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Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geothermics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geothermics

Hydrothermal activity in the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex, central

Mexico: Exploratory studies
Aída López-Hernández a,b,∗ , Gerardo García-Estrada a , Gerardo Aguirre-Díaz b ,
Eduardo González-Partida b , Hugo Palma-Guzmán a , José L. Quijano-León a
a
Gerencia de Proyectos Geotermoeléctricos, CFE, Alejandro Volta 655, 58290 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
b
Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus Juriquilla, Querétaro, Qro., 76230, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Mineral alteration and fluid inclusion studies of drill cuttings and core samples indicate that the sedimen-
Received 19 May 2007 tary basement rocks and the volcanic rocks associated with Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex have
Accepted 4 May 2009 been the site of two distinct and major hydrothermal events. The complex, located in the eastern portion
Available online 30 June 2009
of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, is formed by the Pliocene Tulancingo Caldera and the younger (Pleis-
tocene) Acoculco Caldera, which developed within the older depression. The volcanic rocks are underlain
Keywords:
by Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The earliest important hydrothermal event
Geothermal
occurred during the emplacement of Mid-Tertiary granitic intrusions that metamorphosed the sedimen-
Hidden system
Cold gas emissions
tary rocks; these intrusives are not exposed at the surface. However, granitic rocks were encountered at
Low permeability the bottom of exploratory borehole EAC-1, drilled within the Caldera Complex. The second main event
High temperature occurred during the formation of the Tulancingo and Acoculco Calderas. Both episodes lead to secondary
Volcanic Caldera mineralization that reduced the permeability of the reservoir rocks. A possible third hydrothermal event
Acoculco may be associated with the recent magmatic activity within the Acoculco Caldera.Thermal logs from
Tulancingo well EAC-1 display a conductive thermal gradient with maximum temperatures exceeding 300 ◦ C at
Mexico 2000 m depth. Although there are no active thermal springs in the area, there is extensive fossil surface
hydrothermal alteration and cold gas discharges with high He3 /He4 ratios.
© 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction by Polak et al. (1982), which suggested the presence of an active

There are more that 500 geothermal areas in the Trans-Mexican
Volcanic Belt of central Mexico. Of these, two are presently under
commercial exploitation, Los Azufres and Los Humeros (Fig. 1); 10
additional geothermal systems are currently being investigated to
determine their potential to produce electricity (Gutiérrez-Negrín
and Quijano-León, 2007). During a regional exploration program
conducted by the Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE) of Mexico,
the Acoculco area attracted attention because of the presence of
extensive surface hydrothermal alteration, cold acid springs and gas
discharges that sometimes killed animals when they approached to
drink (Romero and Hernández, 1981). The geothermal interest was
reinforced when high 3 He/4 He values (R/Rair = 6.3) were measured
Abbreviation: CFE-GPG, Comisión Federal de Electricidad, Gerencia de Proyectos
Geotermoélectricos, Morelia, Michocán, México.
∗ Corresponding author. Present address: Facultad de Ingeniería Civil, Universi-
dad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Ciudad Universitaria, 58000 Morelia,
Michoacán, Mexico. Tel.: +52 443 314 8841; fax: +52 443 327 3856.
E-mail address: aidalopher@gmail.com (A. López-Hernández).
magmatic source.
The Acoculco geothermal system is located 130 km northeast
of Mexico City, in the eastern portion of the Trans-Mexican Vol-
canic Belt (Fig. 1). It lies within the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera
Complex, one of the major ones in that belt. Other Caldera Com-
plexes include La Primavera (Mahood, 1980), Huichapan (Milán et
al., 1993; Aguirre-Díaz et al., 1997), Amealco (Aguirre-Díaz, 1996;
Aguirre-Díaz and McDowell, 2000), Los Azufres (Campos-Enríquez
and Garduño-Monroy, 1995), and Los Humeros (Ferriz and Mahood,
1987).
The geology of the Acoculco region was studied by De la Cruz and
Castillo-Hernández (1986), who suggested that the hydrothermal
activity was related to magmatism occurring within the previ-
ously unrecognized Acoculco Caldera. Additional investigations
were undertaken to find the best location for a deep exploration
borehole. These studies included DC Schlumberger surveys (Palma,
1987) and geochemical analyses of spring fluids (Tello-Hinojosa,
1986, 1987). The first exploratory well (EAC-1) was drilled near the
Los Azufres bubbling pond (Fig. 2), in an area with numerous gas
vents. Temperatures above 300 ◦ C were measured at 2000 m depth
(Gama et al., 1995).

0375-6505/$ – see front matter © 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2009.05.001
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280 A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293

Fig. 1. Schematic geologic map of central Mexico showing the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, the Sierra Madre Oriental and the locations of the Tulacingo–Acoculco area and
of the main geothermal fields, Calderas, lakes and cities of the region. Calderas and geothermal fields: A, Amealco; H, Huichapan; LA, Los Azufres; LH, Los Humeros; LP, La
Primavera; M, Mazahua. Cities: G, Guadalajara; MC, Mexico City; Mo, Morelia; Pa, Pachuca. Tectonic features: CP, Cocos Plate; EPR, East Pacific Rise; OFZ, Orozco Fracture
Zone; PP, Pacific Plate; RFZ, Rivera Fracture Zone.

Subsequent studies have included a detailed evaluation of
the downhole measurements and samples (Tello-Hinojosa, 1994;
Palma, 1995; García-Estrada, 1995), various geologic investiga-
tions (López-Hernández and Martínez, 1996), and an interpretation
of regional gravity data (García-Estrada, 2000). Here we sum-
marize the results of these unpublished studies (mainly CFE
internal reports) on the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Com-
plex, and review drilling data and results of post-drilling
research.
2. Geological setting
The east-west trending Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt is charac-
terized by Mid-Miocene to Quaternary volcanism, active faulting

Fig. 2. Geologic map of the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex area, including the location of the geologic section as shown in Fig. 12.
 Author's personal copy
A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293
(Demant, 1978; Nixon, 1982; Pardo and Suárez, 1995; Suter et al.,
1995; Aguirre-Díaz, 2003), and numerous hydrothermal systems.
This volcanic belt has formed in response to the northward sub-
duction of the Cocos and Rivera Plates beneath the North American
Plate (Nixon, 1982; Pardo and Suárez, 1995; Aguirre-Díaz, 2003).
In its eastern portion the volcanic rocks overlie folded sedimentary
rocks of the Sierra Madre Oriental, which host the deeper portions
of active hydrothermal systems.
The volcanic rocks in the Tulancingo–Acoculco region are
calc-alkaline in composition and range in age from Pliocene to
Pleistocene. K–Ar and 40 Ar–39 Ar dates of representative rocks
(López-Hernández and Martínez, 1996) document three periods of
volcanic activity. The first two volcanic episodes were accompanied
by Caldera collapse. The oldest of the two Calderas, herein referred
to as the Tulancingo Caldera, was last active between 3.0 and 2.7 Ma.
It is the larger of the two, with a diameter of 32 km (Fig. 2). The sec-
ond, the 18 km diameter Acoculco Caldera, lies entirely within the
older structure; its volcanism lasted from 1.7 to 0.24 Ma. The third
and youngest episode is related to the monogenetic volcanism of
the Tezontepec–Apan regional volcanic field (1.8–0.2 Ma).
Units from the first of the volcanic episodes include the Las
Minas Rhyodacite, the Alcholoya Ignimbrite (Fig. 3), the Acaxochit-
lan Dacites (3.0 ± 0.3 Ma; K–Ar age), basaltic lava flows (represented
in the map under the same symbol as the Acaxochitlan Dacites)
and the rhyolitic-to-dacitic Tulancingo domes that were accompa-
nied by short-lived pyroclastic flows (2.7 ± 0.1 Ma, 40 Ar–39 Ar age).
Eruption of the Alcholoya Ignimbrite resulted in the formation of
the Tulancingo Caldera. The Tulancingo domes, representing the
youngest volcanic phase related to the formation of the Caldera,
were emplaced along the northern portions of the Caldera ring
structure, the same as the Acaxochitlan Dacites (Fig. 2).
Volcanic rocks of the Acoculco Caldera include the Acoculco Rhy-
olites (1.7 ± 0.4 − 1.36 ± 0.04; K–Ar age), the Cruz Colorada Dacite,
the Cuautelolulco Basalts and the rhyolitic Acoculco Ignimbrite
(1.4 ± 0.2 Ma; K–Ar age), whose eruption resulted in the collapse
of the Caldera. Rhyolitic activity continued with the emplacement
of domes along the ring structure. One of these domes on the south-
ern rim, named Tecoloquillo, was accompanied by small pyroclastic
flow eruptions that formed the Tecoloquillo Tuff. The interior of the
Caldera was partially filled with lacustrine sediments.
Caballero et al. (1999) reported the presence of two air-fall
tephras at Lake Tecocomulco, located SW of the Caldera Complex
(Fig. 2), that are intercalated between silt layers whose C-14 ages
are in the 42,000–31,000 year BP range. These authors suggested
that the tephras could have been derived from the Tecoloquillo
dome (Fig. 2). However, newly obtained dates indicate that the
age of this volcano is 0.8 ± 0.1 Ma (40 Ar–39 Ar) (López-Hernández
and Martínez, 1996); consequently, these air-fall tephras must have
originated from another, much younger, volcano.
At same time that the Acoculco Ignimbrite was deposited, the
ring fault of the Tulancingo Caldera was reactivated with the erup-
tion of the rhyolitic Piedras Encimadas Ignimbrite (1.3 ± 0.2 Ma;
40 Ar–39 Ar age) at El Rincón (Fig. 2). Subsequently, a dacitic dome
was formed and basaltic flows covered these rhyolitic ignimbrites.
The Acoculco volcanic activity ended with the 0.24 ± 0.04 Ma
(K–Ar age) La Paila formation (De la Cruz and Castillo-Hernández,
1986) consisting of scoria cones and lava flows of basaltic and
basalt–andesitic composition (López-Hernández and Martínez,
1996), that were emplaced over the NW and SE portions of the
Acoculco Caldera ring fault.
Around the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex the Acoculco
products were intercalated with 1.8–0.2 Ma Apan and Tecocomulco
basalts and basaltic andesites (Nelson, 1997; López-Hernández and
Martínez, 1996). The Apan and Tecocomulco volcanics pertain to
the third volcanic event, and consist of scoria cones, some shield
volcanoes and associated lava flows that formed extensive volcanic
281
plateaus. The distribution of these volcanic rocks was controlled by
NE–SW-trending normal faults and correspond to the northeast-
ern continuation of the Tezontepec–Apan volcanic field, a regional
monogenetic volcanic province characterized by hundreds of sco-
ria cones and associated lavas of basaltic–andesitic composition
(De Cserna et al., 1987; García-Palomo et al., 2002). The earlier-
mentioned La Paila basalts and basaltic andesites, the latest volcanic
products of Acoculco Caldera, are probably genetically related to
this regional volcanism.
Although post-Caldera volcanic and alluvial deposits have
buried the Calderas, their geometry can be inferred from the circu-
lar arrangement of volcanic eruption centers (Fig. 2) and is reflected
by the gravity survey data (see Section 3).
Underlying the volcanic units is a sedimentary sequence of the
Sierra Madre Oriental, which in the Acoculco region is composed
mainly of folded Cretaceous limestone and shales (Morales and
Garduño-Monroy, 1984); this stratigraphic sequence is exposed
north of Tulancingo and east of Chignahuapan (Fig. 2).
Structurally, the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex lies
at the intersection of two regional fault systems, one trending
NE and the other NW (Fig. 2). We named the one striking NE
the Apan–Piedras Encimadas fault system and suggest it repre-
sents the NE continuation of the Tenochtitlán Shear Zone (De
Cserna et al., 1987). The NW-trending system is herein called the
Tulancingo–Tlaxco fault system; it represents the southeastern
limit of the Mexican Basin and Range Province (Pasquaré et al.,
1991; Suter, 1991; Aguirre-Díaz et al., 2005). In the study area, this
province is characterized by NW-striking regional faults and asso-
ciated grabens that post-date the Late-Cretaceous to Early-Tertiary
compressive deformation that created the Sierra Madre Oriental
fold belt.
In the Tulancingo–Acoculco area volcanic rocks cover the NW
and NE-trending regional fault systems, but to the SW, a NE–SW
alignment of volcanic cones and medium-size composite volcanoes
can be observed. These volcanoes could be related to the NE-
striking Apan–Piedras Encimadas Lineament. The NW–SE-trending
fault system is represented by subtle morphological lineaments
between the Pachuca and Apan regions (NW of the Acoculco zone).
The NW–SE and NE–SW-trending regional fault systems of cen-
tral Mexico are evident in the regional gravity data interpretation
presented by García-Estrada (2000), which is discussed in Section
3. García-Palomo et al. (2002) and Campos-Enríquez et al. (2003)
described NE trends in the Apan area and in the Tecocomulco basin,
both located SW of the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex
(Fig. 2).
The only faults exposed at the surface within the Caldera Com-
plex are short E-trending faults located W and SW of the town of
Acoculco (Fig. 2). These faults bound an apical graben related to
the formation of a resurgent dome within the Acoculco Caldera.
The absence of hydrothermal alteration along these faults suggests
they have no direct connection with the deep hydrothermal system.
2.1. Sources of permeability
The NW–SE and NE–SW-trending regional faults systems appear
to have been permeable fluid flow paths for ancient hydrothermal
systems that formed in both Calderas. Studies at the Pachuca-Real
del Monte mineral district, located NW of the Tulancingo–Acoculco
complex, confirm the presence of such regional structures; min-
eralization occurred through veins with both orientations during
the Pliocene (Geyne et al., 1963). At the surface these faults can
be inferred by the alignment of volcanic cones. Gravity and mag-
netic contour maps (next section) show the intersection of NW–SE
and NE–SW trends at the center of the Acoculco Caldera; however
self-sealing by mineral deposition appears to have decreased fault
permeability with time. This reduction, along with the absence
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282 A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293
of more recent tectonic or magmatic-induced faulting at the
Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex, has resulted in the present
low rock permeabilities.
This situation is anomalous when compared to other Mexican
geothermal fields (e.g. Los Azufres and La Primavera), where recent
tectonic and magmatic deformation has resulted in high vertical
permeabilities. In those areas, the high permeability is associated
with intense fracturing generated by the superposition of magmatic
and tectonic deformation events, particularly in zones of magmatic
resurgence, where tensional stress is generated (López-Hernández,
1988, 1991, 1994). Similar cases have been reported in Philippine
geothermal fields (Reyes, 1990).
Dissolution channels in the limestones may significantly control
permeability at depth. These permeable features may form net-
works that provide flow paths connecting the deep hydrothermal
system at Acoculco and the hot springs of Chignahuapan, located
19 km to the SE (Fig. 2). In that place, hot water flows from cav-
ernous limestones that are 790 m below the average elevation of
the Acoculco cold springs (see Fig. 3 and Section 5).
3. Geophysical exploration
Gravity, magnetic, DC-resistivity and magnetotelluric (MT) sur-
veys have been conducted at Acoculco. The Bouguer anomaly
calculated using a reference density of 2.4 g/cm3 (García-Estrada,
1995, 2000) displays a dominant NW–SE trend, corresponding to
the NW orientation of the fold system of the Sierra Madre Orien-
tal. The presence of high-density rocks can be inferred under the
Acoculco Caldera by the distortion of the smooth trend of the grav-
Fig. 3. Relevant drilling data from exploratory well EAC-1. Qz, quartz; CT, calcite; Py, pyrite; B, biotite; EP, epidote; HM, hematite; ACM, all clay minerals; CH, chlorite; I, illite;
SM, smectite; K, kaolinite.
ity contours; this effect was isolated by making a regional–residual
separation using a second-degree polynomial fitting procedure
(Fig. 4).
The −5 mGal contour in the residual map defines a NW–SE-
trending low, bounded by two sectors of higher density located at
the SW and NE corners of the study area. High and low gravity
sectors are separated by elongated contours indicating a relatively
steep gradient, perhaps a reflection of the Tulancingo–Tlaxco fault
system (Fig. 4). The NW–SE elongated gravity low is disturbed
locally by three high gravity, NE–SW oriented anomalies. One of
them is related to the Apan–Piedras Encimadas Lineament (Fig. 2).
We suggest that magmatic activity in the study area was focused at
the intersection of these two trends (see below).
The −10 mGal contour has an elliptical shape with its major
axis oriented NW–SE, perhaps reflecting the combined effects
of the Tulancingo Caldera gravity low and the NW–SE-trending
low-gravity contours, associated with the Tulancingo–Tlaxco fault
system. Their combined effect is represented by the hachured
contours in Fig. 4. The displacement of the low-gravity anomaly
associated with the trace of the Caldera fault is caused by the effect
that results from the superposition of the regional and local gravity
anomalies.
The Acoculco Caldera corresponds to a relative gravity high com-
posed of several separate positive anomalies within the Tulancingo
Caldera gravity minimum. The expected decrease of gravity asso-
ciated with the low-density tuff deposits in the Acoculco Caldera
is completely obliterated by the increase related to the presence
of local high-density intrusive rocks. The most important of these
(relative) gravity highs has a circular shape and is located near the
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A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293
Fig. 4. Residual Bouguer gravity anomaly for the Tulancingo–Acoculco area (reference density: 2.4 g/cm3 ) calculated using second-degree polynomial fitting (contours in
mGal). The location of the gravity profile given in Fig. 12 is also shown.
town of Atotonilco (Fig. 4). Density measurements made on rock
samples from outcrops and cores from exploration well EAC-1 (see
below), and 2D modeling (Talwani et al., 1959), suggest that this
anomaly is associated with buried high-density rocks whose top
is at ≥1000 m depth. These rocks may represent an intrusion that
was not reached by EAC-1 and may be connected to the andesite
dikes intersected by the well. The Apan–Piedras Encimadas Linea-
ment coincides with a series of aligned local high-gravity anomalies
shown in Fig. 4. In the Tecocomulco area, Campos-Enríquez et al.
(2003) interpreted a local anomaly associated with this trend as a
structural block bounded by a NE-striking normal fault.
Ground surface elevations vary from 2300 m above sea level (m
asl) in the surrounding plateau to 2700 m asl in the study area. An
aeromagnetic survey was flown at 3500 m asl. The total magnetic
field data reduced to the pole (Baranov, 1957; Ervin, 1976) show
a regional pattern similar to that of the residual gravity; that is, a
regional NW–SE-trending magnetic low parallel to the Sierra Madre
Oriental (Fig. 5). We suggest that the low-gravity and low-magnetic
susceptibility corridor represents a NW–SE-trending tectonic
depression related to the Tulancingo–Tlaxco fault system (Fig. 4)
that is filled with low-density sedimentary and volcanic rocks.
The Acoculco Caldera coincides with a subcircular magnetic
high. The source of this anomaly was modeled as an intrusive body
283
with a magnetic susceptibility of 9.39 × 10−3 S.I. This high-density
and high-susceptibility anomaly may represent a vent associated
with post Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera mafic magmatism.
A second magnetic anomaly occurs near the El Rincón geother-
mal manifestations (Fig. 5), and coincides with the vent of the
Piedras Encimadas Ignimbrite located on the ring structure. These
two highs are vents that could be part of the NE-trending system
of volcanic centers emplaced along the Apan–Piedras Encimadas
Lineament.
Electrical resistivities are sensitive to the presence of hot saline
waters and argillic hydrothermally altered rocks. A 5000-km2
Schlumberger survey consisting of 61 vertical electric soundings
(VES) was conducted as part of the exploration program. The sur-
vey had a density of 2 VES/km2 (Palma, 1987, 1995). A 1D layer
interpretation and a smoothed 1D Occam’s inversion of the data
show the electrical structure down to an average depth of 400 m
(Vedanti et al., 2005). This limited penetration is due to the pres-
ence of near-surface conductive rocks that cover all but a small
region of high resistivity in the NW portion of the surveyed area
(Fig. 6).
The low-resistivity anomaly near the Los Azufres bubbling pond
(Figs. 2 and 6) is related to the presence of argillic alteration
observed at the surface, and down to 530 m depth in well EAC-
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284 A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293
Fig. 5. Total magnetic field reduced to the pole for the Acoculco area. Contours in nT. Constant flying height: 3500 m asl. The location of the magnetic profile given in Fig. 12
is also shown.
1. Apparent resistivities of less than 10  m are found north of
Cruz Colorada (Fig. 6) and extend toward the west, and include the
southern border of the Acoculco Caldera rim. High resistivities were
observed near Pueblo Nuevo (Fig. 6).
A 2200-km2 MT survey consisting of 63 soundings was per-
formed to study the electrical structure of the Acoculco geothermal
system at greater depth (Departamento de Exploración, 2000). Data
were interpreted using a Bostick inversion of the TE mode (Bostick,
1986) that allowed mapping of subsurface resistivities at depths
exceeding 1000 m. The results indicate that the geothermal area is
located in a zone of relatively high resistivity, with values above
100  m in the vicinity of the Los Azufres pond (well EAC-1; Fig. 7).
We consider that this is caused by the silica deposition identified
in EAC-1 cores and cuttings, or by the presence of a horst in the
granitic basement inside the inner Caldera border.
As with the gravity and magnetic data, the resistivity con-
tours display a general NW–SE orientation consistent with that of
the dominant geologic structures (i.e. the Tulancingo–Tlaxco fault
system); some minor local NE–SW trends may be related to the
NE-striking Apan–Piedras Encimadas Lineament.
Setting aside differences in the resistivities inferred from DC and
MT studies because the two methodologies are based on dissimi-
lar (i.e. galvanic versus electromagnetic) phenomena, the DC study
at Acoculco has a more ‘local’ coverage than the MT exploration,
which a smaller density of soundings over the area. Therefore, the
DC approach is more adequate to define the characteristics of the
shallower rock formations, while the MT data are better to describe
those of the deeper and probably older rocks.
4. Surface thermal manifestations
At the Acoculco Caldera there are no active hot springs, only cold
springs, broad regions of diffuse CO2 and H2 S discharge (Polak et al.,
1982), and low permeability argillically altered areas. Temperatures
measured at these locations are in the 14–20 ◦ C range, which are
slightly higher than the expected mean temperature of 12 ◦ C for
an elevation of 2860 m asl. However, these surface features do not
give any indications of the high temperatures measured in EAC-1
at relative shallow depths.
The main regions of “anomalous surface activity” are at Los
Azufres and Alcaparrosa (Fig. 2), where there are extensive areas
of argillic alteration, some active cold gas vents and a few intermit-
tent springs with water temperatures close to ambient. Frequently,
and due to the accumulation of toxic gases, dead animals are found
by the gas emission areas (Castillo-Hernández, 1986; De la Cruz
and Castillo-Hernández, 1986), as well as dead (“burnt”) vegeta-
tion. Because of the presence of the relatively impermeable surface
clay layer, rainwater may accumulate in shallow ponds. When these
overlie active gas vents, active bubbling occurs and the ponded
water becomes acidic.
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A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293 285

Fig. 6. Apparent resistivity distribution (Schlumberger soundings) with AB/2 = 750 m in the Acoculco Caldera area. Contours in  m. Darker areas indicate lower electric
resistivities.

Other anomalous features can be observed East and SE of the while mentioning is Cuadro de Fierro (Fig. 2), where gas vents are
town of Acoculco (at a location called Las Minas) where strong no longer active, but rust-colored Fe oxides coat the ground surface.
argillic alteration of the dacitic lavas and pyroclastic deposits has Around the Los Azufres pond the smell of hydrogen sulfide
produced commercial quantities of kaolin. Another place worth- indicates the presence of active gas vents. Similar discharges,

Fig. 7. Apparent resistivity distribution in the Acoculco Caldera based on the magnetotelluric (MT) method at 5 s (corresponding to 1200–1500 m depth). Contours in  m.
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286 A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293

referred to as “kaipohans”, have occurred in Philippine geothermal

fields (Bogie et al., 1987; López-Hernández and Castillo-Hernández,
1997). When well EAC-1 was drilled in this area, many of the work-
ers became disoriented or had trouble breathing because of the
release of borehole gases.
Thermal springs with moderate temperatures are found periph-
eral to the volcanic complex. Hot springs at Los Baños de
Chignahuapan and the Quetzalapa (Fig. 2) have temperatures of
49 ◦ C and 30 ◦ C, respectively. Thermal (30 ◦ C) springs also occur at
Jicolapa and El Rincón, 15 km northeast of the Los Azufres pond,
near the Piedras Encimadas volcanic center (Fig. 2). The flow rates
at Chignahuapan and Jicolapa are very high (>20 l/s). These springs
are possibly related to a large network of underground caves and
dissolution channels carved in the Sierra Madre Oriental limestones
that underlie the study area.
The present hot springs at Los Baños de Chignahuapan (Fig. 2)
are about 2 km SE of several levels of terraces consisting of fossil
hydrothermal travertine deposits, indicating that the focus of the
thermal activity has shifted toward the southeast.

4.1. Fluid geochemistry

Three types of waters can be distinguished in the Tulancingo–

Acoculco area (Fig. 8a). The first is an acid-SO4 water formed by
the dissolution of gases (H2 S) into pools of standing water. This
water type occurs within the Acoculco Caldera at Alcaparrosa and
Los Azufres. The second is a calcium-bicarbonate water discharged
by the Chignahuapan and Quetzalapa hot springs located outside
the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex (Fig. 2) The third type
is a sodium-bicarbonate water (Table 1) from some springs to the
north, on the periphery of the Caldera Complex, and two pools at
Los Azufres and Agua Salada; the latter is located 4.2 km NNE of
Alcaparrosa.
Calcite saturation indices (calculated based on discharge tem-
peratures) for the Quetzalapa, Chignahuapan and Jicolapa spring
waters are 0.61, 1.14 and 0.70, respectively, indicating that they are
saturated with respect to that mineral. This may reflect the effects
of deep circulation through the underlying carbonate rocks, as
calcium-bicarbonate waters are normally associated with ground-
water systems flowing through limestones (Ellis, 1959; Henley and Fig. 8. Chemical composition of surface water samples of Acoculco Caldera (a) Cl,
Ellis, 1983). SO4 , and HCO3 , (b) Na, K, Mg. Full equilibrium line and region of immature waters
are from Giggenbach (1988). See Table 1 for more details.
Because of the anomalously high content of chloride (118 mg/l)
and boron (3.2 mg/l) in the waters of the Chignahuapan hot spring
– when compared to those of surrounding springs – and the pres-
ence of ancient system faults (Tulancingo–Tlaxco) connecting both isotopic enrichment, which most likely reflects evaporation in the
zones, this hot spring is interpreted as being the farthest SE dis- shallow pond.
charge of the hydrothermal system. Its waters could be a mixture No representative downhole fluid samples were collected in
of deep geothermal fluids and shallow groundwaters. EAC-1 because of the low permeability of the rock column cut by
The Na–K–Mg ternary plots (Fig. 8b) developed by Giggenbach the well.
(1988) indicate that the thermal waters of the Tulancingo–Acoculco
area are immature, having not reached chemical equilibrium with 4.2. Gas composition
the host rocks. Since geothermometric results based on the com-
positions of immature waters do not provide useful reservoir Analysis of cold gas samples show that CO2 is the most abun-
temperature data (Tello-Hinojosa, 1986), they are not presented dant gas dissolved in the thermal waters, ranging from 930.6 to
here. 986.1 mmol/mol, followed by H2 S (see Table 2). Helium and CH4
Trace elements in the spring waters (As3+ , Hg2+ , Cu2+ , Cd2+ , Fe2+ , occur in relatively high amounts, while H2 is only present in small
Pb and Mn2+ ) were analyzed to determine the effects of nat-
2+ concentrations. The elevated CH4 content could result from bacte-
ural thermal water discharges on the chemistry of local shallow rial decomposition of bituminous material in the calcareous rocks
groundwaters (Quinto et al., 1995). Values exceeding maximum found at the base of the volcanic sequence.
environmentally allowable standards were only reported at Los The origin of the gases can be deduced from their relative N2 ,
Azufres and Alcaparrosa. These elevated concentrations were due He and Ar contents (Fig. 10). Alcaparrosa gases plots near the He
in part to the acidic character of the waters and the dissolution of apex suggesting a crustal source, which is corroborated by a molar
the country rocks. He/Ar ratio of 0.006–3.27 that is larger than the atmospheric value
The ıD and ı18 O contents in the waters fall along the meteoric of 5.7 × 10−4 (Mazor, 1977). Gases in the El Rincón, Jicolapa and
water line (Fig. 9), regardless of their chemical character or loca- Quetzalapa waters fall on the crustal-meteoric line, suggesting that
tion. The sample from Los Azufres is the only one that presents any the crustal gases are diluted by air-saturated groundwater. Data
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A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293 287

Table 1
Chemical composition of water samples from the Tulancingo–Acoculco area and the Philippines (all components given in mg/kg).

Location Sample Height Sampling date Temperature pH Na K Ca Mg B Cl Li SO4 SiO2 HCO3 Reported
(m asl) (◦ C) by

Quetzalapaa Q 1968 18/06/1986 12 6.9 157.1 10.5 193.2 47.8 0.74 23.5 0.149 nd 53.6 1479 b

El Rincón 7a R 2463 19/06/1986 32 6.6 12.8 12.7 143.4 9.58 0.09 9.8 0.1 40 67.2 514 b

Cuadro Fierro 9a F 2839 20/06/1986 23 4.3 42.3 13.6 144.6 87.2 1.48 13.7 0.1 1245 32.5 nd b

Alcaparrosa 17a A 2849 24/06/1986 15 2.4 13.7 9.5 36.4 9.2 12.6 13.7 0.1 1271 63.8 nd b

Los Azufres 21a Z 2850 25/06/1986 25 6.4 123.8 28.4 99.8 29.8 167 37.2 0.1 297 31.3 nd b

Los Azufres 22a S 2850 25/06/1986 25 6.8 17.7 30.1 64.4 15.8 36.6 19.6 0.1 211 36.8 47.5 b

Chignahuapan 33a G 2213 02/07/1986 49 7.3 95.4 14.4 173.2 30.5 3.2 118 0.372 39 24.3 831 b

Jicolapa 34a J 2210 03/07/1986 32 6.9 31.4 15.9 229.8 17.1 1.2 17.6 0.1 nd 66.9 924 b

Kaipohan 5c K 08/08/1980 23 1.94 5.64 4.14 17 5.6 nd 12.1 nd 1280 92.2 nil d

Kaipohan 3c P 10/01/1982 Cold 2.71 7.74 4.6 6.77 5.71 0.19 15.6 nd 854 89 d

nd: not detected.

a
Acoculco.
b
Tello-Hinojosa (1994).
c
Philippines.
d
Ruaya (1980), quoted in Bogie et al. (1987).

Fig. 10. Relative Ar, N2 and He content of gas samples at Acoculco area. See
Tables 1 and 2 for more details.
Fig. 9. Oxygen-18 and deuterium contents in hot spring waters of the Acoculco area.
See Table 1 for more details.

from the Los Azufres bubbling pond plot near the Ar apex prob-
ably due to errors incurred during sampling. One should note that
the gases from New Zealand’s kaipohans (Bogie et al., 1987) have a
greater magmatic contribution.
According Polak et al. (1982), the high 3 He/4 He ratio (R/Rair = 6.3)
measured in the gas emissions from the Los Azufres pond sug-
gests a high geothermal potential for this zone. On the other hand,
Tello-Hinojosa (1986), following Ellis (1957), propose that the high
N2 /Ar ratio (=238) measured in the Alcaparrosa pond, which is

Table 2
Chemical composition of gas samples from cold and hot springs from the Tulancingo–Acoculco area and New Zealand (all components given in molar % of non-condensable
gases).

Location Sample Date CO2 H2 S NH3 He H2 Ar O2 N2 CH4 Reported by

Quetzalapaa Q 18/06/1986 986.1 3.08 0.481 0.004 0.0003 0.104 0.699 5.016 4.53 b

El Rincona R 19/07/1986 930.6 2.36 0.665 0.175 0.0004 1.576 2.779 61.46 0.38 b

Alcaparrosa 17a A 24/06/1986 942.4 22.33 0.038 0.135 0.0017 0.041 nd 9.77 25.31 b

Los Azufres 21a S 25/06/1986 966.3 29.46 0.305 nd 0.0009 0.6 nd 3.78 0.166 b

Jicolapaa J 03/07/1986 984.7 9.12 0.455 0.01 0.001 0.149 0.344 5.06 0.131 b

Poolc L 23/05/1981 86.3 0.29 0.0008 0.00028 0.00024 0.00078 0.00081 1.27 12.1 d

Waitotarac W 29/06/1977 71 0.2 nd 0.0018 0.0018 0.00091 nd 1.09 6.12 e

nd: not detected.

a
Acoculco.
b
Tello-Hinojosa (1994) mmol/mol.
c
New Zealand.
d
Sheppard (1986), quoted in Bogie et al. (1987) mol% of total NCG.
e
Giggenbach and Lyon (1977), quoted in Bogie et al. (1987).
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288 A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293
much higher than the one expected for shallow air-saturated water
(N2 /Ar = 38), indicates that the high N2 content in this sample has
a deep origin.
5. Exploratory drilling
The decision of drilling an exploratory geothermal well at
Tulancingo–Acoculco was made based on interpretation of field
data, i.e., emission of magmatic gases, outcropping of young vol-
canic rocks associated with the Caldera Complex, presence of
extensive zones of hydrothermal alteration, and low subsurface
electric resistivities. The existence of high temperatures at depth
was considered to be a real possibility.
The vertical well EAC-1, sited close to the Los Azufres pond and
numerous gas vents (Fig. 2), was drilled by CFE to a total depth of
2000 m in 1994. The main objective of the well was to determine if
high temperatures and permeabilities existed at depth.
Three major lithologic units were penetrated by EAC-1 (Fig. 3).
The uppermost consists of 790 m Pliocene-to-Quaternary volcanic
rocks that are related to the evolution of the Tulancingo–Acoculco
Caldera Complex. They include, from bottom to top, the Las Minas
Rhyodacite and the Alcholoya Ignimbrite (related to the Tulancingo
Caldera), and the Cruz Colorada Dacite and the Acoculco Ignimbrite
(associated with the Acoculco Caldera). The two deepest units are
intensively silicified, which has destroyed the original rock textures.
Both of these deep units are interpreted to represent the fill of the
Tulancingo Caldera.
In well EAC-1 the Pliocene-to-Quaternary volcanics overlie an
870-m thick column of metamorphic rocks (the intermediate unit)
that is composed mainly of skarns that present two thin zones of
marble. This sequence consists of folded Cretaceous sediments of
the Sierra Madre Oriental locally metamorphosed by a hornblende
granite, the third and deepest unit penetrated by the well. This
granite was encountered from 1660 m to total depth (2000 m). This
intrusive may be correlated with a regional episode of Mid-Miocene
granitic intrusions (Yáñez-García, 1980). However, since we have
not dated the granite because of the alteration of the collected sam-
ples, we cannot be sure of its age. Therefore it could be related to a
more recent igneous event.
No evidence of faulting was observed at the contact between the
granite and the metamorphic rocks, suggesting that the emplace-
ment of the granite resulted in contact metamorphism and the
formation of skarns and marbles. Underlying the Cretaceous for-
mation, the Jurassic sequence is inferred and could correspond
to the regional basement; Morales and Garduño-Monroy (1984)
described such stratigraphic relationship in an area north of the
Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex.
Aplite dikes cut the skarn but not the overlying volcanics. Conse-
quently, these dikes are interpreted as late-stage intrusions related
to the emplacement of the granite. Younger basaltic–andesite dikes
intrude the sedimentary sequence and the base of the overlay-
ing volcanic section. In this case, the dikes may be related to the
basaltic–andesitic lava flows, exposed elsewhere, that correspond
to the most recent volcanic event in the study area.
During drilling there were few circulation losses, all of them less
than 10 m3 /h. However, at shallow (70 m) depth, EAC-1 encoun-
tered a permeable zone within the Acoculco Ignimbrite that
discharged a large quantity of gas (Gama et al., 1995). A series of
four temperature and pressure logs were run at different depths.
Excluding the shallow permeable zone, the temperature profiles are
linear, indicative of a conductive thermal regime. The average gra-
dient was about 11 ◦ C/100 m, approximately three times the normal
gradient in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Ziagos et al., 1985).
The last temperature log, taken 288 h after drilling had stopped,
shows a high constant gradient of 13.8 ◦ C/100 m and a maximum
temperature of 307 ◦ C at bottom hole (Fig. 3). The temperature data
and the fact that the well did not flow on its own, was interpreted
as an indication that EAC-1 had been drilled through a column of
low-permeability rocks.
The data shown in Fig. 3 indicate that the most permeable zone
in EAC-1 is located in the upper 400 m of the well.
6. Hydrothermal alteration
Alteration minerals were identified based on thin sections of
EAC-1 core and drill cutting samples, the latter collected at 10-
m intervals. X-ray diffraction analyses were used to determine
the mineralogy of the clay fraction in samples taken every 100 m
between 100 and 1800 m depth; these were analyzed after being
first saturated with ethylene glycol and then dried at room temper-
ature (IIE, 1995).
Samples of the upper 800 m of the well display the most intense
hydrothermal alteration (from 40% to 100%), being particularly
strong between 0–200 m and 350–500 m depth. In contrast, the
alteration of the skarn and granite is relatively weak, being about
10% (Fig. 3).
The main hydrothermal minerals in the EAC-1 samples are
quartz, calcite, pyrite, clays (illite, smectite, kaolinite), zeolites (stil-
bite), and iron oxides (hematite), which are distributed throughout
the lithologic column. Wollastonite, garnet, diopside and epidote,
as well as copper sulfides, occur in the skarn.
Based on hydrothermal mineral assemblages four zones have
been identified. The two shallowest mineral zones are interpreted
to have formed during the evolution of the Tulancingo and Acoculco
Calderas, and the deepest during granite intrusion and skarn forma-
tion. In order of increasing depth, these zones are:
(A) A shallow (<200 m depth) zone of acid-altered rocks contain-
ing kaolinite + pyrite + calcite; the carbonate may be associated
with a different hydrothermal pulse,
(B) An intermediate (165–780 m depth) zone of argillic-altered
rocks containing smectite + illite + quartz + calcite, which is typ-
ical of neutral pH waters,
(C) A deep (780–1660 m depth) high-temperature mineral assem-
blage in the skarn consisting of wollastonite + garnet + diopside
(Lentz, 1998), and
(D) A retrograde assemblage within the skarn consisting of
quartz + epidote + calcite + chlorite + pyrite, copper sulfides
(chalcopyrite, pyrrotite, idaite). In other hydrothermal sys-
tems, the deposition of sulfide minerals is a late-stage feature
of skarn deposits (Meinert, 1992).
Secondary silica minerals are present throughout the well, being
most abundant at depths of 100–130, 240–800 and 1300–1610 m.
Amorphous silica is found in the Acoculco Ignimbrite and intense
silicification is observed in the Alcholoya Ignimbrite and the Las
Minas Rhyodacite. Much of this silica may be derived from the alter-
ation of the rock groundmass. In the skarn there are veins filled
with quartz + pyrite + calcite. Narrow veins in the granite are filled
by quartz.
Calcite appears mainly in the upper 800 m of the column
(Fig. 3), within the volcanic sequence, replacing plagioclase and
filling veins. The maximum abundance of hydrothermal calcite is
observed in the top 550 m, gradually diminishes with depth; it is not
found below 1500 m. Calcite is rare in the skarn, occurring locally
as vein filling.
Pyrite is the most prevalent sulfide alteration; it generally occurs
with quartz and calcite. It is most abundant between 20 and
240 m depth, reaching a maximum of 25% of total alteration; below
240 m it is less abundant. In the granite, pyrite occurs disseminated
throughout the rock and as a vug filling.
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A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293 289

At shallow depths stilbite is found sporadically in the Acoculco
Ignimbrite replacing volcanic glass. Chlorite is a minor secondary
mineral appearing between 400 m depth and bottomhole (Fig. 3).
Chlorite, illite, pyrite, biotite and hematite were the secondary min-
erals identified in the granite; all in trace amounts.
Adularia, a mineral frequently associated with permeable zones
and boiling fluids (Browne and Ellis, 1970), occurs only within an
aplite dike near the contact between the carbonate rocks and the
granite. Its absence is consistent with the inferred low permeabili-
ties of the rocks penetrated by EAC-1.
Epidote is a common alteration mineral in geothermal sys-
tems where temperatures exceed 240 ◦ C (Reyes, 1990). However,
at Acoculco, despite measured temperatures above 300 ◦ C, epidote
is very scarce. It only appears as disseminated grains in the altered
skarn.
Hematite was recognized in all samples. It is more abundant
between 100 and 800 m depth, reaching 2% of total alteration; the
percentage increased at the contact between the Acoculco Ign-
imbrite and the Cruz Colorada Dacite (at 140 m depth).
Chalcopyrite, related with the formation of marbles, appears in
two thin (20 m) intervals at 1210 and 1450 m depth. Pyrrotite was
identified between 1450 and 1690 m in the skarn and disappeared
at the contact with the granitic intrusion. Rare idaite, associated
with pyrrotite, is found at 1460 and 1600 m depth.
6.1. Clay minerals
Clay minerals, replacing volcanic glass and K-feldspars, are
found throughout the well. However, the highest concentration is
found in the volcanic sequence (i.e. above 800 m depth). In the vol-
canic rocks, clay minerals reach abundances of up to 52% with an
average value of 17%. Below 800 m depth, their abundance drops to
1–2% (Fig. 3).
Kaolinite and pyrite are common at shallow depths (<200 m;
Fig. 3), suggesting the interaction of geothermal gases with shal-
low groundwaters. In deeper parts of some geothermal systems, at
temperatures of about 230 ◦ C, illite is the common clay alteration
mineral (Reyes, 1990); however, in EAC-1 it is observed throughout
the well, even at the shallowest depths where present-day temper-
atures are much lower. Smectite also occurs along the entire well
column.
In Zone II (700 and 1200 m depth) the inclusion data show a pos-
itive temperature gradient with a few variations that could be the
result of weak vertical convection in the surrounding rock forma-
tions. Homogenization temperatures increase to a maximum value
of 282 ± 6 ◦ C at 1200 m depth.
In Zone III (the deepest) there is a sudden decrease in homoge-
nization temperatures, which vary from 223 ± 13 ◦ C at 1400 m to
252 ± 9 ◦ C at 1600 m depth. All these inclusions are related to a
metamorphic event as indicated by their high salinities (see next
section). At greater depths, their homogenization temperatures
again increase, reaching 284 ± 10 ◦ C at 1700 m depth and their salin-
ities diminish (see next section). These inclusions are associated
with a more recent hydrothermal event. In Zone III the effects of
the two main hydrothermal events are superimposed.
7.2. Fluid inclusion salinities and gas contents
The relationship between ice-melting temperature (Tmi) and Th
is shown in Fig. 11. Based on Tmi differences (Table 3), two groups
of fluid inclusions can be distinguished. Group 1, characterized by
high-salinity inclusion fluids (and lower Tmi values), occurs within
the skarn (between 1400 and 1600 m depth; crosses in Fig. 11).
The lower salinity Group 2 fluid inclusions are found in both the
metamorphic and volcanic rocks intersected by the well.
The ice-melting temperatures of Group 1 inclusions range from
−12◦ ◦ C to −15.8 ◦ C. Based on Bodnar (1993) these values cor-
respond to salinities between 16 and 19.3 wt% NaCl equivalent
(Table 3). Such high salinities are typical of magmatic systems and
skarn deposits (Einaudi et al., 1981; Roedder, 1984; Meinert, 1992).
In contrast, the inclusions in Group 2 have low salinities that are
typical of active geothermal systems (e.g. Ahuachapán in El Sal-
vador and Los Azufres in Mexico) (González-Partida et al., 1997,
2000, 2005).
Group 2 inclusions display two types of melting behavior after
being frozen. Samples taken in the upper 200 m of well EAC-1, yield

7. Fluid inclusions studies

Microthermometric measurements were done on drill cuttings,

and on calcite and quartz veins in core samples of well EAC-1.
At room temperature most of fluid inclusions consisted of liq-
uid + vapor, with the liquid phase predominating. The size of the
studied inclusions was in the 10–20 ␮m range; Table 3 summarizes
the results of the fluid inclusion studies.
The relationships among homogenization temperature (Th),
depth, lithology, mud circulation losses, alteration percentage, sec-
ondary mineralogy and measured temperature are shown in Fig. 3.

7.1. Homogenization temperatures (Th)

The geologic column cut by well EAC-1 can be divided into three
zones (Fig. 3) on the basis of the average homogenization temper-
atures obtained for fluid inclusions in drill cuttings and cores.
Zone I (100–700 m depth) is characterized by a tempera-
ture increase from 131 ± 10 ◦ C at 100 m depth to a maximum of
178 ± 9 ◦ C at about 400 m, followed by a decrease to 155 ± 3 ◦ C. This
behavior reflects the existence of a subsurface zone where volatile
gases were trapped; this is confirmed by the measured positive
Fig. 11. Homogenization temperature vs. ice melting temperature for fluid inclu-
(>0 ◦ C) melting temperatures indicating the presence of CO2 in the sions in quartz and calcite crystals from EAC-1 samples from volcanic and
fluid inclusions. metamorphic rocks.
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290 A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293

Table 3
Fluid inclusion microthermometric measurements on drill cuttings and core samples from well EAC-1.

Depth (m) Well EAC-1 (Host) Th range (◦ C) Th average (◦ C) (n) Tmi range (◦ C) Tmi average (◦ C) (n) Salinity (wt% NaCl)

100 Ca 103–131 113 (20) +2.6 to +5.6 +3.6 (20) N.C.

200 Ca 141–152 145 (25) +1.8 to +2.1 +1.9 (25) N.C.
400 Ca 166–199 178 (40) −1.4 to −0.5 −0.72 (30) 1.25
710 Ca 153–166 155 (15) −0.7 to −0.7 −0.7 (15) 1.23
803 Ca 139–258 201 (35) −0.1 to −0.1 −0.1 (29) 0.18
1100 Ca 214–217 215 (28) −0.1 to −0.1 −0.1 (20) 0.18
1200 Ca 278–297 282 (45) −0.5 to −0.5 −0.5 (35) 0.88
1400 Ca Skarn 205–250 223 (20) −12 to −12 −12 (15) 15.96
1500 Ca Skarn 216–236 226 (35) −13 to −13 −13 (22) 16.89
1600 Ca Skarn 240–268 252 (49) −15.8 to −7 −12.7 (30) 16.62
1700 Qz 272–303 284 (35) −0.2 to −0.2 −0.2 (28) 0.35

Ca, calcite; Qz, quartz; Tmi, ice-melting temperature; Th, homogenization temperature; n, number of samples; N.C., not calculated; Salinity was calculated for Tmi using
Bodnar (1993) equation.

positive dissociation temperatures ranging from +1.8 ◦ C to +5.6 ◦ C,
suggesting the formation of CO2 clathrates upon freezing and the
trapping of fluids rich in CO2 . Fluid inclusions from 200 to 800 m
depth give Tmi values of −0.1 ◦ C to −1.4 ◦ C, corresponding to salini-
ties of 0.2–1.3 wt% NaCl equivalent. A similar, but narrower, range of
Tmi values characterizes the fluid inclusions occurring between 800
and 1200 m depth. These inclusions yielded ice-melting tempera-
tures of −0.1 ◦ C to −0.5 ◦ C corresponding to salinities of 0.2–0.9 wt%
NaCl equivalent. At 1700 m depth fluid inclusions record conditions
similar to those measured at 1200 m depth (i.e. Th = 284 ± 10 ◦ C;
Tmi = −0.2 ◦ C or 0.4 wt% NaCl equivalent).
In summary, fluid inclusion data suggest that two hydrothermal
events have occurred at Tulancingo–Acoculco. One was character-
ized by high salinity fluids and was related to the formation of the
skarns, while the second, a younger and superimposed event, had
fluids of lower salinity and was associated with the evolution of the
Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex.
8. Discussion and concluding remarks
peratures (>300 ◦ C) measured in well EAC-1, and the presence of
hot (49 ◦ C) springs at Chignahuapan, located about 19 km from the
Los Azufres cold-gas emission zone, suggest that there is a hidden
active hydrothermal system in the study area (Fig. 12).
The presence of calcite and of the kaolinite–pyrite assemblage
at the same depth could be evidence of two different hydrothermal
pulses, similar to what was reported in geothermal systems of the
Philippines (Reyes, 1990). This hypothesis, however, would have to
be confirmed by data collected from future wells.
The intense hydrothermal alteration (and mineral deposition)
observed in EAC-1 samples indicates the presence of a very low-
permeability caprock that prevents the ascent of high-temperature
fluids to the surface. Only exsolved residual gases (CO2 and H2 S)
from the deep reservoir can flow up through very low permeability
fractures in the caprock. As these gases cool during their ascent (by
thermal and mass transfer to the surrounding rocks), they are cold
when discharged at the surface.
The present low permeability of the rocks encountered by EAC-1
is due to:

The intersection of two regional fault systems, one striking NW
and the other NE, created an intensely fractured zone in the study
area providing a pathway for ascending magmas; their eruption led
to the formation of the Tulancingo Caldera, and later, of the Acoculco
Caldera (López-Hernández and Castillo-Hernández, 1997). Eventu-
ally this resulted in the development of the Tulancingo–Acoculco
Caldera Complex and its associated geothermal systems. A simi-
lar explanation has been proposed for the origin of the geothermal
fields at Los Humeros and La Primavera, Mexico (Garduño-Monroy
and López-Hernández, 1987).
The Caldera Complex is located in a NW–SE-trending tectonic
depression now filled with volcanic and sedimentary deposits.
Inside this feature an elliptical low-gravity zone was observed in the
Tulancingo–Acoculco area indicating the presence of low-density
Caldera fill and felsic rocks.
Inside the Caldera Complex the gravity and magnetic suscep-
tibility highs are associated with the most recent post-Caldera
magmatism. The evidence of this igneous episode includes the
mafic dikes encountered in the well EAC-1, the cinder cones and
associated basaltic–andesitic lava flows found along the Caldera
ring structure, and the low volcanoes and scoria cones of the same
composition observed around the Caldera complex (Fig. 2).
The hydrothermal system at Tulancingo–Acoculco, associated
with the evolution of the two superimposed Caldera structures, is
located in the central part of the younger Acoculco Caldera. The
lack of thermal springs inside the volcanic complex and the pres-
ence of extensive areas of argillic alteration (some of them fossil)
seem to indicate that the hydrothermal system is not very active
at the present time. However, surface gas emissions, the high tem-
(a) The inherent low permeability of skarns and granites, which
may have limited the development of the hydrothermal system
from the very beginning,
(b) The partial sealing of the NW- and NE-striking regional faults
that may channel the ascent of magmatic and hydrothermal
fluids because of the deposition of hydrothermal minerals,
(c) The intense secondary mineral deposition in the pyroclastic
deposits created a very effective caprock, and
(d) The lack of recent significant tectonic and magmatic activity
that has precluded fault reactivation.
The hydrology of the Tulancingo–Acoculco geothermal system
has not been studied yet, and more exploratory drillholes are
needed; however a first hypothesis suggests that below the caprock,
the geothermal fluids ascend through fractures associated with the
old NW–SE and NE–SW faults and mix with shallow groundwa-
ters of meteoric origin. The mixed fluids move laterally towards the
southeast through fractures in the limestones to finally discharge,
highly diluted, at Los Baños de Chignahuapan, 19 km SE of Acoculco.
Based on the high hot-spring flow rates the permeability of the
limestones in these areas must be high. The presence of boron and
the concentration of chloride above the normal content of meteoric
waters in that area (Table 1) are consistent with this interpretation
and confirm the mixing of shallow groundwaters with geothermal
fluids. Other evidence is the presence of terraces, consisting of fossil
hydrothermal travertine deposits, at a location between the alter-
ation zone at Acoculco and the Chignahuapan springs, indicating
that the thermal activity has shifted toward the southeast.
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A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293 291

Fig. 12. Schematic geologic model of the Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex and its geothermal system developed on the basis of geologic, gravity (first-order residual of
the Bouguer anomaly), and magnetic (total field reduced to the pole) data. Location of the cross-section is given in Fig. 2.

Rainfall is high in the Tulancingo–Acoculco area. At high ele-
vations the average annual precipitation is around 1000 mm and
about 600 mm in the surrounding plains. Therefore, mass recharge
of the system through faulted and fractured zones should be sig-
nificant. The high flow rates of the Los Baños de Chignahuapan and
Quetzalapa springs indicate large permeabilities in the limestones
and high mass recharge.
Taken together, the results of the geologic and geophysical stud-
ies suggest that three volcanic episodes have taken place in the
study area. That is, the volcanic activity associated with Tulancingo
Caldera (3.0–2.7 Ma), the emplacement of volcanic products of the
Acoculco Caldera (1.7–0.24 Ma) and, finally, the monogenetic vol-
canism of the Tezontepec–Apan volcanic field and the intrusion of
genetically related dikes (1.8–0.2 Ma).
The thermal history of the Tulancingo–Acoculco area, inter-
preted from fluid inclusions and the analysis of secondary minerals,
suggests that there were at least two major hydrothermal episodes.
The oldest and more saline event is related to the intrusion of gran-
ites and the formation of skarns. We consider that it is associated
with a regional episode of Mid-Miocene granitic intrusions (Yáñez-
García, 1980). The second and less saline hydrothermal episode
is associated with the evolution of the Tulancingo and Acoculco
Caldera Complex. A third thermal event associated with the most
recent volcanism might be occurring in the study area; but this is
only a hypothesis based on the age of the youngest volcanic rocks.
According to numerical studies of convective cooling intrusions
(Garcia-Estrada et al., 2002), high (about 300 ◦ C) temperatures in
hydrothermal systems can only exist if the magmatic heat source is
less than a few hundred thousand years old (around 0.3 Ma for typ-
ical size rhyolitic intrusions at 4 km depth). Because the emission
of silicic volcanic products at Tulancingo–Acoculco ended about
0.8 ± 0.1 Ma ago, the present-day high temperatures measured in
the EAC-1 well cannot be related to the magmatic activity of the
Caldera-forming events. Therefore, these temperatures must be
associated with the area’s youngest (0.24 ± 0.04 Ma) basaltic mag-
matic episode, which led to the emplacement of dikes and the
formation of the scoria cones on the Acoculco Caldera rim. We inter-
pret that this latest igneous event provided the heat to drive the
hypothesized third hydrothermal pulse.
The very low permeability of the rock column penetrated by
well EAC-1, the result of the intense hydrothermal alteration of the
volcanics and the inherent low permeability of metamorphic and
intrusive rocks, suggests that most of the studied fluid inclusions
were produced by old hydrothermal systems and consequently are
not representative of the present-day high temperatures measured
in the well. As the low permeability precludes the possibility that
 Author's personal copy
292 A. López-Hernández et al. / Geothermics 38 (2009) 279–293
high temperatures are produced by the ascent of geothermal fluids,
they must reflect a purely conductive heat transfer phenomenon.
This would require the presence of a close heat source (i.e. cooling
magma).
Taking into account that gas emission is a very brief phe-
nomenon in terms of geological time, the He3 /He4 ratios in the gases
being emitted at Acoculco is another factor that suggests the exis-
tence of a very young magma body nearby that supplies heat to the
hydrothermal system.
Because fault zones were not recently reactivated by geologic
events, future exploratory drilling must focus in finding perme-
able zones associated with faults buried under the young volcanics.
Well EAC-1 and the Chignahuapan hot springs are located along a
regional trend of steep NW–SE gravity gradient and could be related
to the buried NW–SE faults.
A second CFE exploration well drilled about 500 m east of EAC-1
and completed at 1900 m total depth in November 2008, showed a
high bottomhole temperature (about 267 ◦ C; measured 26 h after
the drilling had stopped) and low permeabilities (the well only
accepted an injection rate of about 0.5 m3 /h); similar values to those
of well EAC-1. The intrusive body was found at a similar depth as in
EAC-1.
We suggest drilling a small-diameter exploration borehole about
2 km southeast of EAC-1 to study the geologic and thermal charac-
teristics of the flank of the intrusive body encountered in both wells
and its possible association with the high-gravity gradient observed
in that area. Another exploratory well could be targeted at the inter-
section of the Caldera ring faults and the NW-trending faults, 6.2 km
SE from EAC-1, to confirm (or disprove) whether the mixed fluids
move laterally to the SE through the limestones to discharge at Los
Baños de Chignahuapan.
Acknowledgements
The first author acknowledges the Gerencia de Proyectos
Geotermoeléctricos of CFE, particularly Dr. Gerardo Hiriart, former
manager at the time the fieldwork was conducted, for the financial
and logistical support provided. She is grateful to Daniel Castillo and
Julio C. Viggiano for their comments during the performance of the
work. Support was also obtained from the Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, PAPIIT grant IN-115302. The authors express
their gratitude to Mark Coolbaugh, Patrick Dobson, Sabodh Garg,
Giovanni Gianelli, Marcelo Lippmann and Joseph Moore for their
careful reviews, helpful comments, and suggestions that greatly
improved the manuscript.
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