake a) a movement of the hands, arms
or head, etc. to express an idea or
feeling
2) to nod b) admiration felt for someone or
something that you believe has good ideas or
qualities
3) respect c) a greeting in which two people who are
facing each other take hold of each other's
right hand and move it up and down
4) status d) the process of conveying meaning without the
use of words either written or spoken
5) nonverbal e)to move one's head up and down, to

communicati show agreement, approval, greeting
on
143
6) gesture f) a particular position in which someone
stands, sits, etc.
7) posture g) something friendly or polite that you say or
do when you meet or welcome someone
8) greeting h) an accepted or official position, especially in
a social group
1. The bow and handshake are used for both ____ and leave
taking. 2. He always adopts the same ____ for the cameras.
3. "All this is mine," she said with a sweeping arm ____ .
4. ____ includes the use of visual cues such as body language,
distance and physical appearance. 5. Many people in the
audience ____ in agreement. 6. The leaders are often more
concerned with ____ and privilege than with the problem
of the people.
about
1. copying your conversation partner’s body language
2. using natural movements when greeting somebody
3. visual interaction as being an important part in business
communication
4. genuine facial expressions
5. an excessive amount of body movements when interacting with
your business partners
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

(1) It's not what you say, it's how you say it. It's a cliché, but it's
true. The way you act can change the entire meaning of what you're
saying. Have you considered how your posture, facial expressions,
and other physical movements can impact on your career? Body
language plays a crucial role in an individual’s success, regardless of
his or her position. Here are the most effective business
body language tricks:
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(2) Maintain eye contact and active listening techniques. Everyone
wants to feel interesting and important, and engaging in active listening
shows other individuals you see them in such a way. By keeping
consistent eye contact with others when they speak, nodding
occasionally, and using other indicators of attention, you as a
professional show respect for colleagues.
(3) Keep palms facing down. Those around you may not recognize
this subtle move, but it will help shape their opinions of you all the
same. When individuals place both of their hands palms down on tables
while speaking with others, it projects a sense of authority and
leadership.
(4) Act in synchrony. Imitating the body language of others
shows you align with them philosophically as well. Watch how others
position themselves – whether sitting, standing, or walking, and mimic
the way they cross their legs, lean forward or backward, gesticulate, or
present facial expressions. All these will communicate a sense of
cooperation.
(5) Keep body language open and remove possible barriers. People
take emotional cues from their conversation partners. Therefore, if you
slouch, cross your arms, or otherwise appear “closed off” to others,
audiences respond the same way. Keep body language relaxed and
arms at your sides to show you’re open to those with whom you
interact.
(6) Smile sincerely. When approaching an individual, imagine
greeting an old friend, and a genuine smile will emerge. These
expressions communicate a sense of warmth and welcome, which
encourages others to open up.
(7) Minimize movements. Standing woodenly in networking and
business situations won’t do. However, squirming, scratching, or
fidgeting projects an appearance of nervousness or impatience.
Gesticulating wildly while conversing also distracts from important
points. The best policy is to incorporate natural, movements to
enhance your points and mirror the body language of others.
(8) Develop a strong handshake. The tactile sensation of a
handshake has made it the prevalent physical greeting in many
cultures. However, perfecting this seemingly simple act takes some
work. Avoid extremes in handshakes, whether overly limp or
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excessively firm. Instead, aim for a brief, natural-feeling grasp to
communicate trust and respect.
(9) Although implementing some of these techniques may feel
more natural than others, practising them at each business situation
helps you develop body language habits that will benefit you
throughout your career. A promotion or raise may not happen
immediately, but over time, strong body language greatly contributes to
the success and scope of your professional life.
VOCABULARY NOTES
cliché (n) /ˈkliː.ʃeɪ/ շաբլոնային
արտահայտություն
posture (n) /ˈpɑːs.tʃɚ/ կեցվածք, դիրք
crucial (adj) /ˈkruː.ʃəl/ կարևոր, էական
regardless (adv) /rɪˈɡɑːd.ləs/ չնայած
position (n) /pəˈzɪʃ.ən/ դիրք, պաշտոն
trick (n) /trɪk/ հնարք
maintain (v) /meɪnˈteɪn/ հաստատել, պահպանել
consistent (adj) /kənˈsɪs.tənt/ հետևողական, մշտական
nod (v) /nɒd/ գլխով նշան անել
palm (n) /pɑːm/ ափ (ձեռքի)
subtle (adj) /ˈsʌt.əl նուրբ, չնչին
project (v) /prəˈdʒekt/ ներկայացնել, հաղորդել
sense (n) /sens/ զգացում
authority (n) /ɔːˈθɒr.ə.ti/ ուժ, իշխանություն
leadership (n) /ˈliː.də.ʃɪp/ առաջնորդություն
synchrony (n) /ˈsɪŋ.krə.ni/ համաժամանակություն
imitate (v) /ˈɪm.ɪ.teɪt/ նմանակել
mimic (v) /ˈmɪm.ɪk/ նմանակել
cross (v) /krɒs/ խաչել
lean (v) /liːn/ թեքվել (մարմնով)
gesticulate (v) /dʒesˈtɪk.jə.leɪt/ ժեստեր անել
cooperation (n) /kəʊˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/ համագործակցում
remove (v) /rɪˈmuːv/ հեռացնել, հանել
barrier (n) /ˈbær.i.ər/ խոչընդոտ
cue (n) /kjuː/ ակնարկ, հուշում
slouch (v) /slaʊtʃ/ մեջքը կորացնել, կուզը
146
դուրս գցած շարժվել
audience (n) /ˈɔː.di.əns/ լսարան, հանդիսատես
sincerely /sɪnˈsɪə.li/ անկեղծ
emerge (v) /ɪˈmɜːdʒ/ ի հայտ գալ
warmth (n) /wɔːmθ/ ջերմություն
minimize (v) /ˈmɪn.ɪ.maɪz/ նվազագույնի հասցնել
woodenly (adv) /ˈwʊd.ən.li/ կաշկանդված, անշարժ
կերպով
squirm (v) /skwɜːm/ կծկվել, անհանգիստ
շարժվել
scratch (v) /skrætʃ/ քորել, ճանկռել
fidget (v) /ˈfɪdʒ.ɪt/ տեղում հանգիստ չլինել,
դեսուդեն ընկնել
converse (v) /kənˈvɜːs/ զրուցել, խոսել
distract (v) /dɪˈstrækt/ շեղել
policy (n) /ˈpɒl.ə.si/ քաղաքականություն
incorporate (v) /ɪnˈkɔː.pər.eɪt/ ընդունել, միավորել
enhance (v) /ɪnˈhɑːns/ ուժեղացնել, մեծացնել
mirror (v) /ˈmɪr.ər/ արտացոլել, նմանակել
tactile (adj) /ˈtæk.taɪl/ շոշափողական
sensation (n) /senˈseɪ.ʃən/ զգացողություն, զգացում
prevalent (adj) /ˈprev.əl.ənt/ գերիշխող
extreme (n) /ɪkˈstriːm/ ծայրահեղություն
overly (adv) /ˈəʊ.vəl.i/ չափազանց
limp (adj) /lɪmp/ թույլ, փափուկ
excessively /ekˈses.ɪv.li/ չափազանց
(adv)
firm (adj) /fɜːm/ ամուր, պինդ
brief (adj) /briːf/ կարճ, համառոտ
grasp (n) /ɡrɑːsp/ սեղմում, գրկում
implement (v) /ˈɪm.plɪ.ment/ իրականացնել
benefit (v) /ˈben.ɪ.fɪt/ օգուտ բերել
scope (n) /skəʊp/ շրջանակ, ծավալ

1. Your high position and status enable you to ignore your
knowledge of body language skills.
147
2. If your behavior is somewhat reserved, your conversation partners
will behave the same way.
3. You should not use very active movements when
interacting with your business partners, otherwise
you will commnicate a sense of impatience.
4. Mimicing others' movements and gestures will bring
you success in business communication.
5. Maintaining consistent eye contact will show that
you are a very respectful person.
6. Crossing your arms when speaking will communicate
a sense of authority and leadership.
7. Your relaxed body language will imply that you are
an indifferent person.
1. the way in which someone usually holds their shoulders, neck, and
back (par. 1)
2. despite, not being affected by something (par. 1)
3. an effective or quick way of doing something (par. 1)
4. to make something continue in the same way (par. 2)
5. always happening or behaving in a similar way (par. 2)
6. to make other people see or feel a particular quality or idea in the
way you behave (par. 3)
7. a general feeling or understanding (par. 3)
8. to agree with a person or an organization and support their
ideas (par. 4)
9. to copy the speech or behaviour of someone (par. 4)
10. a signal for someone to do something (par. 5)
11. a high temperature that is comfortable but not hot (par. 6)
12. to have a conversation with someone (par. 7)
13. to make something free from faults (par. 8)
14. a situation, feeling, etc. that is very different from another one
(par. 8)
15. to put a plan or system into operation (par. 9)
148
տեսողական կապ հաստատել, հարգանք ցուցաբերել
գործընկերների նկատմամբ, իշխանության և առաջ-
նորդության զգացում փոխանցել, դեմքի
արտահայտություն ընդունել, հնարավոր արգելքները
վերացնել, համագործակցության զգացում, հուզական
ազդակներ ընդունել, լսարանը նույն կերպ է
արձագանքում, անկեղծ ժպտալ, անշարժ կանգնել,
խուսափել ծայրահեղություններից, չափազանց ամուր
ձեռքսեղմում, օգտակար լինել ողջ կարիերայի
ընթացքում, մասնագիտական գործունեության
շրջանակ

necessary.
1. Effective body language habits can substantially impact ____
your career. 2. Regardless ____ your status, it is important to
constantly perfect your nonverbal communication skills. 3. Eye contact
plays an important role ____ the system of body language skills. 4.
You show respect ____ others ____ being polite and kind. 5. Business
leaders are aligned ____ the president concerning this issue. 6. When
Betsy leaned____, she lost her balance and fell. 7. You should really
try to be more open ____ suggestions, if you want to succeed ____
your career. 8. Don't distract her ____ her studies.
VIII. Read the text and match the paragraphs with the
appropriate headings given below.
A) Openness to collaboration B) Empathy
C) Confidence D) Intelligence
E) Assertiveness F) Interest
One of the most important factors in shaping the perceptions of
others is body language. By using movements, positioning, and facial
expressions, you can project positive qualities such as:
1) _________________
Business leaders throughout history have been known to project
assurance, or a sense of being secure with their abilities or
accomplishments. Therefore, if you wish to advance, employ body
language to communicate confidence – even when you may not feel it.
149
2) __________________
Managing high-level duties and personnel requires the ability to
advance your own will – or the will of the company – in spite of
resistance. Physically positioning yourself as someone not easily
influenced by others shows the ability to lead others.
3) __________________
Potential employers, colleagues, partners, and clients want to work
with people who find the topics they discuss compelling. Showing an
active interest in a conversation, lecture, or presentation indicates that
you as a professional will use the same level of engagement in a future
business relationship.
4) ____________________
Although assertiveness is key in leaders, so is the ability to
cooperate with others to achieve common goals and ultimately
strengthen your strategies.
5) _____________________
Succeeding in any industry requires a wide variety of knowledge,
from education to life and professional experiences. Body language
methods that communicate comprehension indicate a high I.Q. and
show others you are mentally ready for greater responsibility.
6) ______________________
Not only is I.Q. important to business intelligence; so is the E.Q., or
emotional intelligence quotient. Professionals who respond to the
emotional needs of themselves, customers, and colleagues stand the
best chance of advancing in their fields.
By using body language techniques to communicate one or more of
these qualities, you can raise yourself in the esteem of influential
parties without speaking a word, which, as a result, will help you
advance your career.
150
IX. Choose the correct word given in brackets.
When we communicate 1. (for/with) other people it is not only our
words that 2. (contain/containing) the meaning. An important part of
that 3. (meaning/mean) comes from what is called 4. (‘verbal
communication’/ ‘nonverbal communication’). By this we mean facial
5. (impression/expression); gestures with hands, arms, legs; the way we
sit or stand; the 6. (distant/distance) we keep between ourselves and the
people we are talking to. All these say something to other people.
Facial expressions are used by everyone often 7. (spontaneous/
spontaneously). Smiling, for example, is found in most cultures as a
sign of happiness or 8. (displeasure/pleasure). Although it does not
always mean the same in every culture. I once asked a Portuguese
student why bank officials in Lisbon seemed so 9. (adour/dour) – sorry
Lisbon bank clerks, but it's true – and he told me that if they smiled too
much they would not seem 10. (serious/seriously) about their work.
Because many nonverbal messages are “culture specific”, they can
11. (because/cause) a lot of 12. (understanding/ misunderstanding)
between people from different nations. Northern Europeans and
Americans, for example, like to keep a certain personal 13.
(space/pace) between themselves and others and feel uncomfortable if
people come too 14. (close/closed) to them.
One of the main 15. (differences/difference) between verbal and
nonverbal communication is that we are often not 16.
(unconscious/conscious) of the expressions and gestures we use and so
we are 17. (in danger/endanger) of giving more information than we
really want to with our body language.
X. “Posture” is the word used to describe the way we use our

whole body. We can stand straight and still, like a soldier on
parade; we can sit back in a relaxed manner; we can fold our
arms, cross our legs; we can lie down; we can jump about.
Each posture reflects our emotion and attitude. Match the
description of a posture to an attitude or emotion.
1) arms crossed over the chest a) deep concentration, lost in
thoughts
2) nail biting b) excitement
151
3) a hand placed on the cheek c) interest
4) placing the tips of the fingers d) impatience
together
5) rubbing the hands together e) lack of concern
briskly
6) leaning forward f) nervousness, insecurity
7) tapping or drumming the g) being defensive
fingers
8) shrugging one’s shoulders i) demonstration of control and
authority
WRITING
1. Appearance isn’t everything’.
What is your point of view? Discuss.
2. Your first impressions when you meet someone are
always right.
Do you agree with this statement?
U N I T XVII
WHAT MAKES A GOOD LEADER?
DISCUSSION
1. Can you name some famous leaders that you admire?
2. What did they achieve in their time?
3. Do you think being a good leader is a natural ability or can be
learned?
4. Are women better leaders than men?
5. Can you think of a time when a leader failed? What happened?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) leader a) the assignment of any responsibility to another
person (normally from a manager to a
152
subordinate) to carry out specific activities
2) motivation b) a spiritual power or personal quality that gives
an individual influence or authority over large
numbers of people
3) integrity c) introductory act or step: leading action
4) soft skills d) enthusiasm for doing something
5) competent e) the quality of being honest and having strong
moral principles that you refuse to change
6) delegation f) personal attributes, personality traits, and
communication abilities needed for success
7) charisma g) a person that holds dominant position within
his/her field, and is able to exercise a high
degree of control or influence over others
8) decisive h) having suitable or sufficient skill, knowledge,
experience, etc.
9) initiative i) creating a group of acquaintances and
associates and keeping it active through
regular communication for mutual benefit
10) networking j) able to make decisions quickly and confidently
1. No one doubted that the president was a man of the highest
____. 2. ____ enables businesses to meet new people who
might be useful to their activities. 3. There seems to be a lack of
____ among the employees. They are reluctant to do their job
properly. 4. A key factor in running a business is the ____ of
assignments and responsibility. 5. She has shown herself to be
a highly ____ manager.
about
1. assigning tasks to other staff members according to their abilities
2. encouraging workers through motivating actions
3. creating a happy atmosphere at the workplace
4. thinking in non-traditional, creative ways
5. constantly communicating with workers to identify their problems
153
GOOD LEADERSHIP SKILLS
(1) Whether one is an office manager or a project leader, all good
leaders require a number of soft skills to help them positively interact
with employees or team members. Here are some important skills that
make a strong leader in the workplace.
(2) Communication: As a leader, you need to be able to clearly
explain to your employees everything from organizational goals to
specific tasks. Leaders must master all forms of communication,
including communication via the phone, email, and social media. A
large part of communication involves listening. Therefore, leaders
should establish a steady flow of communication between themselves
and their staff members, either through an open-door policy or regular
conversations with workers. Leaders should make themselves regularly
available to discuss issues and concerns with employees.
(3) Motivation: Leaders need to inspire their workers to go the
extra mile for their organizations; just paying a fair salary to
employees is typically not enough inspiration. There are a number of
ways to motivate your workers: you may build employee self-esteem
through recognition and rewards, or by giving employees new
responsibilities to increase their investment in the company.
(4) Delegating: Leaders who try to take on too many tasks by
themselves will struggle to get anything done. These leaders often fear
that delegating tasks is a sign of weakness, when in fact it is a sign of
a strong leader. Therefore, you need to identify the skills of each
employee, and assign duties based on their skill set. By delegating
tasks to staff members, you can focus on other important tasks.
(5) Positivity: A positive attitude can go a long way in an office.
You should be able to laugh at yourself when something doesn't go
quite as planned; this helps create a happy and healthy work
environment, even during busy, stressful periods. Simple acts like
asking employees about their vacation plans will develop a positive
atmosphere in the office, and raise morale among staff members.
(6) Trustworthiness: Employees need to be able to feel comfortable
coming to their manager with questions and concerns. It is important
for you to demonstrate your integrity – employees will only trust
leaders they respect. By being open and honest, you will encourage the
same sort of honesty in your employees.
154
(7) Creativity: As a leader, you have to make a number of decisions
that do not have a clear answer; you therefore need to be able to think
outside of the box. Learning to try nontraditional solutions, or
approaching problems in nontraditional ways, will help you to solve an
otherwise unsolvable problem. Most employees will also be
impressed and inspired by a leader who doesn't always choose the
safe, conventional path.
(8) Feedback: Leaders should constantly look for opportunities to
deliver useful information to team members about their performance.
By teaching employees how to improve their work and make their own
decisions, you will feel more confident delegating tasks to your staff.
Employees will also respect a leader who provides feedback in a clear
but empathetic way.
(9) Responsibility: A leader is responsible for both the successes
and failures of his or her team. Therefore, you need to be willing to
accept blame when something does not go correctly. If your employees
see their leader blaming others, they will lose respect for you. Accept
mistakes and failures, and then devise clear solutions for
improvement.
(10) Commitment: It is important for leaders to follow through with
what they agree to do. You should be willing to put in the extra hours
to complete an assignment; employees will see this commitment and
follow your example. Similarly, when you promise your staff a reward,
such as an office party, you should always follow through.
(11) Flexibility: Mishaps and last-minute changes always occur at
work. Leaders need to be flexible, open to suggestions and feedback.
If your staff is dissatisfied with an aspect of the office environment,
listen to their concern and be open to making necessary changes.
VOCABULARY NOTES
project (n) /ˈprɒdʒ.ekt/ նախագիծ
communication (n) /kəˌmjuː.nɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/ հաղորդակցում
organizational (adj) /ˌɔr·ɡə·nəˈzeɪ·ʃə·nəl/ կազմակերպչական
goal (n) /ɡəʊl/ նպատակ
task (n) /tɑːsk/ հանձնարարություն
master (v) /ˈmɑː.stər/ տիրապետել,
յուրացնել, հմտանալ
155
social media /ˌsəʊ.ʃəl ˈmiː.di.ə/ համացանցով մարդ-
կանց
հաղորդակցումը
ապահովող կայքեր
steady (adj) /ˈsted.i/ հաստատուն, կայուն
staff (n) /stɑːf/ անձնակազմ
issue (n) /ˈɪʃ.uː/ հարց, խնդիր
concern (n) /kənˈsɜːn/ խնդիր,
մտահոգություն
motivation (n) /ˌməʊ.tɪˈveɪ.ʃən/ մոտիվացիա, խթան
inspire (v) /ɪnˈspaɪər/ ոգեշնչել, ոգևորել
extra (adj) /ˈek.strə/ լրացուցիչ
to go an extra mile /ˈek.strə maɪl/ լրացուցիչ ջանքեր
գործադրել
fair (adj) /feər/ բավարար
inspiration (n) /ˌɪn.spɪˈreɪ.ʃən/ ոգեշնչում
self-esteem (n) /ˌself.ɪˈstiːm/ ինքնագնահատակա
ն
recognition (n) /ˌrek.əɡˈnɪʃ.ən/ ճանաչում
reward (n) /rɪˈwɔːd/ պարգև
delegate (v) /ˈdelɪɡeɪt/ հանձնարարել
struggle (v) /ˈstrʌɡ.əl/ պայքարել
fear (v) /fɪər/ վախ
weakness (n) /ˈwiːk.nəs/ թուլություն
identify (v) /aɪˈden.tɪ.faɪ/ հայտնաբերել,
որոշարկել
assign (v) /əˈsaɪn/ հանձնարարել
duty (n) /ˈdʒuː.ti/ պարտականություն,
պատասխանատվութ
յուն
ամբողջություն
environment (n) /ɪnˈvaɪ.rən.mənt/ շրջակա միջավայր
vacation (n) /veɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/ հանգիստ,
արձակուրդ
morale (n) /məˈrɑːl/ ոգևորություն,
խանդավառություն
156
trustworthiness (n) /ˈtrʌstˌwɜː.ði.nəs/ վստահելիություն,
հուսալիություն
demonstrate (v) /ˈdem.ən.streɪt/ ցուցադրել, ցույց տալ
integrity (n) /ɪnˈteɡ.rə.ti/ հավատարմություն,
ազնվություն
honest (adj) /ˈɒn.ɪst/ ազնիվ
creativity (n) /ˌkriːeɪˈtɪvɪti/ ստեղծագործականո
ւթյուն
think outside of the /θɪŋkˌaʊtˈsaɪd əv ðə ոչ ավանդական,
box bɒks/ նորարարական
կերպով մտածել
solution (n) /səˈluː.ʃən/ լուծում
unsolvable (adj) /ʌnˈsɒlvəb(ə)l/ անլուծելի
impressed (adj) /ɪmˈprɛst/ տպավորված
conventional (adj) /kənˈven.ʃən.əl/ ավանդական,
սովորական
feedback (n) /ˈfiːd.bæk/ հետադարձ կապ,
պատասխան
constantly /ˈkɒn.stənt.li/ մշտապես
deliver (v) /dɪˈlɪv.ər/ տալ, հատկացնել
performance (n) /pəˈfɔː.məns/ գործունեություն
empathetic (adj) /ˌem.pəˈθet.ɪk/ կարեկցող
blame (n) /bleɪm/ մեղք
devise (v) /dɪˈvaɪz/ մշակել
improvement /ɪmˈpruːv.mənt/ բարելավում,
(n) բարեփոխում
complete (v) /kəmˈpliːt/ լրացնել, կատարել
assignment (n) /əˈsaɪn.mənt/ հանձնարարություն
flexibility (n) /ˌflek.səˈbɪl.ə.ti/ ճկունություն
mishap (n) /ˈmɪs.hæp/ դժբախտ
պատահար

1. Good leaders should always communicate with their team
members to have regular feedback from them.
157
2. Giving proper salaries is enough to provide the workers with
motivation.
3. Good leaders should complete most of the company-related tasks
by themselves, assigning a minor part of duties to their employees.
4. A happy work environment provided by a leader will lead to the
company’s success.
5. Good leaders should be trustworthy, and the same attitude will be
extended to them by workers.
6. Traditional and conventional ways of thinking should be
encouraged by good leaders.
7. Good leaders should show empathy to their team members.
8. Good leaders should take the blame for the company’s failures.
9. Good leaders should be open to changes occurring in the company.

1. a piece of planned work or an activity that is finished
over a period of time and intended to achieve a
particular purpose (par. 1)
2. an aim or purpose (par. 2)
3. the movement of something in one direction (par. 2)
4. a worried feeling about something, or something that makes
you feel worried (par. 2)
5. a communication policy in which the leader encourages openness,
transparency (par. 2)
6. to make someone feel that they want to do something and can do
it (par. 3)
7. public appreciation for a person’s or group’s achievements (par.
3)
8. a feeling or opinion about something or someone, or a way
of behaving that is caused by this (par. 5)
9. the conditions that you live or work in and the way that they
influence how you feel or how effectively you can work (par.
5)
10. the amount of confidence felt by a person, especially when in
a dangerous or difficult situation (par. 5)
11. the ability to be relied on as honest or truthful (par. 6)
158
12. the quality of being honest and having strong moral
principles that you refuse to change (par. 6)
13. to think in an original or creative way (par. 7)
14. having the ability to imagine how someone else feels
(par. 8)
15. a willingness to give your time and energy to something that
you believe in (par. 10)

հստակ կերպով բացատրել աշխատողներին,
հմտանալ հաղորդակցման բոլոր ձևերում,
ճանաչման/գնահատման և պարգևատրման միջոցով
ձևավորել աշխատողի ինքնագնահատականը, հանձ-
նարարություններ տալ, թուլության նշան,
բացահայտել յուրաքանչյուր աշխատողի
հմտությունները, հմտությունների ամբողջություն,
երջանիկ և առողջ աշխատանքային մթնոլորտ, ոչ
ավանդական կերպով մտածել, ոչ ավանդական
լուծումներ, բարելավման համար հստակ լուծումներ
մշակել, կատարել հանձնարարությունը

necessary.
1. Tonight’s program focuses ____ homelessness. 2. We were
laughing ____ the clown. 3. Let's think ____ ____ the box and try
to find a better solution. 4. Sports teaching ____ the
college doesn't even approach ____ the required standard.
5. A creative person should be open ____ new ideas.
pairs.
To require, continuously, to learn, task, to demand, spirit, to
motivate, to identify, to determine, adaptability, to demonstrate,
assignment, morale, worrying, to master, flexibility, to inspire, to
show, stressful, constantly
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stressful, morale, identify, demonstrate, inspired, mastered
1. His confident leadership motivated his followers.
2. She's very good at coping in worrying situations. 3. She lived in
Italy for several years but never quite learned the language. 4. The
research will be used to determine training needs. 5. These
problems show the importance of strategic planning. 6. A couple of
victories would improve the team's spirit enormously.
IX. Read the text below and match the names of the leaders with
the performance and deeds they had in their lives.
Alexander the Great, Nelson Mandela, John Rockefeller, Henry
Ford, Fidel Castro
VISIONARY LEADERSHIP EXAMPLES
With all the leadership styles, the visionary quality is said to be
something that every leader should have. After all, when there is no
vision for a country or a team, then setting a goal that everyone can
work on would not be possible. Basically, each leader should have a
passion about a certain vision, the skill set to recognize it and the
capability to interpret daily requirements and tasks towards it. A vision
should also be achieved through efficiencies, innovation and consistent
support from team members. Visionary leaders should have the ability
to look forward into the future farther than others and to focus on an
end goal that is even believed by others to be impossible. Here are
some of the greatest examples of visionary leadership style:
(1)_______________
Aside from being the first democratically elected President of South
Africa, he was once the face and leader of the Anti-Apartheid
movement, fighting against racial discrimination all through his life.
His actions even brought him to prison, though this did not deter him.
His tremendous focus, determination, and will, even after serving 30
years in jail, urged him to continue his campaigns, making him come
out as a hero and lead his country into having an equal and free future.
(2) _______________
He became famous for pioneering the automobile assembly line and
having to successfully mass produce automobiles. Amazingly, he
started his company with virtually none of his own money, proceeding
160
to cleverly negotiate deals with suppliers that allowed him to purchase
parts on credit. After years of reinvesting his profits back into his
business, the company then became an industrial giant, with him being
immortalized as a business legend.
(3)______________
He is one of the two faces of the Cuban Revolution in 1953 and
went on to become the country’s president and prime minister. He
devised the revolution during a time when he was facing many crises
and an attempt of assassination against his life. Proving to be a great
leader and commander, his vision has gotten Cuba where it stands
today.
(4)________________
He is the business tycoon behind Standard Oil, who became a
dominant force in the industry in the 1870s after buying his first oil
refinery in 1862, almost single-handedly revolutionizing the mass
market for oil. He offered discounts to railroads carrying oil across the
US, selling it to consumers at low prices, which helped establish his
legacy as one of the country’s earliest business heroes.
(5)________________
Known as the “Man Who Conquered the World”, this person is
regarded by the world today as the greatest military leader of all time.
Born in 356 BC, he created the largest empire in history by the age of
33, which stretched from Greece to India. As the king of the Kingdom
of Macedonia, he was perhaps the greatest military commander to have
ever lived. During his reign, he did a lot of noble deeds, including one
that unified the many Greek city states. While he was undefeated in
battle, he unfortunately succumbed to malaria and saw his death in 323
BC. As a visionary leader, his greatest qualities were his vision,
foresight and military capabilities.
WRITING
Write an essay on the topic ‘Effective leadership’. Give reasons for
your answer and include any relevant example from your own
knowledge and experience. Write at least 250 words. Try to spend
no more than 40 minutes on this task.
161
U N I T XVIII
TIME MANAGEMENT
DISCUSSION
1. What takes up most of your time?
2. Do you think you manage your time wisely?
3. Do you do things slowly or quickly? Are you often in a rush or do
you take your time?
4. If you are assigned a task, do you manage to submit it in time?
5. Do you make a detailed schedule for every day?
6. How do you manage to squeeze everything in your weekly routine?
7. Do you rely on anyone else to organize your time for you?
8. Do you ever feel like you are wasting your time? When?
9. Some of time thieves are telephone interruptions, unexpected
visitors, spending too much time on social websites. What other
factors that steal time from people can you mention?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) to schedule a) organizing and using your time in a
way that allows you to meet your daily
needs
2) to delegate b) what is lost by choosing one option
instead of another
3) a to-do list c) to arrange that an event will happen at
a particular time
4) to prioritize d) the idea that spending time on a
positive activity such as exercise,
pursuit of a hobby will pay off in the
long run with better physical and
mental health
5) time as an investment e) things you hope to achieve in your life
and work toward
6) time management f) to decide which things are the most
important so that you can deal with
them first
162
7) opportunity cost g) to give a particular job, duty, right,
etc. to someone else so that they do it
for you
8) goals h) a list of things needed to be done
1. They have set themselves a series of ____ to achieve by the
end of the month. 2. The modern concept of ____ is the act of
planning the amount of time you spend on which activities. 3.
An ____ is defined as the value of a forgone activity or alternative
when another item or activity is chosen. 4. What if you threw away
your____ and only did one important thing every day? 5. The boss did
not have enough time and ____ this task to her assistant.
about
1. the importance of taking breaks
2. the time certain tasks should be done
3. different ways people manage their time
4. classifying tasks according to their importance
5. giving particular jobs to other people so that they do them for you
6. writing the tasks you should do
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IMPROVING YOUR TIME MANAGEMENT SKILLS
(1) Have you ever wondered how it is that some people seem to
have enough time to do everything that they want to, whereas others
are always rushing from task to task, and never seem to finish
anything? Is it just that the former have less to do? No, it’s much more
likely that they are using their time more effectively and practicing
good time management skills.
(2) Time management is not very difficult as a concept, but it’s
surprisingly hard to do in practice. It requires the investment of a little
time upfront to prioritise and organise yourself. But once done, you
will find that with minor tweaks, your day, and indeed your week and
month, fall into place in an orderly fashion, with time for everything
you need to do.
Here are some ways that you can use to improve time management
skills and increase productivity:
(3) Prioritizing
It is usually impossible to do every single thing you need and want
to do all at once, but if you prioritize well, you should be able to
complete the most important tasks in an order that makes sense. When
assigning priority, consider such factors as when each task needs to be
done, how long it might take, how important it might be to others, what
could happen if a task is not done, and whether any task might be
interrupted by the need to wait for someone else.
(4) Scheduling
Scheduling is important, and not only because some tasks have to be
done at specific times. Scheduling affects your day, your week, your
month, as well as other people, their projects, and their short and long-
term plans for projects and tasks. Most people also have specific times
of the day when they are more and less energetic and become more
productive when they schedule themselves accordingly. Schedules can
be a good way to avoid procrastination, too.
(5) Keeping a To-Do List
To-do lists are a great way to avoid forgetting something important.
They are also a great way to avoid spending all day thinking about
everything you have to do. Remembering tasks takes energy, and
thinking about everything you have to do all week can be exhausting
and overwhelming. Split all the necessary tasks up into a list for each
164
day, and you won’t have to worry about any of it anymore. Just look at
today’s list.
(6) Resting
Resting, even though it may seem contradictory, is an important
time-management skill. Although working long hours or skipping
breaks can sometimes improve productivity in the short-term, your
exhaustion later will ensure that your average productivity actually
drops. Except for rare emergencies, it is important to resist the
temptation to overwork. Include necessary breaks, and a sensible
quitting time, in your schedule.
(7) Delegation
Depending on what type of work you do, you may be able
to delegate some tasks. Knowing what and when to delegate is a skill.
Some people resist delegating, either because they want to maintain
control or because they want to save money by not hiring assistants.
Both approaches ultimately hurt productivity and raise costs.
(8) Time management is a skill that takes time to develop and is
different for each person. You just need to find what works best for
you. The trick is to organize your tasks and use your time effectively to
get more things done each day. This can help you to lower stress level
and do better at workplace. However, if you practice time management
diligently and still can’t get everything done, you may be trying to do
too much. Remember, it is better to succeed at a few tasks than to
attempt and then fail at many.
VOCABULARY NOTES
rush (v) /rʌʃ/ շտապել, վազել
the former (adj) /ˈfɔː.mər/ առաջինը (երկուսից)
practice (v) /ˈpræk.tɪs/ կիրառել, գործածել
concept (n) /ˈkɒn.sept/ հասկացություն,
գաղափար
require (v) /rɪˈkwaɪər/ պահանջել
upfront (adv) /ʌpˈfrʌnt/ նախապես,
նախօրոք
prioritize (v) /praɪˈɒr.ɪ.taɪz/ առաջնահերթություն
տալ, կարևորել
minor (adj) /ˈmaɪ.nər/ չնչին, աննշան
tweak (n) /twiːk/ փոփոխություն,
165
բարեկարգում
indeed (adv) /ɪnˈdiːd/ իսկապես
orderly (adj) /ˈɔː.dəl.i/ կարգին, պատշաճ
ձևով
fashion (n) /ˈfæʃ.ən/ ձև, կերպ
complete (v) /kəmˈpliːt/ ավարտել, կատարել
make sense /meɪk sens/ իմաստ ունենալ
assign (v) /əˈsaɪn/ հատկացնել,
հանձնարարել
factor (n) /ˈfæk.tər/ գործոն
interrupt(v) /ˌɪn.təˈrʌpt/ միջամտել, խոսքը
կտրել
scheduling (n) /ˈʃedjuːlɪŋ/ պլանավորել,
ծրագրել
specific (adj) /spəˈsɪf.ɪk/ առանձնահատուկ,
որոշակի
long-term (adj) /ˌlɒŋˈtɜːm/ երկարաժամկետ
accordingly (adv) /əˈkɔː.dɪŋ.li/ համապատասխանա
բար
avoid (v) /əˈvɔɪd/ խուսափել
procrastination (n) /prəˌkræs.tɪ երկարաձգում,
ˈneɪ.ʃən/ հետաձգում
to-do list /tu du lɪst/ գործերն անելու
ցուցակ
exhausting (adj) /ɪɡˈzɔː.stɪŋ/ հոգնեցնող,
ուժասպառ անող
overwhelming (adj) /ˌəʊ.vəˈwel.mɪŋ/ ճնշող
split (v) /splɪt/ բաժանել
contradictory (adj) /ˌkɒn.trəˈdɪk.tər.i/ հակասական,
անհամատեղելի
skip (v) /skɪp/ բաց թողնել
break (n) /breɪk/ ընդմիջում
ensure (v) /ɪnˈʃɔːr/ երաշխավորել
rare (adj) /reər/ հազվադեպ
emergency (n) /ɪˈmɜː.dʒən.si/ ծայրահեղ,
արտակարգ վիճակ
resist (v) /rɪˈzɪst/ դիմադրել, զսպել
overwork (v) /ˌəʊ.vəˈwɜːk/ չափազանց շատ
աշխատել
quitting time /kwɪtɪŋ taɪm/ աշխատանքի
166
ավարտ կամ
ավարտելու ժամ
delegation (n) /ˌdel.ɪˈɡeɪ.ʃən/ հանձնարարում,
պատվիրակում,
լիազորում
maintain (v) /meɪnˈteɪn/ պահել, պահպանել
hire (v) /haɪər/ վարձել
approach (n) /əˈprəʊtʃ/ մոտեցում
lower (v) /ˈləʊ.ər/ նվազեցնել
diligently (adv) /ˈdɪl.ɪ.dʒənt.li/ ջանասիրաբար
attempt (v) /əˈtempt/ փորձել
fail (v) /feɪl/ ձախողել

1. All people are good at time management.
2. Prioritizing tasks means first of all doing the things that are less
important.
3. Scheduling means fixing the time of doing certain things.
4. Keeping a to-do list greatly facilitates your life.
5. Resting seems a very controversial issue in time management.
6. Delegating tasks means giving all the jobs to other people.
7. Time management is perceived differently by people.

1. to go or do something very quickly (par. 1)
2. beforehand, in advance (par. 2)
3. having little importance, influence, or effect (par. 2)
4. a small change in something to finish or improve it (par.2)
5. to be clear and easy to understand (par. 3)
6. to give a particular job or piece of work to someone (par.3)
7. to stop a person from speaking for a short period by
something you say or do (par. 3)
8. having or involving a lot of energy (par. 4)
9. making one feel extremely tired (par. 5)
10. to divide into parts, especially along a particular line (par. 5)
167
11. to not do or not have something that you usually do; to avoid (par.
6)
12. to make something certain to happen (par. 6)
13. to stop yourself from doing something that you want to do (par.
6)
14. finally, in the end (par. 7)
15. an effective or quick way of doing something (par. 8)

գործածել ժամանակի կառավարման լավ
հմտություններ, նախապես մի փոքր ժամանակի
ներդրում պահանջել, աննշան փոփոխություններ,
պատշաճ ձևով, առաջնահերթություն տալ, հաշվի
առնել գործոնները, խուսափել հետաձգումներից, կա-
րող է հակասական թվալ, դիմակայել շատ
աշխատելու գայթակղությանը, հանձնարարել որոշ
աշխատանքներ, վերահսկում պահպանել, ի վերջո
վնաս հասցնել արդյունավետությանը, նվազեցնել
սթրեսի մակարդակը, ջանասիրաբար գործածել
ժամանակի կառավարումը

necessary.
1.____ actual practice, people sometimes forget to schedule
the things they should do. 2. The pieces ____ the puzzle are finally
starting to fall ____ place. 3. The nurse said her condition
was nothing to worry ____. 4. I hope I can succeed
____ the task you have assigned me. 5. I'm going to spend some
time looking ____ my options before I decide to apply ____
the job. 6. Lucy had a cup of coffee waiting ____ me.

pairs.
former, concept, attraction, controversial, exhausting,
preference, interrupt, accordingly, procrastination, emergency,
tiresome, temptation, ex, notion, contradictory, priority, disturb,
correspondingly, delay, urgency
168
interrupting, contradictory, temptation, concept,
accordingly, priority
1.She's an expert in her field, and is paid correspondingly. 2.
I keep getting controversial advice – some people tell me to
keep it warm and some tell me to put ice on it. 3. Banks normally give
preference to large businesses when deciding on loans. 4. As
a young actress, she resisted the attraction to move to
Hollywood. 5. It is very difficult to define the notion of beauty. 6. She
tried to explain what had happened but he kept disturbing her.
IX. Look at the following sentences and fill in the blank with a
word from the list below. There are verbs, adjectives and
nouns to choose from. Put in the prefix over to express the
correct meaning.
estimated, eat, work, slept, dose,
charged, populated, crowded, done
1. Martin always ____ when he goes on holiday. He comes back
weighing at least ten kilos more than when he went.
2. He took an ____ and as a result was rushed into hospital to have
his stomach pumped.
3. We ____ how many people would come to the party and had so
much food left over we were eating leftovers for a week.
4. Our father needs a good holiday. He is suffering from ____.
5. I can't eat this steak. Look at it. It is burnt and ____.
6. My sister did not hear the alarm clock and she ____.
7. There were too many people in the room. It was ____.
8. You have ____ me. The price is €12 not €15!
9. There are too many people in this country. It is ____.
X. Read the text and insert the words below in proper gaps.
AVERAGE WORKER WASTES 2 HOURS A DAY
Excuse, survey, twice, angered, activity, complained,
according to, beneficial, chatting
169
Time is money and 1. ____ a new survey, workers waste a lot of
working time. A questionnaire completed by 10,000 employees reports
an average of 2.09 hours per day is idled away in businesses. This is 2.
____ as much as company bosses thought. It means companies lose an
amazing $759 billion in the USA. However, bosses are not 3. ____ by
these figures. Many executives think this idle time is 4. ____ to a
company. Salary.com’s Bill Coleman called it “creative waste”.
The top time-wasting 5. ____ was using the Internet for personal
use – 44.7% of workers confessed to this. Other big time-wasters were
6. ____with co-workers (23.4%), personal business (6.8%) and staring
into space (3.9%). The top time-wasting 7. ____ was not having
enough work to do (33.2%). Workers also 8. ____ about feeling
underpaid (23.4%) and being distracted by co-workers (14.7%). The 9.
____ also found that men and women wasted equal amounts of time.
XI. Match the two halves of the proverbs.

Time flies and a time to be silent.
The early bird saves nine.
Never put off until tomorrow than a minute too late.
A stitch in time what you can do today.
Better three hours too soon when you’re having fun.
There is a time to speak catches the worm.
LISTENING
There are 168 hours in each week. How do we find time
for what matters most? Time management expert Laura
Vanderkam studies how busy people spend their lives, and
she's discovered that many of us drastically overestimate
our commitments each week, while underestimating the
time we have to ourselves. She offers a few practical
strategies to help find more time for what matters to us, so
we can "build the lives we want in the time we've got."
Visit the following website:
https://www.ted.com/talks/laura_vanderkam_ho
w_to_gain_control_of_your_free_time and
complete the tasks below:
1. Laura Vanderkam is a very punctual person. True/False
170
2. Once she was late to her own speech on time
management on purpose. True/False
3. How do you interpret the phrase ''occasional tardiness''?
4. According to one of the interviewees the phrase ''I don't
have time'' means ''It is not important to me''. True/False
5. What does a three-category priority list by Laura
Vanderkam include?
6. According to Laura Vanderkam, if you work 40 hours a
week, how much time do you have for doing other
things?
7.
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U N I T XIX
PUBLIC SPEAKING
DISCUSSION
1. In your opinion, what skills should a person have to
make a good public speaker?
2. Could you name people who are /were great public
speakers?
3. Do you know any famous speech that totally
changed people's perception towards certain issues?
4. Do you suffer from glossophobia?
5. Could you speak about your first experience of
public speaking and/or delivering a presentation?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) a) the way in which you pronounce words

glossophobia or produce sounds
2) eye contact b) compelling attractiveness or charm that can
inspire devotion in others
3) articulation c) a speech or talk in which a new product, idea,
or piece of work is shown and explained to an
audience
4) charisma d) fear of public speaking
5) presentation e) the formation of a mental image of something
6) visual aid f) visual contact with another person's eyes
7) visualization g) an item of illustrative matter, such as a film,
slide, designed to supplement spoken
information so that it can be understood more
easily
1. Some experts estimate that as much as 75 percent of the
population suffer from ____ or some level of anxiety regarding public
speaking. 2. The charts and graphs helped me understand the ____.
172
3. Save time each day for relaxation and positive ____. 4. To be
a good presenter a person should have some ____. 5. If
you're telling the truth, why are you avoiding ____ with me?
about
1. the fact that you know your presentation content from A to Z
2. the future steps that will come after you have delivered your
presentation
3. the disadvantages of having a bad presentation
4. unsuccessful presentations that American people experienced in
the past
5. using your sense of humour to gain the audience’s attention
6. rehearsing your presentation for several times before the actual
event
HOW TO GIVE AN EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

(1) When presentation software company Shufflrr conducted a
survey of how 1500 US professionals behaved during business
presentations, the results were grim. One in 25 people reported
walking out on a presentation that lasted too long. Another 25 percent
of people admitted to having been so uninterested in the material that
they had fallen asleep. And one out of every 12 people had been so
unengaged by a business presentation that they spent time browsing
the Internet.
(2) Poor presentation skills cost businesses time, money and
opportunities. For entrepreneurs and small business owners who rely
on presentations to secure new investments or land big client
accounts, a bad presentation can be the difference between success and
failure.
Strong presentation skills, on the other hand, help a business stand
out from the competition, connect with new clients and make an
impression on industry leaders.
What differentiates a strong presentation from a boring one?
According to James Ontra, CEO of Shufflrr, it comes down to the
following things.
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(3) Be strategic
Think about every presentation not as a discrete set of slides, but as
a part of your overall marketing efforts. This means that every time
you prepare a presentation, you should think strategically. Don't focus
solely on what will happen while you are speaking. Instead, structure
your presentation around what you want to happen afterwards. Ask
yourself:
1. What do I want people to remember at the end of my
presentation?
2. What next step do I want them to take when we are done?
3. How can I gain my audience's trust?
That last one is particularly important, because the face-to-face
interaction of a presentation often makes more of an impression than
any other form of communication. By thinking strategically, you put
yourself in the mindset to create a presentation that supports your
other marketing efforts and connects with your audience.
(4) Know your material
There is nothing worse than learning the contents of a presentation
as you speak. If you can't speak confidently, people will know you're
not the expert they're looking for. And if you fail to demonstrate your
expertise, your audience is going to lose interest before they come to
trust your business. Taking time to prepare and know your material is
key to an engaging presentation, no matter who you are speaking to or
what topic you are covering. Knowing your material doesn't mean
memorizing a script. Rather, understand what you are trying to
communicate and why, including information you want to cover with
relevant statistics, the goals of the presentation and any questions that
your audience may ask.
(5) Capture attention
The first few moments of a presentation are critical. This is when
you have to capture your audience's attention and convince them to
listen to the rest of your presentation. Start your presentation with a
small story or anecdote about your business, then relate that anecdote
back to your audience.
(6) Speak candidly
Once you have your audience's attention, it can be intimidating to
speak persuasively and confidently, especially if you are not
comfortable with public speaking. To overcome your anxiety, pick one
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person in the audience to speak to. By speaking as if you were talking
to a friend, your presentation will naturally sound conversational and
candid, rather than memorized and rehearsed.
(7) Practice
This is one that, for some reason, lack of time perhaps, people
neglect to do and it is key to giving a good presentation. Running
through the presentation before the actual event gives you time to deal
with problems related to your notes and technology and makes the
presentation go more smoothly.
175
VOCABULARY NOTES
presentation (n) /ˌprez.ənˈteɪ.ʃən/ շնորհանդես,
ներկայացում
conduct (v) /kənˈdʌkt/ վարել, տանել,
անցկացնել
survey(n) /ˈsɜː.veɪ/ հարցում
grim (adj) /ɡrɪm/ մտահոգիչ,
զարհուրելի
report (v) /rɪˈpɔːt/ զեկուցել
admit (v) /ədˈmɪt/ ընդունել
unengaged /ʌnɪnˈɡeɪdʒdəd/ չներգրավված,
չհետաքրքրված
browse (v) /braʊz/ արագ դիտել,
զննարկել
entrepreneur(n) /ˌɒn.trə.prəˈnɜːr/ ձեռնարկատեր
land (v) /lænd/ ձեռք բերել,
հասնել
account (n) /əˈkaʊnt/ հաշիվ
CEO (chief /ˌsiː.iːˈəʊ/ գործադիր
executive officer) տնօրեն
strategic (adj) /strəˈtiː.dʒɪk/ ռազմավարական
discrete (adj) /dɪˈskriːt/ առանձին
overall (adj) /ˌəʊ.vəˈrɔːl/ ընդհանմուր,
համընդհանուր
effort (n) /ˈef.ət/ ջանք, փորձ
solely (adv) /ˈsoʊl·li/ միմիայն
structure (v) /ˈstrʌk.tʃər/ կառուցել
mindset (n) /ˈmaɪnd.set/ մտածելակերպ
content (n) /ˈkɑn·tent/ բովանդակություն
confidently /ˈkɒn.fɪ.dənt.li/ վստահ կերպով
demonstrate (v) /ˈdem.ən.streɪt/ ցուցադրել
expertise (n) /ˌek.spɜːˈtiːz/ փորձ
cover (v) /ˈkʌv.ər/ նկարագրել,
պատել
script (n) /skrɪpt/ գրառումներ,
սցենար
176
relevant (adj) /ˈrel.ə.vənt/ տեղին, հարմար,
պատշաճ
capture (v) /ˈkæp.tʃər/ գրավել
convince (v) /kənˈvɪns/ համոզել
relate (v) /rɪˈleɪt/ կապ հաստատել,
կապ ունենալ
candidly (adv) /ˈkæn.dɪd.li/ անկեղծորեն
intimidating (adj) /ɪnˈtɪm.ɪ.deɪ.tɪŋ/ վախեցնող
persuasively (adv) /pəˈsweɪ.sɪv.li/ համոզիչ կերպով
confidently (adv) /ˈkɒn.fɪ.dənt.li/ վստահ կերպով
anxiety (n) /æŋˈzaɪ.ə.ti/ անհանգստությու
ն
conversational (adj) /kɒn.vəˈseɪ.ʃən.əl/ խոսակցական
memorize (v) /ˈmem.ə.raɪz/ անգիր անել,
հիշել
rehearse (v) /rəˈhɜːs/ փորձել, մտքում
ասել, ձևակերպել
practice (v) /ˈpræk.tɪs/ կիրառել, փորձել
neglect (v) /nɪˈɡlekt/ անտեսել,
արհամարհել
run through (smth) /rʌn θruː/ աչքի անցկացնել,
(v) նայել
smoothly (adv) /ˈsmuːð.li/ սահուն կերպով

1. A quarter of surveyed people were so uninterested in the
presentations that they started browsing the Internet.
2. The success and failure of companies may totally depend on the
quality of presentations they make.
3. When delivering a presentation focus on what is happening right
now, without paying attention to what will happen afterwards.
4. Face-to-face communication is the most impressive form of
interaction.
5. Memorizing the contents of your presentation is the most effective
way of giving a good presentation.
177
6. Telling a relevant anecdote while delivering a presentation will
make your audience more engaged.
7. Rehearsing the presentation beforehand will help you solve most of
the problems related to it.

1. very unpleasant or gloomy (par. 1)
2. to look at information on the internet (par. 1)
3. a situation in which someone is trying to win something or be
more successful than someone else (par. 2)
4. clearly separate or different in shape or form (par. 3)
5. only and not involving anyone or anything else (par. 3)
6. a person's way of thinking and their opinions (par. 3)
7. a high level of knowledge or skill (par. 4)
8. the words of a film, play, or speech (par. 4)
9. to make someone feel very interested in something (par. 5)
10. to persuade someone or make someone certain (par. 5)
11. making you feel frightened or nervous (par. 6)
12. an uncomfortable feeling of nervousness or worry about
something that is happening or might happen in the future (par.
6)
13. to learn something so that you will remember it exactly (par. 6)
14. to not give enough care or attention to people or things that
are your responsibility (par. 7)
15. easily and without interruption or difficulty (par. 7)

հարցում անցկացնել, արդյունքները մտահոգիչ էին,
տպավորություն ստեղծել արդյունաբերության
առաջատարների մոտ, դեմ առ դեմ
փոխազդեցություն, սովորել շնորհանդեսի
բովանդակությունը, ցուցադրել փորձը,
համապատասխան վիճակագրություն, հաղթահարել
մտահոգությունը, թերթել/աչքի անցկացնել
շնորհանդեսի նյութը
178
necessary.
1. He just walked ____ ____ me without even listening ____
me. 2. I am interested ____ French literature. 3. The success
____ this project relies ____ everyone making an effort. 4. Is there
any significant difference ____ these two items? 5.
The applicant we hired was so well qualified, she stood ____ ____
all the rest. 6. What differentiates wheat ____ other crops is that it
is almost exclusively used as a food product. 7. It's a great
offer, but my decision comes ____ ____
salary, to be honest with you. 8. I think we still need to focus our
efforts ____ fundraising right now. 9. I am sure you will be able to
connect ___ other people in your new town. 10.
We only have one day to run ____ the entire presentation, so
let's not waste any time.

pairs.
Grim, expertise, anxiety, to structure, mindset, unpleasant, only,
persuasively, to build, mentality, convincingly, to
demonstrate, unengaged, solely, uninterested, to report,
knowledge, to announce, worry, to show
Reported, mindset, demonstrate, grim, to structure
1. The future looks unpleasant for workers who are losing
their jobs. 2. It's very hard to change the mentality of the
public and the press. 3. These numbers clearly show the size of the
economic problem facing the country . 4. Serious questions will
be asked about the way they have chosen to build the company. 5.
The crew announced that the situation was normal.
179
areas, interested, unaccomplished, nervousness, audience,
mistakes, reported, in front of, lead to
The concept of Public Speaking Anxiety comes from the students
fear of embarrassment if they speak 1. ____ different crowds of people.
Students have a fear of making 2. ____ or messing up or just being
judged in general by their 3. ____. Most of the anxiety that students
have of speaking publicly stems from a previous experience that ended
with them making a mistake or their audience not being as 4. ____ in
the topic as the speaker thought they would be.
According to research done at the University of Tennessee
Knoxville, speech anxiety is generally the feeling of 5. ____ , dread
and concern along with a feeling of discomfort. It has been estimated
that 75% of all people experience some degree of anxiety/nervousness
when it comes to public speaking. If untreated, public speaking anxiety
can 6. ____ serious effects on one's quality of life, career goals and
other 7. ____. For example, educational goals requiring public
speaking might be left 8.____. However, not all persons with public
speaking anxiety are necessarily unable to achieve work goals. A
recent study has 9. ____ that previously trained students could act as
trainers to other students and help them to improve their public
speaking skills.
X. Select a topic that you and your peers will be interested in and
using the phrases below do your best to deliver a successful
presentation.
Presentation Expressions
Starting
Good morning/afternoon/evening (everyone, ladies and gentlemen,
colleagues)
Thank you very much for inviting me to speak here today.
I am happy to have this chance to speak to you (all) today about...
Introducing topic
Today I’m going to talk about...
As you can see, I’m here today to talk to you about...
Explaining structure
180
I’ve divided my presentation into two/three/four/several parts.
First, I’ll explain XXX and then I’ll move on to talk about...
Showing respect for listener’s knowledge
As you may know,
As you can see,
As you may be aware,
I know many of you are familiar with...
Moving from section to section
So let me start by... explaining the background
So I’ll start with...
Next I’ll talk about...
Well, what does this all mean? So what is the significance of this?
OK, so what’s next...
Right, I’ll introduce/share our materials and methods.
So finally,
That brings us to my last point.
Looking at visuals
Now let’s look at...
May I focus your attention on the table / chart/figure
You’ll notice that...
You can see a summary of our results here...
Underlining points
Please remember that...
It’s important to remember that...
This is significant because...
You’re probably thinking that... and you’re right / but this would be a
mistake...
Please notice that...
Summarizing
OK, so in summary...
Our main point is that…
We have raised the following questions…
Our study has proved that…
We believe our study presents conclusive proof that/ raises many
questions about/ may be the first step in...
181
Finishing up:
I hope my rather rapid explanation was clear.
Thank you very much for your attention.
Thank you for listening.
Well that’s all from me today. It’s been a great pleasure to share this
with you today.
Starting question-time
If you have any questions, I’ll be happy to answer them.
Does anyone have any questions?
Unfortunately we seem to have run out of time.
If anyone has any questions, I’ll be happy to try to answer them
privately.../ you can see my
email address here...
Responding to tricky questions
Thank you... it’s a good question and one we are trying to address in
our follow up studies.
I’m afraid I have no idea! Perhaps we can look at that in more detail in
a follow up study.
Do you have any suggestions?
So are you saying...?
Could you repeat that?
I didn’t quite catch that...
I’m not sure I’m following you...
Ah... I’m afraid I don’t have that information with me now. If I can get
your email address after this session, I’ll mail it to you.
LISTENING
Have you ever felt like you're talking, but nobody is
listening? Here's Julian Treasure to help. In this useful talk,
the sound expert demonstrates the how-to's of powerful
speaking -- from some handy vocal exercises to tips on how
to speak with empathy. A talk that might help the world
sound more beautiful. Visit the following website:
https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_treasure_how_to_speak_s
o_that_people_want_to_listen?referrer=playlist-
the_most_popular_talks_of_all#t-5184 and complete
the tasks below:
182
1. List seven sins of speaking that are
discussed in the video.
2. How would you paraphrase the expression ''I
am not pretending this is an exhaustive list''?
3. How would you improve the timbre of your
voice according to Julian Treasure?
4. When wanting to emphasize something
important it is better to keep silence for a
short time. True/False
183
U N I T XX
BEING ECOFRIENDLY
DISCUSSION
1. What alarming environmental issues do you know?
2. Do you consider yourself an ecofriendly person? Why?
3. What alternative forms of energy do you know?
4. What is the Ozone layer? What does it do? What is happening to
it?
5. What do you know about recycling?
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
1) carbon-dioxide a) the protection and preservation of
natural environments and resources
2) contaminated b) able to use less energy
3) domestic/household c) a person who protects the natural world
waste and educates others about environmental
problems
4) environmentalist d) a gas that's released by plants and by
burning fossil fuels
5) climate change e) carrying harmful bacteria or toxins that
can cause disease or death
6) conservation f) the contamination of the environment
7) energy-efficient g) can be used without running out,
especially of energy sources like solar
and wind
8) pesticide h) to make something new from materials
that have been used before
9) pollution i) animals or plants in danger of becoming
extinct or disappearing in the near future
10) renewable j) a chemical that's sprayed on crops to stop
insects from destroying them
11) recycle k) rubbish or garbage from a house or
apartment
12) endangered species l) a gas in the atmosphere that stops heat
from escaping into space
184
13) greenhouse gas m) a fuel like oil or coal formed from very
old plant and animal fossils
14) fossil fuel o) animals, birds, insects, etc. living
naturally in the wild
15) wildlife p) global changes in temperature, wind
patterns, rainfall, etc.
1. Trees and plants absorb ____ and release oxygen into the air.
2. How much ____ does your family produce every day? 3. Every year
more animals are listed as ____. 4. Those ____ light bulbs are much
cheaper these days. 5. Burning ____ is a major cause of global
warming. 6. We're producing cheaper ____ energy these days.
about
1. the natural disasters that will make people take this environmental
issue more seriously
2. an increase in knowledge of environmental issues
3. trees being one of the most important factors of climate change
prevention
4. the contaminated air that is harmful for public
5. the ways that you travel
6. the time interval you should spend on the activities related to your
hygiene
THE MOST PRESSING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
AND WHAT YOU CAN DO TO HELP SOLVE THEM
(1) More than four decades after the first Earth Day, there are still
many environmental concerns for communities around the world to
address. But progress is being made, and it could be argued that
awareness of environmental issues is at an all-time high. Here are the
most pressing environmental concerns that affect us all, and what you
can do to help restore ecological balance in this amazing place we call
home.
(2) CLIMATE CHANGE
97 percent of climate scientists agree that climate change is
occurring and greenhouse gas emissions are the main cause. Perhaps
185
more extreme weather events such as droughts, wildfires, heat
waves and flooding will put more pressure on policymakers to act
urgently to curb carbon emissions and address this issue before it’s
too late.
What You Can Do: Your home and transportation could be major
sources of greenhouse gas emissions. If you commute via biking,
walking or public transportation you are doing your part to fight global
warming, but if you must own a car, consider buying a fuel
efficient hybrid or better - go electric.
(3) POLLUTION
Greenhouse gas emissions are creating smoggy conditions in major
cities that endanger public health. Water and soil pollution might not
get the media attention that air pollution does, but they are still
important public health concerns. Dirty water is the world’s biggest
health risk and soil contamination is a major issue across the world. In
China, for example, nearly 20 percent of arable land has been
contaminated by toxic heavy metals.
What You Can Do: We should make a concerted effort to drive
less, or switch to a lower-emissions vehicle. Switching to green energy
is also important, as that will cut back on fossil fuel emissions. If your
utility gets its electricity from dirty energy sources, consider signing
up for a renewable energy producer.
(4) DEFORESTATION
Forests are important to mitigating climate change because they
absorb CO2 that would otherwise escape into the atmosphere and
worsen global warming. It is estimated that 15 percent of total
greenhouse gas emissions come from deforestation. Cutting down
trees also threatens animals, and the loss of tropical rainforests is
particularly concerning because around 80 percent of the world’s
species reside in these areas.
What You Can Do: Stop using paper towels and use washable
cloths instead, also use cloth shopping bags (instead of paper). You can
also boycott products made by palm oil companies that contribute
to deforestation in some areas of the world.
(5) WATER SCARCITY
As the population increases and climate change causes more
droughts, water scarcity is becoming more of an issue. Only 3 percent
186
of the world’s water is fresh and 1.1 billion people lack access to clean,
safe drinking water. In fact, by the middle of this century more than a
third of all countries will be at higher risk of water shortages.
What You Can Do: Some ideas to be more water efficient include
using low-flow faucets, plugging up leaks, irrigating the lawn in the
morning or evening when the cooler air causes less evaporation,
taking shorter showers and not running sink water when brushing your
teeth.
VOCABULARY NOTES
pressing (adj) /ˈpres.ɪŋ/ հրատապ, շտապ
environmental (adj) /ɪnˌvaɪ.rənˈmen.təl/ բնապահպանական
community (n) kəˈmjuː.nə.ti/ համայնք
address (v) /əˈdres/ անդրադառնալ
progress (n) /ˈprəʊ.ɡres/ առաջընթաց
argue (v) /ˈɑːɡ.juː/ պնդել, վիճաբանել
restore (v) /rɪˈstɔːr/ վերականգնել
amazing (adj) /əˈmeɪ.zɪŋ/ զարմանահրաշ
greenhouse gas /ˈɡriːn.haʊs ɡæs/ ջերմոցային գազ
emission (n) /iˈmɪʃ.ən/ արտանետում
extreme (adյ) /ɪkˈstriːm/ ծայրահեղ
drought (n) /draʊt/ երաշտ
wildfire (n) /ˈwaɪld.faɪər/ հրդեհ
heat waves /hiːt weɪvz/ ջերմային ալիքներ
pressure (n) /ˈpreʃ.ər/ ճնշում
policymaker (n) /ˈpɑl·ə·siˌmeɪ·kər/ քաղաքականություն
մշակող
urgently (adv) /ˈɜː.dʒənt.li/ հրատապ կերպով
curb (v) /kɜːb/ վերահսկել, զսպել
carbon (n) /ˈkɑː.bən/ ածխածին
commute (v) /kəˈmjuːt/ երթևեկել
global warming /ˌɡləʊ.bəl ˈwɔː.mɪŋ/ գլոբալ տաքացում
own (v) /əʊn/ ունենալ, սեփակա-
նատեր լինել
consider (v) /kənˈsɪd.ər/ մտածել, պլանավորել
187
fuel (n) /ˈfjuː.əl/ վառելիք
efficient (adj) /ɪˈfɪʃ.ənt/ արդյունավետ, քիչ
սպառող
hybrid (n) /ˈhaɪ.brɪd/ հիբրիդ
pollution (n) /pəˈluː.ʃən/ աղտոտում
smoggy (adj) /ˈsmɑɡ·i/ թունամշուշոտ
endanger (v) /ɪnˈdeɪn.dʒər/ վտանգել
media (n) /ˈmiː.di.ə/ զանգվածային
լրատվության
միջոցներ
contamination (n) / kənˌtamɪˈneɪʃ(ə)n/ աղտոտում
arable (adj) /ˈær.ə.bəl/ վարելի, հերկելի
toxic (adj) /ˈtɒk.sɪk/ թունավոր
heavy metal /ˌhev.i ˈmet.əl/ ծանր մետաղ
concerted (adj) /kənˈsɜː.tɪd/ միահամուռ,
switch (to /swɪtʃ/ անցում կատարել
something) (v)
fossil fuel /ˈfɒs.əl ˌfjʊəl/ հանածո վառելիք
utility (n) /juːˈtɪl.ə.ti/ կոմունալ
ծառայություններ
sign (up for /saɪn/ գրանցվել (ծառայու-
something) (v) թյունից օգտվելու
համար)
renewable (adj) /rɪˈnjuː.ə.bəl/ վերականգնվող
deforestation (n) /diːˌfɒr.ɪˈsteɪ.ʃən/ անտառահատում
mitigate (v) /ˈmɪt.ɪ.ɡeɪt/ մեղմացնել
escape (into) (v) /ɪˈskeɪp/ արտանետվել,
արտամղվել
worsen (v) /ˈwɜː.sən/ վատթարանալ
estimate (v) /ˈes.tɪ.meɪt/ հաշվարկել
threaten (v) /ˈθret.ən/ սպառնալ
species (n) /ˈspiː.ʃiːz/ դաս, ցեղ, տիպ
reside (v) /rɪˈzaɪd/ բնակվել
boycott(v) /ˈbɔɪ.kɒt/ բոյկոտել, բոյկոտի
ենթարկել
palm oil /ˈpɑːm ˌɔɪl/ արմավայուղ
scarcity (n) /ˈskɛːsɪti/ սակավություն
faucet (n) /ˈfɔː.sɪt/ ծորակ
plug (up) (v) /plʌɡ/ փակել, լցնել
188
leak (n) /liːk/ արտահոսք
irrigate (v) /ˈɪr.ɪ.ɡeɪt/ ոռոգել
evaporation (n) /ɪˌvæp·əˈreɪ·ʃən/ գոլորշիացում
sink (n) /sɪŋk/ լվացարան

1. This text helps you understand the basic ecological problems and
how to have your contribution in improving them.
2. If you use public transportation, you have your own investment in
the battle against global warming.
3. If you want to be ecofriendly, you should purchase a hybrid car
which uses little fuel rather than an electric car.
4. You should consider installing solar or wind power on your
property if you still use electricity derived from other
nonrenewable resources.
5. Trees absorb carbon dioxide to mitigate the process of global
warming.
6. By the 2050s, less than a third of countries of the world will have
faced the problem of water scarcity.
1. a group of people living in the same place or having a particular
characteristic in common (par. 1)
2. to think about and begin to deal with problem (par. 1)
3. to repair or renovate so as to return it to its original condition (par.
1)
4. to exist in a place or under some conditions (par. 2)
5. a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to a
shortage of water (par. 2)
6. the use of persuasion to make someone do something (par. 2)
7. to travel some distance between one's home and place of work on
a regular basis (par. 2)
8. the action of making impure by polluting or poisoning (par. 3)
9. (of a natural resource) not depleted when used (par. 3)
10. to make (something bad) less serious, or painful (par. 4)
11. to make or become worse (par. 4)
189
12. a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals
capable of exchanging genes (par. 4)
13. to have one's permanent home in a particular place (par. 4)
14. a hole in a container or covering through which contents may
accidentally pass (par. 5)
15. to supply water to (land or crops) to help growth, typically by
means of channels (par. 5)

առաջընթաց է տեղի ունենում, բնապահպանական
խնդիրների վերաբերյալ իրազեկությունն առավել
քան երբևէ բարձր է, բնապահպանման հետ կապված
ամենահրատապ խնդիրները, վերականգնել
բնապահպանական հավասարակշռությունը, ճանա-
պարհորդել հեծանվով, ոտքով կամ հանրային փոխա-
դրամիջոցներով, մեղմացնել կլիմայական փոփոխու-
թյունները, նպաստել անտառահատմանը, ավելի քիչ
գոլորշիացում առաջացնել
necessary.
1. Greenpeace works to promote awareness ____ the dangers
that threaten our planet today. 2. My parents have been putting
pressure ____ me to get a job. 3. My doctor told me that I need to cut
____ ____ eating fried foods in order to improve my cholesterol. 4.
He wanted to learn English, so he signed ____ ____ a ten-week course.
5. You have to plug ____ the cracks to keep out the cold. 6.
Why not use your bike to get to work instead ____ your car?
7. We’ll address ____ that question ____ the next meeting.
VIII. Read the text and choose the correct word given in brackets.
WILL THERE BE LIFE AFTER OIL?
To start with, we cannot go 1. (on/in) using oil forever. We can
do so for a few more decades - perhaps until 2070, then it will run 2.
(out/in). There will be none left, or at least, there will be hardly 3.
(more/any) left.
190
4. (In/At) present, there is still plenty of oil under the ground.
Engineers keep finding new sources of oil. But there are some realities
which cannot be 5. (devoid/avoided).
 The quantity of oil under the ground and under the sea is not 6.
(finite/infinite). It will not last forever.
 As oil becomes rarer, it will become harder to 7.
(extract/attract). It will also become more and more expensive.
 Oil will always cause pollution.
Of course, there are also other truths:
 Scientists are 8. (making/doing) new forms of oil, using plants.
 Most of the oil that we eat comes from plants; and it is
sometimes possible to make petrol from this oil. For instance,
some types of diesel-fuel already 9. (consist/ contain) sun-flower
oil.
Sunflowers produce oil too; but most of this oil is needed for 10.
(cooker/cooking). But perhaps, in the long 11. (terms/term), vegetable
oils are not a good solution for the future; in the future we may need
all the land for producing 12. (foods/food).
In reality, the future will have to be a future without oil - or with
very 13. (a little/little) oil. Scientists are already developing cars,
houses and plastics that do not use oil. Today, electricity 14. (is
produced/produces) in Britain in several different ways; some of it is
produced using oil; but already oil-burning power-stations are being
closed. Nuclear power-stations will be closed too, because they are
very expensive and people do not want them.
Tomorrow's electricity will be 15. (done/made) from gas which is
16. (clean/cleaner) than oil. In the long term, all our energy will come
from "renewable sources" - including water! The sun, the wind, the
rivers and the oceans will give us all the energy we need! It will be
clean energy - with no pollution - and it will last forever.
We are not there yet, 17. (anywhere/however)! People who are over
50 today are not going to see a world without oil. Those who are
under twenty may 18. (perhaps/maybe) do so...... if they live long
enough.
191
generations, friendly, trees, harm, services, combating,
Wikipedia, environment, earth, consuming
According to 1.____, “Environmentally friendly, environment-
friendly, eco-friendly, nature-friendly, and green are marketing claims
referring to goods and 2. ____, laws, guidelines and policies that cause
minimal, or no 3. ____ at all, to the environment.”
Being environmentally 4. ____ simply means having a lifestyle
that are better for the 5. ____. It is all about taking small steps towards
mother 6. ____ so as to make this planet a better place for our
communities and 7. ____ to come. A good way would be to start with
conserving water, driving less and walking more, 8. ____ less energy,
buying recycled products, eating locally grown vegetables, joining
environmental groups 9. ____ air pollution, creating less waste,
planting more 10. ____ and many more.
WRITING
1. Although many people value their public parks, this
space could be better used for other purposes such as
residential areas for the ever growing population or to
develop business and boost economies.
To what extent do you agree or disagree with this
statement?
2. Some people think that an international car-free day is an
effective way to reduce air pollution. Others think there
are more effective ways to do this.
Discuss both sides and give your opinion.
LISTENING
With a massive influx of natural disasters, warming and
cooling periods, different types of weather patterns and
much more, people need to be aware of what types of
environmental problems our planet is facing. The video
informs us about the most vital environmental issues the
192
humanity faces today. Visit the following
website:https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=A0pB1qw8SMs (10 Major Current Environmental
Problems) and answer the questions:
1. What major ecological issues are discussed in the video?
2. What types of pollution are mentioned in the video?
3. What is water pollution caused by?
4. What is soil pollution caused by?
5. Which renewable sources of energy do people tend to
use?
6. Which process is crucial for the survival of ecosystem?
7. What does deforestation mean according to the video?
8. How is urban sprawl explained?
9. Why do we need the ozon layer?
193
VOCABULARY
access (to smth)(n) /ˈæk.ses/ մուտք,
հասանելիություն
accordingly (adv) /əˈkɔː.dɪŋ.li/ համապատասխանաբ
ար
account (n) /əˈkaʊnt/ հաշիվ /բանկային/
accountability (n) /əˌkaʊn.təˈbɪl.ə.ti/ պատասխանատվությ
ուն
accumulate (v) /əˈkjuː.mjə.leɪt/ կուտակել
accustomed (adj) /əˈkʌs.təmd/ սովոր լինել
acute (adj) /əˈkjuːt/ հրատապ, սուր
adage (n) /ˈæd.ɪdʒ/ ասացվածք
address (v) /əˈdres/ անդրադառնալ
admit (v) /ədˈmɪt/ ընդունել
advocate (v) /ˈæd.və.keɪt/ սատարել,
պաշտպանել
aesthetic (adj) /esˈθet.ɪk/ գեղագիտական
affect (v) /əˈfekt/ ազդել
aggressive (adj) /əˈɡres.ɪv/ լայնածավալ,
մեծամաշտաբ
amazing (adj) /əˈmeɪ.zɪŋ/ զարմանահրաշ
amenity (n) /əˈmiː.nə.ti/ հարմարանք,
amusing (adj) /əˈmju·zɪŋ/ զվարճալի
ancient (adj) /ˈeɪn.ʃənt/ հին, հնագույն
annual (adj) /ˈæn.ju.əl/ տարեկան
anxiety (n) /æŋˈzaɪ.ə.ti/ անհանգստություն
appeal (n) /əˈpiːl/ գրավչություն
appeal (v) /əˈpiːl/ հրապուրել, գրավել
appearance (n) /əˈpɪə.rəns/ արտաքին տեսք
apply (to) (v) /əˈplaɪ/ վերաբերել
approach (n) /əˈprəʊtʃ/ մոտեցում
approximate (adj) /əˈprɒk.sɪ.mət/ մոտավոր
arable (adj) /ˈær.ə.bəl/ վարելի, հերկելի
arena (n) /əˈriː.nə/ ոլորտ
argue (v) /ˈɑːɡ.juː/ պնդել, վիճաբանել
194
article (n) /ˈɑː.tɪ.kəl/ առարկա, ապրանք
aspiring (adj) /əˈspaɪə.rɪŋ/ տենչող, ձգտող
assertive (adj) /əˈsɜː.tɪv/ հաստատակամ
asset (n) /ˈæs.et/ ակտիվներ,ունեցվա
ծք
assign (v) /əˈsaɪn/ հանձնարարել
assignment (n) /əˈsaɪn.mənt/ հանձնարարություն
assume (v) /əˈsjuːm/ ենթադրել
at hand (v) /æt hænd/ ձեռքի տակ,
մոտակայքում
attain (v) /əˈteɪn/ հասնել
attempt (n) /əˈtempt/ փորձ
audience (n) /ˈɔː.di.əns/ լսարան,
հասարակություն
authority (n) /ɔːˈθɒr.ə.ti/ իշխանություն, լիազո-
րություն,
հեղինակություն
automated (adj) /ˈɔ·t̬əˌmeɪ·t̬ɪd/ ավտոմատացված
avail (v) /əˈveɪl/ օգտագործել, օգտվել
avenue (n) /ˈæv.ə.njuː/ պողոտա,
ճանապարհ, միջոց
avoid (v) /əˈvɔɪd/ խուսափել
back (v) /bæk/ սատարել
bankrupt (adj) /ˈbæŋ.krʌpt/ սնանկ
bare (adj) /beər/ հիմնական, կարևոր
barrier (n) /ˈbær.i.ər/ արգելք, պատնեշ
barter (n) /ˈbɑː.tər/ ապրանքափոխան
ակություն
basis (n) /ˈbeɪ.sɪs/ հիմք
be in favor of /ˈfeɪ.vər/ ինչ-որ (բանի/մեկի)
օգտին
be in line (with) /biː ɪn laɪn/ հարիր, նման լինել,
benefit (from) (v) /ˈben.ɪ.fɪt/ օգուտ, շահույթ
ունենալ
benefit (n) /ˈben.ɪ.fɪt/ շահ, օգուտ, առավելու
թյուն
billboard (n) /ˈbɪl.bɔːd/ գովազդային
վահանակ
195
blame (v) /bleɪm/ մեղադրել
bomb (v) /bɒm/ պայթել, փխբ.
ձախողել
border (n) /ˈbɔː.dər/ սահման
boring (adj) /ˈbɔː.rɪŋ/ տաղտկալի,
ձանձրալի
borrow (v) /ˈbɒr.əʊ/ պարտք վերցնել
bound (adj) /baʊnd/ hաստատ,
պարտավորված,
կապված
boundary (n) /ˈbaʊn.dər.i/ սահման
boycott (v) /ˈbɔɪ.kɒt/ բոյկոտել, բոյկոտի
ենթարկել
brand (n) /brænd/ բրենդ,
ապրանքանիշ
brand stretch /brænd stretʃ/ բրենդի
ընդարձակում
branding (n) /ˈbræn.dɪŋ/ բրենդավորում
break (n) /breɪk/ ընդմիջում
brief (adj) /briːf/ կարճ, համառոտ
broad (adj) /brɔːd/ լայն, ընդգրկուն
browse (v) /braʊz/ արագ դիտել,
զննարկել
burn out (v) /bɜːn aʊt/ վառվելով մարել
bypass (v) /ˈbaɪ.pɑːs/ շրջանցել, կողքով
անցնել
campaign (n) /kæmˈpeɪn/ քարոզարշավ
candidly (adv) /ˈkæn.dɪd.li/ անկեղծորեն
capable (adj) /ˈkeɪ.pə.bəl/ ունակ, ընդունակ
capital (n) /ˈkæp.ɪ.təl/ դրամամիջոցներ,
կապիտալ
capture (v) /ˈkæp.tʃər/ գրավել
carry out (v) /ˈkær.i aʊt/ իրականացնել,
կատարել
cash flow /ˈkæʃ ˌfləʊ/ դրամական հոսք
catch up with (v) /kætʃ/ հասցնել, ետ չմնալ
cater (v) /ˈkeɪ.tər/ սպասարկել
cause (v) /kɔːz/ պատճառել
CEO (chief /ˌsiː.iːˈəʊ/ գործադիր տնօրեն
executive officer)
196
channel (n) /ˈtʃæn.əl/ միջոց
characterize (v) /ˈkær.ək.tə.raɪz/ բնութագրել
charge (v) /tʃɑːdʒ/ գանձել
checking account /ˈtʃek.ɪŋ əˌkaʊnt/ ընթացիկ հաշիվ
checkout (n) /ˈtʃek.aʊt/ վճարման կետ
circulate (v) /ˈsɜː.kjə.leɪt/ շրջանառվել
clarity (n) /ˈklær.ə.ti/ հստակություն
clash (n) /klæʃ/ բախում
cleverly (adv) /ˈklev.əl.i/ խելացի կերպով
cliché (n) /ˈkliː.ʃeɪ/ շաբլոնային
արտահայտություն
cluster (v) /ˈklʌs.tər/ հավաքվել
coherent (adj) /kəʊˈhɪə.rənt/ պարզորոշ,
հետևողական
cohesive (n) /kəʊˈhiː.sɪv/ հետևողական
coin (n) /kɔɪn/ մետաղադրամ
coinage (n) /ˈkɔɪ.nɪdʒ/ դրամական
համակարգ
combination (n) /ˌkɒm.bɪˈneɪ.ʃən/ համակցում
commerce (n) /ˈkɒm.ɜːs/ կոմերցիա,
առևտուր
commercial (adj) /kəˈmɜː.ʃəl/ առևտրային
committed (adj) /kəˈmɪt.ɪd/ նվիրյալ, նվիրված
commodity (n) /kəˈmɒd.ə.ti/ ապրանք
common (adj) /ˈkɒm.ən/ սովորական,
տարածված
common stock /ˈkɒm.ən stɒk/ սովորական
բաժնետոմս
communication (n) /kəˌmjuː.nɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/ հաղորդակցում
community (n) kəˈmjuː.nə.ti/ համայնք
comparison (n) /kəmˈpær.ɪ.sən/ համեմատություն
compete (v) /kəmˈpiːt/ մրցել, մրցակցել
competence (n) /ˈkɒm.pɪ.təns/ իմացություն,
կարողություն
competition (n) /ˌkɒm.pəˈtɪʃ.ən/ մրցակցություն
complete (adj) /kəmˈpliːt/ ավարտված
complete (v) /kəmˈpliːt/ ավարտել, կատարել
completely (adv) /kəmˈpliːt.li/ ամբողջապես
197
concept (n) /ˈkɒn.sept/ հասկացություն,
գաղափար
concerted (adj) /kənˈsɜː.tɪd/ միահամուռ,
conclude (v) /kənˈkluːd/ եզրակացնել,
եզրահանգել
conduct (v) /kənˈdʌkt/ վարել, տանել
confirmation (n) /ˌkɒn.fəˈmeɪ.ʃən/ հաստատում
confront (v) /kənˈfrʌnt/ բախվել
confusion (n) /kənˈfjuː.ʒən/ շփոթմունք
conscious (adj) /ˈkɒn.ʃəs/ գիտակից, իկրազեկ
conservatism (n) /kənˈsɜː.və.tɪ.zəm/ պահպանողականությ
ուն
consider (v) /kənˈsɪd.ər/ քննարկել, հաշվի
առնել
considerate (adj) /kənˈsɪd.ər.ət/ ուշադիր
consideration (n) /kənˌsɪd.əˈreɪ.ʃən/ 1.նկատառում 2.
վճար
consistent (adj) /kənˈsɪs.tənt/ հետևողական,
մշտական
consistently (adv) /kənˈsɪs.tənt.li/ հաստատուն
կերպով, մշտապես
constant (adj) /ˈkɒn.stənt/ հաստատուն,
մշտական
constantly (adv) /ˈkɒn.stənt.li/ մշտապես
consumable (adj) /kənˈsjuː.mə.bl̩/ սպառողական
consume (v) /kənˈsjuːm/ սպառել
contact (n) /ˈkɒn.tækt/ հպում, շփում
contamination (n) /kənˈtæm.ɪ.neɪt/ աղտոտում
contradict (v) /ˌkɒn.trəˈdɪkt/ հակասել
contradictory (adj) /ˌkɒn.trəˈdɪk.tər.i/ հակասական,
անհամատեղելի
contribute (v) /kənˈtrɪbjuːt/ նպաստել,
օժանդակել
convenience (n) /kənˈviː.ni.əns/ հարմարավետությու
ն
conventional (adj) /kənˈven.ʃən.əl/ ավանդական,
սովորական
198
conversational (adj) /kɒn.vəˈseɪ.ʃən.əl/ խոսակցական
converse (v) /kənˈvɜːs/ զրուցել, խոսել
conversely (adv) /kənˈvɜːs.li/ ընդհակառակը
convey (v) /kənˈveɪ/ փոխանցել
convince (v) /kənˈvɪns/ համոզել
cooperation (n) /kəʊˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/ համագործակցում
core (adj) /kɔːr/ հիմնական
cornerstone (n) /ˈkɔː.nə.stəʊn/ անկյունաքար
corruption (n) /kəˈrʌp.ʃən/ կաշառակերություն
cost (n) /kɒst/ ծախս, արժեք
cost-effective (adj) /ˌkɒst.ɪˈfek.tɪv/ էժան, արդյունավետ
counterfeiter (n) /ˈkaʊn.tə.fɪt.ər/ կեղծող (փող)
cover (v) /ˈkʌv.ər/ նկարագրել, պատել
creativity (n) /ˌkriːeɪˈtɪvɪti/ ստեղծագործականո
ւթյուն
credit line /ˈkred.ɪt laɪn/ վարկային գիծ
cross (v) /krɒs/ խաչել
crucial (adj) /ˈkruː.ʃəl/ կարևոր, էական
cue (n) /kjuː/ ազդանշան, նշան
cultivate (v) /ˈkʌl.tɪ.veɪt/ զարգացնել,
բարելավել
curb (v) /kɜːb/ վերահսկել, զսպել
currency (n) /ˈkʌr.ən.si/ արժույթ
current (adj) /ˈkʌr.ənt/ առկա, ներկա
customer base /ˈkʌs.tə.mər beɪs/ մշտական
հաճախորդների թիվ
data (n) /ˈdeɪ.tə/ տվյալներ
date back (v) /deɪt bæk/ սկիզբ առնել,
թվագրվել
day-to-day (adj) /ˌdeɪ.təˈdeɪ/ առօրյա, ամենօրյա
decade (n) /ˈdek.eɪd/ տասնամյակ
decapitate (v) /dɪˈkæp.ɪ.teɪt/ գլխատել
decentralized (adj) /ˌdiːˈsentrəlaɪzd/ ապակենտրոնացվա
ծ
dedicated (adj) /ˈded.ɪ.keɪ.tɪd/ նվիրված
define (v) /dɪˈfaɪn/ սահմանել,
որոշարկել
delegate (v) /ˈdelɪɡeɪt/ հանձնարարել
delegation (n) /ˌdel.ɪˈɡeɪ.ʃən/ հանձնարարում,
199
պատվիրակում,
լիազորում
deliver (v) /dɪˈlɪv.ər/ տալ, հատկացնել
delivery (n) /dɪˈlɪv.ər.i/ առաքում
demonstrate (v) /ˈdem.ən.streɪt/ ցուցադրել, ցույց
տալ
deposit (n) /dɪˈpɒz.ɪt/ ավանդ
derive (v) /dɪˈraɪv/ ծագել, սերել
destabilize (v) /ˌdiːˈsteɪ.bəl.aɪz/ ապակայունացնել
determining (adj) /dɪˈtəːmɪnɪŋ/ որոշիչ, վճռական
device (n) /dɪˈvaɪs/ սարք
devise (v) /dɪˈvaɪz/ մշակել
diagnose (v) /ˈdaɪ.əɡ.nəʊz/ ախտորոշել
digital (adj) /ˈdɪdʒ.ɪ.təl/ թվային
diligently (adv) /ˈdɪl.ɪ.dʒənt.li/ պատշաճ կերպով
discrete (adj) /dɪˈskriːt/ առանձին
displeasure (n) /dɪˈspleʒ.ər/ դժգոհություն
dispute (n) /dɪˈspjuːt/ բանավեճ
disrespectful (adj) /ˌdɪs.rɪˈspekt.fəl/ անհարգալից
disruptive (adj) /dɪsˈrʌp.tɪv/ 1. կործանիչ 2.
նորարական
distinct (adj) /dɪˈstɪŋkt/ տարբերվող,
տարբեր
distinguish (v) /dɪˈstɪŋ.ɡwɪʃ/ տարբերակել
distract (v) /dɪˈstrækt/ շեղել
distribution (n) /ˌdɪs.trɪˈbjuː.ʃən/ բաշխում
dive (n) /daɪv/ սուզում
divergent (adj) /ˌdaɪˈvɜːdʒənt/ տարբեր
dividend (n) /ˈdɪv.ɪ.dend/ շահութաբաժին
domestic (adj) /dəˈmes.tɪk/ տնային, ազգային
dramatic (adj) /drəˈmæt.ɪk/ կտրուկ
drought (n) /draʊt/ երաշտ
duty (n) /ˈdʒuː.ti/ պատասխանատվությ
ուն
earnings (n) /ˈɜː.nɪŋz/ վաստակ, շահույթ,
օգուտ
ease (n) /iːz/ անկաշկանդություն,
հեշտություն
eclipse (v) /ɪˈklɪps/ խավարեցնել
200
e-commerce (n) /ˌiːˈkɒm.ɜːs/ առցանց/
էլեկտրոնային
առևտուր
effectively (adv) /ɪˈfek.tɪv.li/ արդյունավետ
կերպով
efficiency (n) /ɪˈfɪʃ.ən.si/ արդյունավետությու
ն
efficient (adj) /ɪˈfɪʃ.ənt/ արդյունավետ, քիչ
սպառող
effort (n) /ˈef.ət/ ջանք, փորձ
electronic (adj) /ˌel.ekˈtrɒn.ɪk/ էլեկտրոնային
elevate (v) /ˈel.ɪ.veɪt/ բարձրացնել,
առանձնացնել
eliminate (v) /iˈlɪm.ɪ.neɪt/ ոչնչացնել
embody (v) /ɪmˈbɒd.i/ մարմնավորել
embrace (v) /ɪmˈbreɪs/ ընդունել, հարել,
ներառվել
emerge (v) /ɪˈmɜːdʒ/ ի հայտ գալ
emergency (n) /ɪˈmɜː.dʒən.si/ ծայրահեղ,
արտակարգ վիճակ
emission (n) /iˈmɪʃ.ən/ արտանետում
empathetic (adj) /ˌem.pəˈθet.ɪk/ կարեկցող
enchanted (adj) /ɪnˈtʃɑːn.tɪd/ հմայված
endanger(v) /ɪnˈdeɪn.dʒər/ վտանգել
endeavor (n) /ɪnˈdev·ər/ ջանք, փորձ
endorse (v) /ɪnˈdɔːs/ աջակցել, սատարել
endow (v) /ɪnˈdaʊ/ օժտել, պարգևել
engage (v) /ɪnˈɡeɪdʒ/ ներգրավել
enormous (adj) /ɪˈnɔː.məs/ ահռելի, մեծ
enshrine (v) /ɪnˈʃraɪn/ պահպանել,
փայոայել
ensure (v) /ɪnˈʃɔːr/ երաշխավորել
entertainment (n) /en.təˈteɪn.mənt/ զվարճանք, հաճույք
entice (v) /ɪnˈtaɪs/ գայթակղել
entire (adj) /ɪnˈtaɪər/ ամբողջ
entitled (adj) /ɪnˈtaɪ.təld/ լիազորված
entrepreneur (n) /ˌɒn.trə.prəˈnɜːr/ ձեռնարկատեր
environment (n) /ɪnˈvaɪ.rən.mənt/ շրջակա միջավայր
environmental (adj) /ɪnˌvaɪ.rənˈmen.təl/ բնապահպանական
201
envision (v) /ɪnˈvɪz·ən/ պատկերացնել,
երևակայել
equivalent (n) /ɪˈkwɪv.əl.ənt/ համարժեք
escape (v) /ɪˈskeɪp/ փախչել
essential (adj) /ɪˈsen.ʃəl/ էական
essentially (adv) /ɪˈsen.ʃəl.i/ ըստ էության
establish (v) /ɪˈstæb.lɪʃ/ հիմնել
established (adj) /ɪˈstæb.lɪʃt/ կայացած,
հաստատված
estimate (v) /ˈes.tɪ.meɪt/ հաշվարկել
evaluation (n) /ɪˌvæl.juˈeɪ.ʃən/ գնահատում
evaporation (n) /ɪˌvæp·əˈreɪ·ʃən/ գոլորշիացում
evidence (n) /ˈev.ɪ.dəns/ վկայություն, փաստ
evoke (v) /ɪˈvəʊk/ առաջացնել,
արթնացնել
exactly (adv) /ɪɡˈzækt.li/ ճշգրիտ կերպով,
ճիշտ այդպես
excel (at smth) /ɪkˈsel/ գերազանցել
excessively (adv) /ekˈses.ɪv.li/ չափազանց
exclusively (adv) /ɪkˈskluː.sɪv.li/ բացառիկ կերպով,
բացառապես
exhausting (adj) /ɪɡˈzɔː.stɪŋ/ հոգնեցնող,
ուժասպառ անող
exhaustion (n) /ɪɡˈzɔːs.tʃən/ ուժասպառություն,
հյուծում
expand (v) /ɪkˈspænd/ ընդլայնվել,
տարածվել
expansion (n) /ɪkˈspæn.ʃən/ ընդլայնում,
զարգացում
experience (n) /ɪkˈspɪə.ri.əns/ փորձ,
փորձառություն
experience (v) /ɪkˈspɪə.ri.əns/ փորձառություն
ունենալ, կիրառել
expert (n) /ˈek.spɜːt/ մասնագետ
expertise (n) /ˌek.spɜːˈtiːz/ փորձ
explore (v) /ɪkˈsplɔːr/ բացահայտել
export (v) /ɪkˈspɔːt/ արտահանել
extend (v) /ɪkˈstend/ ընդլայնել,
ընդարձակել
202
extensive (adj) /ɪkˈsten.sɪv/ լայնածավալ,
ընդարձակ
extra (adj) /ˈek.strə/ լրացուցիչ
extreme (n) /ɪkˈstriːm/ ծայրահեղություն
facility (n) /fəˈsɪl.ə.ti/ հարմարանք,
factor (n) /ˈfæk.tər/ գործոն
fail (v) /feɪl/ ձախողել
fair (adj) /feər/ բավարար
fanatical (adj) /fəˈnæt.ɪ.kəl/ մոլեռանդ
fascination (n) /ˈfæs.ən.eɪʃ.ən/ հիացմունք
fashion (n) /ˈfæʃ.ən/ ձև, կերպ
favorable (adj) /ˈfeɪ.vər.ə.bəl/ բարենպաստ
fear (n) /fɪər/ վախ
fee (n) /fiː/ վճար
feedback (n) /ˈfiːd.bæk/ հետադարձ կապ,
պատասխան
fertile (adj) /ˈfɜː.taɪl/ բերրի, պարարտ
fiat money /ˈfʌɪat/ /ˈfiː.æt օրինական
ˈmʌn.i/ վճարամիջոց
fidget (v) /ˈfɪdʒ.ɪt/ տեղում հանգիստ
չլինել, դեսուդեն
ընկնել
finite (adj) /ˈfaɪ.naɪt/ սահմանափակ
firm (adj) /fɜːm/ ամուր, պինդ
flexibility (n) /ˌflek.səˈbɪl.ə.ti/ ճկունություն
focus (on smth) (v) /ˈfəʊ.kəs/ կենտրոնանալ
form (n) /fɔːm/ ձև
former (adj) /ˈfɔː.mər/ նախկին
fossil fuel /ˈfɒs.əl ˌfjʊəl/ վառելիք,
վառելանյութ
foster (v) /ˈfɒs.tər/ խթանել,
ուժգնացնել
foundation (n) /faʊnˈdeɪ.ʃən/ հիմք
foundational (adj) /faʊnˈdeɪ.ʃən.əl/ հիմնարար,
հիմնական
203
founder (n) /ˈfaʊn.dər/ հիմնադիր
frank (adj) /fræŋk/ անկեղծ
fuel (n) /ˈfjuː.əl/ վառելիք
fulfill (v) /fʊlˈfɪl/ կատարել
funding (n) /ˈfʌn.dɪŋ/ ֆինանսավորում
furnishings (n) /ˈfɜː.nɪ.ʃɪŋz/ կահավորանք
gain (v) /ɡeɪn/ ձեռք բերել,
եկամուտ բերել
gap (n) /ɡæp/ հատված, բաց, ճեղք
gender (n) /ˈdʒen.dər/ սեռ
gesticulate (v) /dʒesˈtɪk.jə.leɪt/ ժեստեր անել
giant (n) /ˈdʒaɪ.ənt/ հսկա
global warming /ˌɡləʊ.bəl ˈwɔː.mɪŋ/ գլոբալ տաքացում
globalization (n) /ˌɡləʊ.bəl.aɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/ համաշխարհայնաց
ում
globe (n) /ɡləʊb/ երկիր
goal (n) /ɡəʊl/ նպատակ
graduate (n) /ˈɡrædʒ.u.ət/ շրջանավարտ
grasp (n) /ɡrɑːsp/ սեղմում, գրկում
greenhouse gas /ˈɡriːn.haʊs ɡæs/ ջերմոցային գազ
grim (adj) /ɡrɪm/ դաժան,
սարսափելի,
զարհուրելի
grocery (n) /ˈɡrəʊ.sər.i/ նպարեղեն
guarantee (v) /ˌɡær.ənˈtiː/ երաշխավորել
hard-pressed (adj) /ˌhɑːdˈprest/ շատ ճնշված
heat waves /hiːt weɪvz/ ջերմային ալիքներ
heavy metal /ˌhev.i ˈmet.əl/ ծանր մետաղ
hence (adv) /hens/ այսպիսով
highlight (v) /ˈhaɪ.laɪt/ ընդգծել, կարևորել
hinder (v) /ˈhɪn.dər/ խանգարել,
խոչընդոտել
hip (adj) /hɪp/ նորաձև, տեղյակ
hire (v) /haɪər/ վարձել
hoarding (n) /ˈhɔː.dɪŋ/ հայտարարությունն
երի տախտակ
honest (adj) /ˈɒn.ɪst/ ազնիվ
204
honesty (n) /ˈɒn.ə.sti/ ազնվություն
host (v) /həʊst/ կազմակերպել,
անցկացնել
hurdle (n) /ˈhɜː.dəl/ խոչընդոտ,
hybrid (n) /ˈhaɪ.brɪd/ հիբրիդ
identical (adj) /aɪˈden.tɪ.kəl/ նմանատիպ, նման
identify (v) /aɪˈden.tɪ.faɪ/ հայտնաբերել,
որոշարկել
ideology (n) /ˌaɪ.diˈɒl.ə.dʒi/ գաղափարախոսութ
յուն
imitate (v) /ˈɪm.ɪ.teɪt/ նմանակել
immensely (adv) /ɪˈmens.li/ հսկայական,
մեծածավալ
impact (v) /ˈɪm.pækt/ ազդել
implement (v) /ˈɪm.plɪ.ment/ իրականացնել
import (v) /ɪmˈpɔːt/ ներմուծել
impose (on smth) (v) /ɪmˈpəʊz/ հարկել, հարկադրել
impressed (adj) /ɪmˈprɛst/ տպավորված
improvement (n) /ɪmˈpruːv.mənt/ բարելավում,
բարեփոխում
in a nutshell /ˈnʌt.ʃel/ մի խոսքով
in terms of /ɪn tɜrmz əv/ առումով
in/with reference to /ˈref.ər.əns/ կապված ինչ-որ
բանի հետ
incorporate (v) /ɪnˈkɔː.pər.eɪt/ ընդունել, միավորել
increasingly (adv) /ɪnˈkriːsɪŋli/ ավելի ու ավելի
indeed (adv) /ɪnˈdiːd/ իրապես,
իրականում
indirectly (adv) /ˌɪn.daɪˈrekt.li/ անուղղակիորեն
industrialized (adj) /ɪnˈdʌs.tri.ə.laɪzd/ արդյունաբերական
inequality (n) /ˌɪn.ɪˈkwɒl.ə.ti/ անհավասարություն
ingredient (n) /ɪnˈɡriː.di.ənt/ բաղադրիչ
initial (adj) /ɪˈnɪʃ.əl/ սկզբնական,
նախնական
innovate (v) /ˈɪn.ə.veɪt/ վերափոխել,
բարեփոխել
innovation (n) /ˌɪn.əˈveɪ.ʃən/ նորարարություն
inscription (n) /ɪnˈskrɪp.ʃən/ մակագրություն
205
inspiration (n) /ˌɪn.spɪˈreɪ.ʃən/ ոգեշնչում
inspirational (adj) /ˌɪn.spɪˈreɪ.ʃən.əl/ ոգեշնչող
inspire (v) /ɪnˈspaɪər/ ոգեշնչել, ոգևորել
insufficient (adj) /ˌɪn.səˈfɪʃ.ənt/ անբավարար
insult (v) /ˈɪn.sʌlt/ վիրավորել
intangible (adj) /ɪnˈtæn.dʒə.bəl/ ոչշոշափելի
integration (n) /ˌɪntɪˈɡreɪʃən/ ինտեգրում,
միավորում
integrity (n) /ɪnˈteɡ.rə.ti/ հավատարմություն,
ազնվություն
intelligent (adj) /ɪnˈtel.ɪ.dʒənt/ խելացի
intentional (adj) /ɪnˈten.ʃən.əl/ նպատակային
interact (v) /ˌɪn.təˈrækt/ փոխազդել,
հաղորդակցվել
interaction (n) /ˌɪn.təˈræk.ʃən/ փոխազդեցություն
interest rate /ˈɪn.trəst ˌreɪt/ տոկոսադրույք
interrupt (v) /ˌɪn.təˈrʌpt/ միջամտել, խոսքը
կտրել
intimidating (adj) /ɪnˈtɪm.ɪ.deɪ.tɪŋ/ վախեցնող
invest (v) /ɪnˈvest/ ներդնել
involvement (n) /ɪnˈvɒlv.mənt/ ներգրավվածություն
irreplaceable (adj) /ˌɪr.ɪˈpleɪ.sə.bəl/ անփոխարինելի
irrigate (v) /ˈɪr.ɪ.ɡeɪt/ ոռոգել
issue (n) /ˈɪʃ.uː//ˈɪs.juː/ հարց, խնդիր
issue (v) /ˈɪʃ.uː/ /ˈɪs.juː/ թողարկել, տպել
item (n) /ˈaɪ.təm/ իր, ապրանք
jeweller (n) /ˈdʒuː.ə.lər/ ակնագործ, ոսկերիչ
judge (v) /dʒʌdʒ/ դատել, կարծիք
կազմել
lack (v) /læk/ պակաս ունենալ
land (v) /lænd/ ձեռք բերել, հասնել
launch (v) /lɔːntʃ/ մեկնարկել, սկսել
leadership (n) /ˈliː.də.ʃɪp/ առաջնորդություն
leak (n) /liːk/ արտահոսք
lean (v) /liːn/ թեքվել (մարմնով)
leisure (n) /ˈleʒ.ər/ ազատ ժամանակ,
ժամանց
lend /lend/ գումար տալ
պարտքով
206
leverage (v) /ˈliː.vər.ɪdʒ/ օգտվել, օգուտ
ունենալ
lifeblood (n) /ˈlaɪf.blʌd/ (փոխ.) կյանքի
աղբյուր
lifecycle (n) /ˈlaɪf ˌsaɪ.kəl/ կենսաշրջան
light (n) /laɪt/ լույս
limitation (n) /ˌlɪm.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən/ սահմանափակում
liquidate (v) /ˈlɪk.wə.deɪt/ լուծարել,
ունեցվածքը
կանխիկացնել
list (v) /ˌlɪs.t/ ցուցակագրել,
թվարկել
loan (n) /ləʊn/ վարկ
location (n) /ləʊˈkeɪ.ʃən/ վայր, տեղ
logo (n) /ˈləʊ.ɡəʊ/ պատկերանիշ
long-term (adj) /ˌlɒŋˈtɜːm/ երկարաժամկետ
lower (v) /ˈləʊ.ər/ նվազեցնել
mainstream (n) /ˈmeɪn.striːm/ հիմնուղի,
հիմնական
ուղղություն
maintain (v) /meɪnˈteɪn/ հաստատել,
պահպանել
make sense /meɪk sens/ իմաստ ունենալ
manufacture (v) /ˌmæn.jəˈfæk.tʃər/ արտադրել
marathon (n) /ˈmær.ə.θən/ մարաթոն
mark (v) /mɑːk/ բնորոշել
mass-market /ˌmæs ˈmɑː.kɪt/ զանգվածային
շուկա
master (v) /ˈmɑː.stər/ տիրապետել,
յուրացնել, հմտանալ
meanwhile (adv) /ˈmiːn.waɪl/ միևնույն ժամանակ
measurement (n) /ˈmeʒ.ə.mənt/ չափ, չափում
mechanism (n) /ˈmek.ə.nɪ.zəm/ մեխանիզմ,
կառուցակարգ
medium (n) /ˈmiː.di.əm/ միջոց
memorize (v) /ˈmem.ə.raɪz/ անգիր անել, հիշել
merchandise (n) /ˈmɜː.tʃən.daɪz/ ապրանք
merchant (n) /ˈmɜː.tʃənt/ առևտրական
merely (adj) /ˈmɪə.li/ պարզապես, լոկ,
միայն
207
metal (n) /ˈmet.əl/ մետաղ
might (n) /maɪt/ զորություն, ուժ
mile (n) /maɪl/ մղոն (= 1,609 կմ)
millennium (n) /mɪˈlen.i.əm/ հազարամյակ
mimic (v) /ˈmɪm.ɪk/ նմանակել
mindset (n) /ˈmaɪnd.set/ մտածելակերպ
mineral (n) /ˈmɪn.ər.əl/ հանքաքար
miniature (adj) /ˈmɪn.ə.tʃər/ փոքրիկ, նուրբ
minimize (v) /ˈmɪn.ɪ.maɪz/ նվազագույնի
հասցնել
minor (adj) /ˈmaɪ.nər/ չնչին, աննշան
mirror (v) /ˈmɪr.ər/ արտացոլել,
նմանակել
mishap (n) /ˈmɪs.hæp/ դժբախտ
պատահար
misunderstanding (n) /ˌmɪs.ʌn.dəˈstæn.dɪŋ/ թյուրըմբռնում
mitigate (v) /ˈmɪt.ɪ.ɡeɪt/ մեղմացնել
mobile (adj) /ˈməʊ.baɪl/ շարժուն
moderately (adv) /ˈmɒd.ər.ət.li/ չափավոր
momentum (n) /məˈmen.təm/ շարժիչ ուժ,
արագություն
monarchy (n) /ˈmɒn.ə.ki/ միապետություն
morale (n) /məˈrɑːl/ ոգևորություն,
խանդավառություն
motivation (n) /ˌməʊ.tɪˈveɪ.ʃən/ մոտիվացիա, խթան
motivator (n) /ˈməʊtɪveɪtər/ շարժիչ ուժ
multinational (adj) /ˌmʌl.tiˈnæʃ.ən.əl/ բազմազգ
multiplex (n) /ˈmʌl.tɪ.pleks/ բազմադահլիճ
(կինոթատրոնի
մասին)
mundane (adj) /mʌnˈdeɪn/ սովորական,
աշխարհիկ
mutual (adj) /ˈmjuː.tʃu.əl/ փոխադարձ,
երկկողմանի
nap pod /næp /pɒd/ նիրհելու համար
նախատեսված
հարմարանք
narrative (n) /ˈnær.ə.tɪv/ պատմություն
208
nature (n) /ˈneɪ.tʃər/ բնույթ
necessarily (adv) /ˈnes.ə.ser.ɪl.i/ անհրաժեշտորեն
neglect (v) /nɪˈɡlekt/ անտեսել,
առհամարհել
negotiable (adj) /nəˈɡəʊ.ʃə.bəl/ քննարկելի,
բանակցելի
negotiation (n) /nəˌɡəʊ.ʃiˈeɪ.ʃən/ բանակցություն
neutral (adj) /ˈnjuː.trəl/ չեզոք,
անկողմնակալ
nod (v) /nɒd/ գլխով նշան անել
non-transferable /nɒntransˈfəːrəb(ə)l/ ոչփոխադրելի,
(adj) ոչփոխանցելի
norm (n) /nɔːm/ կարգ
obsolete (adj) /ˌɒb.səlˈiːt/ հնացած,
ոչգործածական
obstacle (n) /ˈɒb.stə.kəl/ խոչընդոտ,
occur(v) /əˈkɜːr/ պատահել, տեղի
ունենալ
onsite (adj) /ˌɒnˈsaɪt/ տեղում, վայրում
operate (v) /ˈɒp.ər.eɪt/ կառավարել,
ղեկավարել
operating (adj) /ɒpəreɪtɪŋ/ գործող
operation (n) /ˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/ գործունեություն,
գործողություն
operational (adj) /ˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən.əl/ գործառնական
option (n) /ˈɒp.ʃən/ ընտրություն,
տարբերակ
order (n) /ˈɔː.dər/ պատվեր
orderly (adj) /ˈɔː.dəl.i/ կարգին
organizational (adj) /ˌɔr·ɡə·nəˈzeɪ·ʃə·nəl/ կազմակերպչական
orient (v) /ˈɔː.ri.ənt/ կողմնորոշել
oriented (adj) /-ɔː.ri.en.tɪd/ միտված
origin (n) /ˈɒr.ɪ.dʒɪn/ ծագում
otherwise (adv) /ˈʌð.ə.waɪz/ հակառակ դեպքում
outcome (n) /ˈaʊt.kʌm/ արդյունք
outdoor (adj) /ˈaʊtˌdɔːr/ դրսի հետ կապված,
բացօթյա
outlet (n) /ˈaʊt.let/ վաճառքի կետ
over the counter /ˈəʊ.vər /ðiː ˈkaʊn.tər/ բորսայից դուրս
209
իրականացվող
(գործարք)
overall (adj) /ˌəʊ.vəˈrɔːl/ ընդհանմուր,
համընդհանուր
overcome (v) /ˌəʊ.vəˈkʌm/ հաղթահարել
overheads (n) /ˈəʊvəhedz/ ծախսեր
/ընկերության/
overlook (v) /ˌəʊ.vəˈlʊk/ չնկատել, բաց
թողնել
overly (adv) /ˈəʊ.vəl.i/ չափազանց
overpass (v) /ˈəʊ.və.pɑːs/ գերազանցել
overseas (adj, adv) /ˌəʊ.vəˈsiːz/ արտասահմանյան
overwhelming (adj) /ˌəʊ.vəˈwel.mɪŋ/ Ճնշող, մեծաքանակ
overwork (v) /ˌəʊ.vəˈwɜːk/ չափազանց շատ
աշխատել
own (v) /əʊn/ ունենալ, սեփակա-
նատեր լինել
ownership (n) /ˈəʊ.nə.ʃɪp/ սեփականություն
pace (n) /peɪs/ տեմպ
palm (n) /pɑːm/ ափ (ձեռքի)
participate (v) /pɑːˈtɪs.ɪ.peɪt/ մասնակցել
particular (adj) /pəˈtɪk.jə.lər/ որոշակի,
առանձնահատուկ
party (n) /ˈpɑː.ti/ կողմ
passion (n) /ˈpæʃ.ən/ խանդավառություն,
կիրք
path (n) /pɑːθ/ ուղի, ճանապարհ
payment (n) /ˈpeɪ.mənt/ վճար
per capita (adv) /pə ˈkæp.ɪ.tə/ մեկ շնչի հաշվով
percentage (n) /pəˈsen.tɪdʒ/ տոկոս
perception (n) /pəˈsep.ʃən/ ընկալում
perform (v) /pəˈfɔːm/ կատարել
performance (n) /pəˈfɔː.məns/ գործունեություն
perishable (adj) /ˈper.ɪ.ʃə.bəl/ շուտ փչացող
perk (n) /pɜːk/ արտոնություն
permanent (adj) /ˈpɜː.mə.nənt/ մշտական
personality (n) /ˌpɝː.sənˈæl.ə.t̬i/ անհատականությու
ն
personalize(v) /ˈpɜː.sən.əl.aɪz/ անձնավորել,
անհատականացնել
210
persuade (v) /pəˈsweɪd/ համոզել
persuasively (adv) /pəˈsweɪ.sɪv.li/ համոզիչ կերպով
pertain (v) /pərˈteɪn/ վերաբերել
pervade (v) /pəˈveɪd/ հագեցնել
phase (n) /feɪz/ փուլ
phenomenon (n) /fəˈnɒm.ɪ.nən/ երևույթ
physician (n) /fɪˈzɪʃ.ən/ բժիշկ
plethora (n) /ˈpleθ.ər.ə/ առատություն
plug (up) (v) /plʌɡ/ փակել, լցնել
point (n) /pɔɪnt/ տեղ, կետ
point (to) /pɔɪnt/ մատնանշել, ցույց
տալ
policy (n) /ˈpɒl.ə.si/ քաղաքականություն
polisymaker (n) /ˈpɑl·ə·siˌmeɪ·kər/ քաղաքականություն
մշակող
port (n) /pɔːt/ նավահանգիստ
portable (adj) /ˈpɔː.tə.bəl/ դյուրակիր
portion (n) /ˈpɔː.ʃən/ մաս, բաժին
position (n) /pəˈzɪʃ.ən/ դիրք, պաշտոն
possess(v) /pəˈzes/ ունենալ,
տիրապետել
possibility (n) /ˌpɒs.əˈbɪl.ə.ti/ հնարավորություն
poster(n) /ˈpəʊ.stər/ հայտարարություն,
աֆիշ
poster-child (n) /ˈpəʊ.stə ˌtʃaɪld/ վառ օրինակ
posture (n) /ˈpɑːs.tʃɚ/ կեցվածք, դիրք
practice (n) /ˈpræk.tɪs/ գործելաոճ,
գործուեություն,
փորձ
practice (v) /ˈpræk.tɪs/ կիրառել, գործածել
precious (adj) /ˈpreʃ.əs/ թանկարժեք
preferred stock /prɪˈfɜːd stɒk/ արտոնյալ
բաժնետոմս
prehistoric (adj) /ˌpriː.hɪˈstɒr.ɪk/ նախապատմական
prerequisite (n) /ˌpriːˈrek.wɪ.zɪt/ նախապայման
presentation (n) /ˌprez.ənˈteɪ.ʃən/ շնորհանդես,
ներկայացում
press (n) /pres/ մամուլ
pressing (adj) /ˈpres.ɪŋ/ հրատապ, շտապ
211
pressure (n) /ˈpreʃ.ər/ ճնշում
prevalent (adj) /ˈprev.əl.ənt/ գերիշխող
prevent (v) /prɪˈvent/ կանխել
primarily (adv) /praɪˈmer.əl.i/ առաջնային,
գլխավոր
prioritize (v) /praɪˈɒr.ɪ.taɪz/ առաջնահերթությու
ն տալ, կարևորել
priority (n) /praɪˈɒr.ə.ti/ առաջնահերթությու
ն
procedure (n) /prəˈsiː.dʒər/ ընթացակարգ
procrastination (n) /prəˌkræs.tɪˈneɪ.ʃən/ երկարաձգում,
հետաձգում
productivity (n) /ˌprɒd.ʌkˈtɪv.ə.ti/ արդյունավետությու
ն
progress (n) /ˈprəʊ.ɡres/ առաջընթաց
project (n) /ˈprɒdʒ.ekt/ նախագիծ
project (v) /ˈprɒdʒ.ekt/ ներկայացնել,
հաղորդել
promote (v) /prəˈməʊt/ խթանել
proof (n) /pruːf/ ապացույց
property (n) /ˈprɒp.ə.ti/ գույք,
սեփականություն
proponent (n) /prəˈpəʊ.nənt/ կողմնակից
proposal (n) /prəˈpəʊ.zəl/ առաջարկ
protect (v) /prəˈtekt/ պաշտպանել
prove (v) /pruːv/ ապացուցել
pseudonymous (adj) /sjuːˈdɒnɪməs/ կեղծանուն ունեցող
purchase (n) /ˈpɜː.tʃəs/ գնում
pure (adj) /pjʊər/ զուտ, մաքուր
purpose (n) /ˈpɜː.pəs/ նպատակ
puzzle (n) /ˈpʌz.əl/ գլուխկոտրուկ
quarterly (adj) /ˈkwɔː.təl.i/ եռամսյակային
range (n) /reɪndʒ/ շարք,
բազմազանություն
rare (adj) /reər/ հազվադեպ
raw material /ˌrɔː məˈtɪə.ri.əl/ հումք
reasonable (adj) /ˈriː.zən.ə.bəl/ խելամիտ
recognition (n) /ˌrek.əɡˈnɪʃ.ən/ ճանաչում
recognizable (adj) /ˈrek.əɡ.naɪ.zə.bəl/ ճանաչելի
212
record (n) /ˈrek.ɔːd/ գրառում, գրանցում,
տվյալ
recruit (v) /rɪˈkruːt/ աշխատանքի
ընդունել
refreshing (adj) /rɪˈfreʃ.ɪŋ/ զովացուցիչ,
թարմացնող
regarding (prep) /rɪˈɡɑː.dɪŋ/ վերաբերյալ,
կապված
regardless (adv) /rɪˈɡɑːd.ləs/ չնայած
regular (adj) /ˈreɡ.jə.lər/ աարբերաբար,
կանոնավոր
regulate (v) /ˈreɡ.jə.leɪt/ կարգավորել
rehearse (v) /rəˈhɜːs/ փորձել, մտքում
ասել, ձևակերպել
reinforce (v) /ˌriː.ɪnˈfɔːs/ խթանել
relate (v) /rɪˈleɪt/ կապ հաստատել,
կապ ունենալ
relatively (adv) /ˈrel.ə.tɪv.li/ հարաբերականորեն
relevant (adj) /ˈrel.ə.vənt/ տեղին, պատշաճ
remove (v) /rɪˈmuːv/ հեռացնել, հանել
renewable (adj) /rɪˈnjuː.ə.bəl/ վերականգնվող
replace (v) /rɪˈpleɪs/ փոխարինել
replica (n) /ˈrep.lɪ.kə/ կրկնօրինակ
report (v) /rɪˈpɔːt/ զեկուցել
require (v) /rɪˈkwaɪər/ պահանջել
requirement (n) /rɪˈkwaɪə.mənt/ պահանջ
reside (v) /rɪˈzaɪd/ բնակվել
resist (v) /rɪˈzɪst/ դիմակայել
resolve (v) /rɪˈzɒlv/ լուծել, լուծում տալ
resounding (adj) /rɪˈzaʊn.dɪŋ/ աղմկահարույց
restore (v) /rɪˈstɔːr/ վերականգնել
retail (n) /ˈriː.teɪl/ մանրածախ
վաճառք, առևտուր
retirement (n) /rɪˈtaɪə.mənt/ թոշակ
retrenchment (n) /rɪˈtrentʃ.mənt/ նվազում
returns (n) /rɪˈtɜrnz/ եկամուտ
revenue (n) /ˈrev.ən.juː/ եկամուտ
reverse (v) /rɪˈvɜːs/ հակառակ
ուղղություն վերցնել
review (n) /rɪˈvjuː/ ակնարկ,
213
քննադատական
հոդված
reward (n) /rɪˈwɔːd/ պարգև
right (n) /raɪt/ իրավունք
rookie (n) /ˈrʊk.i/ նորեկ
run through(smth)(v) /rʌn θruː/ աչքի անցկացնել,
նայել
rush (v) /rʌʃ/ շտապել, վազել
sauce (n) /sɔːs/ սոուս, համեմունք
save face /seɪv feɪs/ հեղինակությունը
փրկել
savings account /ˈseɪ.vɪŋz əˌkaʊnt/ խնայողական
հաշիվ
schedule (v) /ˈʃedʒ.uːl/ պլանավորել
/ˈskedʒ.uːl/
scope (n) /skəʊp/ շրջանակ, ծավալ
scratch (v) /skrætʃ/ քորել, ճանկռել
search engine /sɜːtʃˈen.dʒɪn/ որոնողական
համակարգ
secure (v) /sɪˈkjʊər/ ապահովել,
անվտանգ դարձնել
segment (n) /ˈseɡ.mənt/ հատված
self-esteem (n) /ˌself.ɪˈstiːm/ ինքնագնահատակա
ն
sensation (n) /senˈseɪ.ʃən/ զգացողություն,
զգացում
sense (n) /sens/ զգացում, իմաստ
հավաքակազմ
set out (v) /set aʊt/ սկսել, ձեռնամուխ
լինել
shape (n) /ʃeɪp/ ձև
share (n) /ʃeər/ բաժնեմաս
sheer (adj) /ʃɪər/ բացարձակ,
լիակատար
shell (n) /ʃel/ խեցի
shift (n) /ʃɪft/ անցում,
փոփոխություն
ship (v) /ʃɪp/ առաքել
shortage (n) /ˈʃɔː.tɪdʒ/ պակաս,
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սակավություն
sight (n) /saɪt/ տեսարան
significant /sɪɡˈnɪf.ɪ.kənt/ զգալի, էական
significantly (adv) /sɪɡˈnɪf.ɪ.kənt.li/ զգալի կերպով
signify (v) /ˈsɪɡ.nɪ.faɪ/ նշանակել
sincerely /sɪnˈsɪə.li/ անկեղծ
sink (n) /sɪŋk/ լվացարան
size (n) /saɪz/ չափս
skin (n) /skɪn/ մաշկ
skip (v) /skɪp/ բաց թողնել
skyrocket (v) /ˈskaɪˌrɒk.ɪt/ կտրուկ աճել
slide (n) /slaɪd/
slightly (adv) /ˈslaɪt.li/ չնչին, մի քիչ
slogan (n) /ˈsləʊ.ɡən/ կարգախոս
smoggy (adj) /ˈsmɑɡ·i/ թունամշուշոտ
smoothly (adv) /ˈsmuːð.li/ սահուն կերպով
sneaker (n) /ˈsniː.kər/ սպորտային
կոշիկներ
sociologist (n) /ˌsəʊ.siˈɒl.ə.dʒɪst/ հասարակագետ
soil (n) /sɔɪl/ հող
solely (adv) /ˈsoʊl·li/ միմիայն
solution (n) /səˈluː.ʃən/ լուծում
southeastern (adj) /ˌsaʊθˈiː.stən/ հարավարևելյան
southern (adj) /ˈsʌð.ən/ հարավային
species (n) /ˈspiː.ʃiːz/ դաս, ցեղ, տիպ
specific (adj) /spəˈsɪf.ɪk/ առանձնահատուկ,
որոշակի
specification (n) /ˌspes.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/ առանձնաահտկությ
ուն, որակ
spice (n) /spaɪs/ համեմունք
split (v) /splɪt/ բաժանել
spread (v) /spred/ տարածել
spring up /sprɪŋ ʌp/ առաջանալ,
տարածվել
squirm (v) /skwɜːm/ կծկվել, անհանգիստ
շարժվել
stability (n) /stəˈbɪl.ə.ti/ կայունություն
staff (n) /stɑːf/ անձնակազմ
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stand out (v) /stænd aʊt/ առանձնանալ, աչքի
ընկնել
standard (n) /ˈstæn.dəd/ չափանիշ
static (adj) /ˈstæt.ɪk/ անշարժ, անփոփոխ
steady (adj) /ˈsted.i/ հաստատուն,
կայուն
stock (n) /stɒk/ բաժնետոմս
stock market/ /ˈstɒk ˌmɑː.kɪt/ ֆոնդային բորսա
stock exchange
stockholder (n) /ˈstɒkˌhəʊl.dər/ բաժնետեր
store (v) /stɔːr/ պահպահել
storehouse (n) /ˈstɔː.haʊs/ պահեստ
strategic (adj) /strəˈtiː.dʒɪk/ ռազմավարական
stroll (n) /ˈstrōl / զբոսանք
structure (v) /ˈstrʌk.tʃər/ կառուցել
struggle (v) /ˈstrʌɡ.əl/ պայքարել
substantially (adv) /səbˈstæn.ʃəl.i/ զգալիորեն
subtle (adj) /ˈsʌt.əl/ նուրբ, չնչին
suited (adj) /ˈsuː.tɪd/ պատշաճ, հարմար
support (v) /səˈpɔːt/ սատարել
survey (n) /ˈsɜː.veɪ/ հարցում
survive (v) /səˈvaɪv/ գոյատևել
susceptible (adj) /səˈsep.tə.bəl/ դյուրազգաց,
դյուրընկալ
sustain (v) /səˈsteɪn/ պահել, պահպանել
swiftly (adv) /ˈswɪft.li/ արագ կերպով
switch (to) (v) /swɪtʃ/ անցում կատարել
symphony (n) /ˈsɪm.fə.ni/ սիմֆոնիա,
համանվագ
synchrony (n) /ˈsɪŋ.krə.ni/ համաժամանակությ
ուն
syndrome (n) /ˈsɪn.drəʊm/ ախտանիշ
tactile (adj) /ˈtæk.taɪl/ շոշափողական
tag (n) /tæɡ/ պիտակ
tangible (adj) /ˈtæn.dʒə.bəl/ շոշափելի
target (n) /ˈtɑː.ɡɪt/ թիրախ
target market /ˈtɑː.ɡɪtˈmɑː.kɪt/ թիրախային շուկա
tariff (n) /ˈtær.ɪf/ սակագին
task (n) /tɑːsk/ հանձնարարություն
216
tech (abb. technical) /tek/ տեխնիկական
(adj)
technique (n) /tekˈniːk/ հմտություն,
արդյունավետ
եղանակ
technopreneur (n) /ˌtɛknəʊprəˈnə/ տեխնոձեռնարկատ
եր
temptation (n) /tempˈteɪ.ʃən/ գայթակղում,
հրապուրում
tend (v) /tend/ միտում ունենալ
term (n) /tɜːm/ եզր, եզրույթ
therefore (adv) /ˈðeə.fɔːr/ հետևապես
think outside of the /θɪŋk ˌaʊtˈsaɪd ոչ ավանդական,
box əv ðə bɒks/ նորարարական կերպ
մտածել
threaten (v) /ˈθret.ən/ սպառնալ
thrill (n) /θrɪl/ հուզմունք
timber (n) /ˈtɪm.bər/ փայտանյութ
timing (n) /ˈtaɪ.mɪŋ/ ճիշտ ժամանակը
ընտրելու
զգացողություն
tint (n) /tɪnt/ երանգ, նրբերանգ
titan (n) /ˈtaɪ.tən/ հսկա
to-do list /tu du lɪst/ գործերն անելու
ցուցակ
tone (n) /təʊn/ տոն (ձայնի)
toxic (adj) /ˈtɒk.sɪk/ թունավոր
trace (n) /treɪs/ հետք
trade (v) /treɪd/ առք և վաճառք
իրականացնել
transaction (n) /trænˈzæk.ʃən/ գործարք
transit (adj) /ˈtræn.zɪt/ տարանցիկ
trick (n) /trɪk/ հնարք
trip (up) (v) /trɪp/ սայթաքել
trustworthiness (n) /ˈtrʌstˌwɜː.ði.nəs/ վստահելիություն,
հուսալիություն
tweak (n) /twiːk/ փոփոխություն,
բարեկարգում
ultimately (adv) /ˈʌl.tɪ.mət.li/ ի վերջո, վերջին
հաշվով
217
undermine (v) /ˌʌn.dəˈmaɪn/ քայքայել
unengaged /ʌnɪnˈɡeɪdʒdəd/ չներգրավված,
չհետաքրքրված
unique (adj) /juːˈniːk/ յուրօրինակ
unit (n) /ˈjuː.nɪt/ միավոր
unmistakable (adj) /ˌʌn.mɪˈsteɪ.kə.bəl/ ակնհայտ, ակներև
unsolvable (adj) /ʌnˈsɒlvəb(ə)l/ անլուծելի
unsurpassed (adj) /ˌʌn.səˈpɑːst/ աննախադեպ
upfront (adv) /ʌpˈfrʌnt/ նախապես,
նախօրոք
uphold (v) /ʌpˈhəʊld/ պահել, պահպանել
urgently (adv) /ˈɜː.dʒənt.li/ հրատապ կերպով
utility (n) /juːˈtɪl.ə.ti/ կոմունալ
ծառայություններ
utilize (v) /ˈjuː.təl.aɪz/ օգտագործել,
կիրառել
vacation (n) /veɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/ հանգիստ,
արձակուրդ
value (n) /ˈvæl.juː/ արժեք
vast (adj) /vɑːst/ մեծ, հսկայական
vehicle (n) /ˈvɪə.kəl/ փոխադրամիջոց
vending machine /ˈven.dɪŋˌməˈʃiːn/ վաճառքի սարք
via (prep) /ˈvaɪə/ միջոցով
vie (v) /vaɪ/ մրցել, մրցակցել
virtual (adj) /ˈvɜː.tʃu.əl/ վիրտուալ
visible (adj) /ˈvɪz.ə.bəl/ տեսանելի
vision (n) /ˈvɪʒ.ən/ տեսլական
visual (adj) /ˈvɪʒ.u.əl/ տեսողական
vote (v) /vəʊt/ քվեարկել
vow (v) /vaʊ/ երդվել
warmth (n) /wɔːmθ/ ջերմություն
weakness (n) /ˈwiːk.nəs/ թուլություն
wealth (n) /welθ/ հարստություն
weapon (n) /ˈwep.ən/ զենք
weight (n) /weɪt/ քաշ
welcome (adj) /ˈwel.kəm/ հաճելի, ցանկալի
wildfire (n) /ˈwaɪld.faɪər/ հրդեհ
willingness (adj) /ˈwɪl.ɪŋ.nəs/ ցանկություն
wisdom (n) /ˈwɪz.dəm/ իմաստություն,
218
խոհեմություն
withdrawal (n) /wɪðˈdrɔː.əl/ գումարի հանումը
հաշվից
wonder (v) /ˈwʌn.dər/ հետաքրքրվել
woodenly (adv) /ˈwʊd.ən.li/ կաշկանդված,
անշարժ կերպով
worsen (v) /ˈwɜː.sən/ վատթարանալ
219
ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN CHARTS
ARTICLES: OVERVIEW CHART
The Indefinite Examples
We use A with: singular nouns and the first time we refer to a
Article
person, animal or thing a child, an elephant
We use THE with:
 a singular or plural noun when it is clear/obvious which The lamp is next to the desk.
person or thing we are talking about We watched the new Brad Pitt movie last night.
The Definite  anything which we identify immediately She plays the piano.
Article  musical instruments the sun, the moon, the internet.
 something that is unique or there is only one. The Mississippi River, The Black Sea, The
 names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges and deserts Andes, The Sahara Desert
 •directions the west, the south-east, the north-west
We use NO article with:
 when we refer to general ideas, plurals or uncountable Religion is an important issue.
nouns I have read Romeo and Juliet.
 names of people, books and plays (unless it is part of the title) London, Montana, Vietnam
No Article  towns, cities, states and countries Lake Victoria, Jamaica, Asia, Mt Fuji
 lakes, single islands, continents or mountains Mars, Jupiter, Saturn
 planets football, tennis
 sports or games breakfast, lunch, dinner, supper
 meals
IRREGULAR PLURAL FORM OF NOUNS: OVERVIEW CHART
For many words that end in "us," change the "us" to an "i" Singular Form Plural Form
cactus cacti
fungus fungi
syllabus syllabi
For nouns that end in "o" you add either "s" or "es" zoo zoos
220
studio studios
tomato tomatoes
potato potatoes
Some words ending in "o" can be spelled either way banjo banjos or banjoes flamingos or flamingoes
flamingo
For many words that end in "is," change the "is" to an "es" hypothesis hypotheses
oasis oases
crisis crises
Nouns that end in "um" often become plural by changing bacterium bacteria
"um" to "a" medium media
curriculum curricula
medium media
Certain words do not add a letter to the end but instead, man men
change the word itself. woman women
foot feet
tooth teeth
goose geese
child children
sheep sheep
ox oxen
louse lice
POSSESSIVE CASE: OVERVIEW CHART
We use the ’s with people, animals though it can also be used My mother’s house is next to the beach.
with places, organizations and companies Tomorrow, we’re all going to see the museum’s new art exhibit.
Plural nouns ending in –s The two sisters’ house is next to mine.
only add the apostrophe ' (without the S) The players’ boots were dirty and smelly after the game.
221
Plural nouns not ending in –s add's Be careful not to trip over the children’s toys.
The women’s bathroom is currently flooded with water.
Singular noun ending in –s add's (apostrophe S) They had a really good time at James’s barbecue last Friday.
We spent the day admiring Frances’s new car.
Sometimes more than one noun is a possessive. The President of France’s speech was very long.
I accidentally took someone else’s bag home by mistake.
I had to give my boss three weeks’ notice that I was leaving the
company.
If there are two owners of something, we add's to the final Rick and Steve’s car is quite old.
name
But, if each person owns a car, then add's to both names Lucy’s and Leo’s cars are quite old.
If the meaning is clear, we can use the possessive without a Her hair is longer than Jill’s.
noun after it We ate at Billy’s last night.
Whose bag is this? It’s Jane’s.
222
TENSES: OVERVIEW CHART
Examples Examples Examples
Tense Signal words Use Form
affirmative negative interrogative
every day  something happens
sometimes repeatedly
 how often something I work. I don't work. Do I work?
always
happens infinitive
often  one action follows He works. He doesn't work. Does he work?
Simple usually another he/she/it:
Present  things in general infinitive + s I go. I don't go. Do I go?
seldom
 with verbs like (to love, to
never hate, to think, etc.) He goes. He doesn't go. Does he go?
 future meaning:
first ... then
timetables, programmes
now  something is happening at I'm working. I'm not working. Am I working?
the same time of speaking
at the moment
or around it be (am/are/is) + He's working. He isn't working. Is he working?
Present Look!  future meaning: when you infinitive + ing
Progressive have already deci-ded and I'm going. I'm not going. Am I going?
Listen!
arranged to do it (a fixed
plan, date) He's going. He isn't going. Is he going?
last ...  action took place in the regular: infinitive I worked. I didn't work. Did I work?
past, mostly connected + ed
... ago with an expression of time He worked. He didn't work. Did he work?
Simple Past (no connection to the irregular:
in 1990 present) (2nd column of I went. I didn't go. Did I go?
table of irregular
yesterday verbs) He went. He didn't go. Did he go?
223
 an action happened in the I was working. I wasn't working. Was I working?
middle of another action
Past Progressive  someone was doing sth. at was/were + He was working. He wasn't working. Was he working?
while a certain time (in the past) infinitive + ing
- you don't know whether I was going. I wasn't going. Was I going?
it was finished or not
He was going. He wasn't going. Was he going?
just
 you say that sth. has have/has + past I have worked. I haven't worked. Have I worked?
yet
happened or is finished in participle*
never the past and it has a He has worked. He hasn’t worked. Has he worked?
connection to the present *(infinitive + ed)
ever
Simple  action started in the past or (3rd column of I have gone. I haven't gone. Have I gone?
Present Perfect already and continues up to the table of irregular
present verbs) He has gone. He hasn’t gone. Has he gone?
so far,
up to now,
since
for
recently
I have been working. I haven't been Have I been working?

working.
all day  action began in the past He has been working. Has he been working?
Present Perfect and has just stopped have/has + been + He hasn't been
the whole day
Progressive  how long the action has infinitive + ing I have been going. working. Have I been going?
how long been happening
He has been going. I haven't been going. Has he been going?
since
emphasis: length of time of
for an action He hasn't been going.
224
 mostly when two actions had + past I had worked. I hadn't worked. Had I worked?
in a story are related to participle
already each other: the action He had worked. He hadn't worked. Had he worked?
Simple which had already (infinitive + ed) or
Past just happened is put into Past (3rd column of I had gone. I hadn't gone. Had I gone?
Perfect Perfect, the other action table of irregular
never into Simple Past verbs) He had gone. He hadn't gone. Had he gone?
 the past of the Present
Perfect
I had been working. I hadn't been working. Had I been working?
how long He had been working. He hadn't been workingHad he been working?
Past how long something had had + been +
Perfect since been happening before infinitive + ing I had been going. I hadn't been going. Had I been going?
Progressive something else happened
for He had been going. He hadn't been going. Had he been going?
 predictions about the
future (you think that sth I'll work. I won't work. Will I work?
will happen)
 you decide to do sth. will + infinitive He'll work. He won't work. Will he work?
Simple spontaneously at the time
Future of speaking I'll go. I won't go. Will I go?
 main clause in type I of
the Conditional sentences He'll go. He won't go. Will he go?
I'm going to work. I'm not going to work. Am I going to work?
 when you have already He's going to work. He's not going to work Is he going to work?
decided to do sth. in the
going to – future be (am/are/is) + I'm going to go. I'm not going to go. Am I going to go?
future  what you think what will going to +
happen infinitive He's going to go. He's not going to go. Is he going to go?
225
 An action will be in I'll be working. I won't be working. Will I be working?
progress at a certain time
in the future. He'll be working. He won't be working. Will he be working?
Future This action has begun will + be +
Progressive before the certain time. infinitive + ing I'll be going. I won't be going. Will I be going?
 Something happens
because it normally He'll be going. He won't be going. Will he be going?
happens.
will + have + past I'll have worked. I won't have worked. Will I have worked?
participle*
Future Something will already He'll have worked. He won't have Will he have worked?
Perfect have happened before a (infinitive + ed) worked.
Simple certain time in the future or (3rd column of I'll have gone. Will I have gone?
table of irregular I won't have gone.
verbs) He'll have gone. Will he have gone?
He won't have gone.
I'll have been I won't have been Will I have been
working. working. working?
Something will already
Future Perfect have happened before a will + have + He'll have been He won't have been Will he have been
Progressive certain time in the future been + infinitive + working. working. working?
ing
emphasis: length of time I'll have been going. I won't have been Will I have been
of an action going. going?
He'll have been going.
He won't have been Will he have been
going. going?
I would work. I wouldn't work. Would I work?
Conditional Something that might
Simple happen He would work. He wouldn't work. Would he work?
would +
main clause in type II of infinitive I would go. I wouldn't go. Would I work?
the Conditional sentences
He would go. He wouldn't go. Would he work?
226
I would be working. I wouldn't be working. Would I be working?
Conditional Something that might He would be working. He wouldn't be Would he be

Progressive happen would + be + working. working?
infinitive + ing I would be going.
emphasis: length of time I wouldn't be going. Would I be going?
of an action He would be going.
He wouldn't be going. Would he be going?
I would have worked. I wouldn't have Would I have
worked. worked?
would + have + He would have He wouldn't have Would he have
 Something that might past participle* worked. worked. worked?
Conditional have happened in the past
Perfect  main clause in type III of (infinitive + ed) or I would have gone. I wouldn't have gone. Would I have gone?
the Conditional sentences (3rd column of
table of irregular He would have gone. He wouldn't have Would he have gone?
verbs) gone.
I would have been I wouldn't have been Would I have been
working. working. working?
Conditional Something that might have would + have + He would have been He wouldn't have Would he have been
Perfect happened in the past been + infinitive + working. been working. working?
Progressive ing
emphasis: length of I would have been I wouldn't have been Would I have been
time of an action going. going. going?
He would have been He wouldn't have Would he have been

going. been going. going?
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE: OVERVIEW CHART
Tense Active voice Passive voice
Simple Present Verb form: first form of the verb Verb form: is / am / are + past participle form of the verb
They speak English here. English is spoken here.
227
Present verb form: is/am/are + -ing form of the verb verb form: is/am/are + being + past participle form of the verb
Continuous She is writing a letter. A letter is being written by her.
Present Verb form: has/have + past participle form of the verb Verb form: has/have + been + past participle form of the verb
Perfect I have written a novel. A novel has been written by me.
Simple Verb form: past tense form of the verb Verb form: was/were + past participle form of the verb
Past I wrote a letter. A letter was written by me.
Past Verb form: was/were + -ing form of the verb Verb form: was/were + being + past participle form of the
Continuous I was learning my lessons. verb
My lessons were being learnt by me.
Past Verb form: had + past participle form of the verb Verb form: had + been + past participle form of the verb
Perfect I had finished the project. The project had been finished by me.
Simple Future Verb form: will/shall + first form of the verb Verb form: will/shall + be + past participle form of the verb
tense I will finish the job. The job will be finished by me.
Future Perfect Verb form: will/shall + have + past participle form of the verb Verb form: will/shall + have + been + past participle form of
I will have finished the job. the verb
The job will have been finished by me.
228
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES: OVERVIEW CHART
Positive Degree Comparative Degreee Superlative degree
clean cleaner (the) cleanest
cheap cheaper (the) cheapest
dirty dirtier (the) dirties
happy happier (the) happpiest
simple simpler (the) simplest
difficult more difficult (the) most difficult
beautiful more beautiful (the) most beautiful
good better (the) best
bad worse (the) worst
much/many more (the) most
little less (the) least
REPORTED SPEECH: OVERVIEW CHART

Direct Speech Reported Speech
Simple Present: "I always drink coffee", she said. Simple Past: She said that she always drank coffee.
Present Continuos: "I am reading a book", he explained. Past Continuous: He explained that he was reading a book
Simple Past: "Lucy arrived on Saturday", he said. Past Perfect: He said that Lucy had arrived on Saturday.
Present Perfect: "I have been to Italy", he told me. Past Perfect: He told me that he had been to Italy.
Past Perfect: "I had just turned out the light," he explained. Past Perfect: He explained that he had just turned out the light.
Present Perfect Continuous: They complained, "We have been Past Perfect Continuous: They complained that they had been waiting for
waiting for hours". hours.
Past Continuous: "We were living in Paris", they told me. Past Perfect Continuous: They told me that they had been living in Paris.
Future Tense: "I will be in Moscow on Monday", he said. Present Conditional: He said that he would be in Moscow on Monday.
Future Continuous: She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday". Conditional Continuous: She said that she would be using the car next
Friday.
COMPLEX OBJECT: OVERVIEW CHART
229
The infinitive may be used as a part of a complex object after the verbs I heard him describe his new bedroom suite.
to hear, to see, to watch, to feel, to let, to make. After these verbs the He makes his children go to bed early.
infinitive has no particle 'to'. I saw him whitewash the fence.
The infinitive may be used as a part of a complex object after the verbs He wanted me to help him choose a new computer.
to want, to expect, to know, to suppose, to consider, to believe. After I consider Bill to be Jack of all trades.
these verbs the particle 'to' is used before the infinitive. I expected him to paint the walls green.
COMPLEX SUBJECT: OVERVIEW CHART

The predicate in sentences with a complex subject can be expressed He was supposed to bring this book from London. (Predicate is
by: underlined.)
1. The same verbs that can be followed by a complex object (that is They are heard to have come from the South.
verbs of sense perception: to see, to hear…, verbs of mental They were seen to go home together. This article is expected to be
activity: to know, to suppose…; verbs of inducement: to order, to published next month.
cause, to allow…,). The verbs are used in the passive voice.
2. Verbs of saying: to say, to report, to announce... in the passive The building of the new hostel is reported to be over.
voice. He was said to be writing a new play.
3. The verbs to seem, to appear, to prove, to happen, to turn out, to The telephone happened to be out of order.
chance in the active voice. The young man proved to know everybody.
The house seems to have been damaged by the earthquake.
4. Compound predicate: to be likely, to be unlikely, to be sure, to be They are likely to return on Sunday.
certain, to be bound. Their team is certain to win. / Their team is bound to win.
He is sure to miss this train.
This house is likely to have been built many centuries ago.
230
MODAL VERBS: OVERVIEW CHART
Modal verb Usage Example

ability I can do several things at the same time.
when something is possible Miracles can happen.
can permission You can go now.
informal requests Can you come for a minute?
past form of "can" She said she could pay for us as well.
could polite requests Could you move your bag, please?
possibility It could be that he missed the train.
may possibility It may rain tomorrow.
ask or give permission (formal) May I speak?
might past form of "may" He said he might change his mind.
possibility This might fail.
you have to do it You must obey the law.
must it's very logical or They left so early, they
very likely to happen must be home by now.
mustn't you are not allowed to do it You mustn't smoke in here.
the right thing to do She should call the police.
advice - What should I do?
should - You should stop thinking about it.
what is likely or expected to happen We should be back by midnight.
past form of "will" He told me he would come.
imagined situations What would you do if you were him?
for polite requests, offers and invitations - Would you please sit down?
would - Would you like some tea?
- We are meeting with Sarah next Saturday, would you like to come along?
to say what you want to do or have I would like a piece of cake.
ought to the right thing to do You ought to apologize.
231
SOURCES
1. Charles D. Kolstad, Environmental Economics. Oxford

University Press, 2000.
2. Louis E. Boone, David L. Kurtz, Contemporary Business,
Thomson, 2006.
3. Jackson R. Sorensen G., Introduction to International
Relations: Theories and Approaches. Oxford University Press,
2003.
4. Milgrom P., Roberts J., Economics, Organization and
Management. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1994.
5. Terence A. Shimp, Integrated Marketing Communications in
Advertising and Promotion, Thomson, 2007.
INTERNET SOURCES
1. https://www.conserve-energy-future.com
2. https://www.ed.ted.com
3. https://www.forbes.com
4. https://inhabitat.com
5. https://interestingengineering.com
6. https://www.lifehack.org/
7. https://www.teamworkdefinition.com
8. https://www.thebalancecareers.com
9. https://www.shufflrr.com
10.
11.https://www.skillsyouneed.com
12.
13.
14.https://study.com
232
15.
16.
17. https://www.ted.com
18.
19.https://www.teachenglish4u.com
20.https://www.theguardian.com
21.https://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/
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Լ. Ա.

Գլխավոր խմբագիր՝ Չալաբյան Ս.Ա., բ.գ.թ.,

Դասագիրքը նախատեսված է տնտեսագետ ուսանողների,

«Business English» անգլերենի դասագիրքը նախատես-

UNIT I. CULTURE OF CONSUMPTION:

UNIT II. SECRETS OF BRANDING......................................17

UNIT III. REALM OF ADVERTISING..................................30

UNIT IV. INTERNATIONAL TRADE....................................44

UNIT VI. WORLD WITHOUT MONEY:

UNIT VII. E-COMMERCE........................................................73

UNIT VIII. BANKING INDUSTRY............................................83

UNIT IX. WORLD OF SECURITIES......................................93

UNIT X. HISTORY OF INSURANCE............................100

UNIT XI. ECONOMIC INEQUALITY...................................108

UNIT XII. ALL ABOUT SUCCESSFUL STARTUPS.............116

UNIT XIV. IT IS ALL ABOUT CULTURE...............................138

UNIT XV. CORPORATE CULTURE.......................................147

UNIT XVI. BODY LANGUAGE IN BUSINESS................157

UNIT XVIII. TIME MANAGEMENT........................................180

UNIT XIX. PUBLIC SPEAKING.............................................191

UNIT XX. BEING ECOFRIENDLY..........................................204

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

VI. Translate the following word combinations into English.

VIII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

b) In the following sentences replace the words in bold with

SOME TIPS ON ESSAY WRITING

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

VI. Translate the following word combinations into English.

VII. Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions or adverbs where

3) outdoor advertising c) a means of communication with the

VIII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

IX. A slogan is a catchphrase or small group of words that are

VIII. Match the two halves to get meaningful sentences.

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

VIII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

b) Fill in the gaps with the idioms presented in the box.

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

VII. Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions or adverbs where

VIII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

(1) Today most of us take online shopping for granted, we don’t

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

V. Find in the text synonyms or equivalent word combinations to

VI. Translate the following word combinations into English.

VIII. Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions or adverbs where

THE NATURE OF BANKS

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

V. Find in the text synonyms or equivalent word combinations to

VI. Translate the following word combinations into English.

VII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

THE STOCK MARKET

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

V. Find in the text synonyms or equivalent word combinations to

VI. Translate the following word combinations into English.

VII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

VIII. Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions or adverbs where

IX. Read the text below and pose questions to it.

IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false

VI. Translate the following word combinations into English.

VII. a) From the following set of words pick up 10 synonymic

b) In the following sentences replace the words in bold with

VIII. Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions or adverbs where

DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

V. Find in the text synonyms or equivalent word combinations to

VI. Translate the following word combinations into English.