Cross Cultural Psychology

■ Assignment Topic
Culture, Language & Communication
■ Semester
7th Shifted
■ Department
Department of Applied Psychology GCUF
■ Submitted to:
Ms.Sumaira Hayat
■ Submitted by:
İqra Khan(10605)
Aleeshah Nawaz (10634)
Ayesha Nawaz (10611)
Introduction
■ Communication is one of the most important aspects of our lives.
■ It is a process that ties us all together; it helps us get work done, have relationships,
and accomplish goals.
■ It is also important for developing, maintaining, and transmitting culture from one
generation to the next. And in reinforcing cultural goals and values within
generations .
Aspects of Communication
Communication plays a special role in our understanding of culture and cultural
influences on behavior. There are 2 aspects of communication:

Verbal communication Nonverbal communication

■ Words and language play a major
role in our communication
processes.
■ People place great emphasis on the
words we use and how we use them
■ Another large and important
component is nonverbal
communication.
■ Including facial expressions, tone of
voice, posture, dress, distance, and
the like.
The Structure of language
■ Linguists typically describe language using the following five critical features, which
appear to apply to all languages in all cultures:
1.The lexicon or vocabulary
■ The lexicon or vocabulary refers to the words contained in a language.
■ Example, the words tree, eat, how, and slowly are each part of the English lexicon.
2.The syntax and grammar

■ The syntax and grammar of a language refer to the system of rules governing word
forms and how words should be strung together to form meaningful utterances.
■ For example, English has a grammatical rule add _s_ to the end of many words to
indicate plurality (cat becomes cats).
■ English also has a syntactic rule that we generally place adjectives before nouns,
not after.
■ For example, small dog , not dog small.
3. Phonology
■ Phonology refers to the system of rules governing how words should sound
(pronunciation) in a given language.
■ For instance, in English, we don’t pronounce new the same as sew.
 4. Semantics
■ Semantics refers to what words mean.
■ For example, table refers to a physical object that has four legs and a flat horizontal
surface.
5.Pragmatics

■ Pragmatics refers to the system of rules governing

■ How language is used and understood in given social contexts.
■ How it’s interpreted depends on the social and environmental context.
■ For example, the statement “It is cold” could be interpreted as a request to close a
window
■ Or as a statement of fact about the temperature.
Phonemes & Morphemes

■ Linguists use two other concepts to help explain the structure of language.
■ Phonemes are the smallest and most basic units of sound in a language.
■ Morphemes are the smallest and most basic units of meaning in a language.
■ Phonemes thus form the base of a language hierarchy in which language gains in
complexity as sounds gain meaning.
■ Which in turn produces words, which are strung together in phrases and, finally,
sentences.
Language differences across cultures

■ Following major points :

■ 1.Relationship between culture & language
■ 2. Culture & lexicons:
■ °self/other referents
■ °counting systems
■ 3. Culture & pragmatics:
■ °Pronoun use
■ 4. Communication styles
1.Relationship between culture&
language
■ Culture influences the structure and functional use of language, and language can be thought
of as the result or manifestation of culture.
■ Language also influences and reinforces our cultural values and worldview.
■ The cyclical nature of this suggests that no culture can be fully understood without
understanding its language, and vice versa.
2.Culture and Lexicons

■ Self/other referent:
■ In American English, we generally use one of two words, and their derivatives, to
describe ourselves when talking to others: I and we.
■ We use these words irrespective of whom we are talking to or what we are talking
about.
■ We use the same word I when referring to ourselves with friends, family, neighbors,
acquaintances ,bosses, or subordinates.
■ Likewise, İn conversation we generally use a single word in English to refer to
another person or group of people: you.
Self/Other referents

■ Many languages in the world, however, have much more elaborate systems of
reference that depend on the nature of the relationship between people.
According to studies

■ In Japanese, what you call yourself and others is totally dependent on the
relationship between you and the other person.
■ For example, if you are of a higher status than the other person, in Japan you would
refer to yourself by position or role.
■ In Japan, teachers use the word teacher to refer to themselves when talking to
students.
■ When speaking to someone of higher status, for-example people generally use
watashi to refer to themselves.
Language differences
■ These differences between the English and Japanese languages reflect important cultural
differences.
■ All aspects of behavior and language differ depending on whether one person is higher or lower
in status than the other person in the conversation, and whether the other person is a member of
your ingroup or not.
Counting Systems
■ Counting systems provide yet another example of how culture influences the
structure of a language.
■ Example, In the Japanese language different words are used to denote different
things being counted.
■ Round, cylindrical objects are counted by the suffix _hon_ flat objects are counted
by _mai_ .
■ The Japanese language bases all numbers on the words for one through ten.
■ Eleven is literally ten-one (ju-ichi),12 is ten-two (ju-ni), 20 is two-ten (ni-ju).
3.Culture and Pragmatics

■ Culture affects also pragmatics.

■ Pronoun Use:
■ Kashima and Kashima (1998), for example, examined 39 languages used in 71
countries, obtaining both cultural and linguistic data(include whether the language
permitted dropping these pronounce in conversation)from each country.
■ Kashima and Kashima (1998) found that cultures whose languages allowed
pronounce to be dropped tended to be less individualistic, which they interpreted as
reflecting different cultural conceptualizations of self and others.
 4.Communicatiom Style
■ Gudykunst and Nishida (1986b)have done a number of studies that demonstrate cultural
variability in language use and communication styles.
■ They asked participants in the United States and Japan to make intimacy ratings of 30
relationship terms (such as brother, employer, stranger) and, in another study, to rate
communication styles in six relationships on personalization,synchrony, and difficulty.
Research Results
■ The results indicated that the Japanese rate ingroup relationships as coworkers and university
colleagues, as more intimate than did the Americans, and that the Japanese perceived more
personalization but less synchrony across relationship terms.
■ These researchers suggested that members of collectivistic cultures use a principle of equity
involving greater social penetration when communicating with ingroup members than do
members of individualistic cultures.
 The Relative
Contribution of Verbal &
Non Verbal Messages
 INTRODUCTION:

➢In cross cultural psychology VERBAL

messages refers to the communication of
information , ideas or emotions through
spoken or written language .
➢ Non VERBAL messages that do not rely on
spoken or written language . It include body
language , facial expressions , gestures and eye
contact etc.
 Contribution of Verbal Messages
▪Plays a crucial role in understanding and
studying different cultures .
▪It is primary means to of conveying cultural
norms , values and beliefs.
▪They enable researcher to gather information ,
conduct interviews and analyze cultural
differences and similarities .
▪It also recognize that non verbal messages
context.
 Contribution of Non Verbal Messages

▪Non Verbal messages are of immense important in

cross cultural psychology.
▪It provide valuable insights into cultural
differences and similarities .
▪Non Verbal cues such as body language , gestures
, tone of voice can convey emotions , attitudes and
cultural norms.
▪Eye contact , smiling and body posture play a
vital role in building trust and rapport.
 Advantages of Verbal Messages

Advantages of verbal messages are :

➢Language familiarity
➢Cultural nuances
➢Theory development
➢Cultural insights
➢Clarity and precision
➢Standardized assessment
➢Cross cultural Research
➢Communications of finding
 Advantages of Non Verbal Messages
Advantages of non verbal messages are :
➢Universal expression
➢Cultural variability
➢Sensory perceptions
➢Contextual understanding
➢Interactions & Relationships
➢Cross cultural comparisons
➢Non linguistic data
➢Non Verbal assessment tools
 ENCODING

• Encoding refers to the process by which people

select consciously or unconsciously a particular
modality and method by which create and send a
message to someone alse.
•We don’t think about this process all the time as
adults .
•As children we had to learn the rules of syntax ,
grammar ,pragmatics and phonology in order to
encode competently.
 DECODING

•Decoding refers to the process by which a person a

person receives signals from an encoder and
translates those signals into meaningful messages.
•Decoding depends on those rules in order to
messages to be intrepreted in the manners in which
they were meant to by conveyed.
•In scientific literature , the person who decode
messages is often called ‘ Decoder’ or the receiver.
 Channels , Signals and Messages

❖Communication has a number of other

components :
❖Signals are the specific words and behaviors that
are sent during communication .
❖ Messages are the meanings that are intended or
received with the signals.
❖They are the knowledge , ideas ,concepts and
emotions that encoders.
❖Channels refers to the specific sensory
modalities by which signals are sent and
messages and retrieved , such as sight or sound.
❖Most widely used channels are visual __seeing
facial expressions , body postures ,gestures ,
auditory , hearing words , tone of voice and so on.
❖All other senses are used in communication
including touch , smell and taste.
 The Role Of Culture in the Communication
Process
✓Culture has a pervasive and profound influence on
verbal and non verbal encoding and decoding
processes.
✓It influences over the verbal languages that we
speak .
✓In that domain culture influences language
lexicons and vocabulary , and the rules by which
words are put together to form meaningful phrases
and sentences .
❖Culture affects the decoding process in several
ways .
❖ Culture filters , ethnocentrism , emotions and
values of judgment.
❖As we grow up we learn cultural rules of
appropriate communication encoding with respect
to both verbal and non verbal behavior.
Culture and stereotypes Culture and social cognition

• Stereotypes are • Culture plays a

inevitable products significant role in
of normal shaping social
psychological cognition in cross
culture psychology.
processes including
selective attention , • Social cognition
refers to how
appraisal , concept individuals perceive ,
formation , process in social
attribution , emotion context.
and memories.
Intracultural versus Intercultural
Communication:

 Intracultural Communication :

Intracultural communication refers to the interaction and exchange of

information between individuals or groups who share the same cultural
background or identity. It involves communication within a single culture, where
people share common values, beliefs, customs, and social norms. Effective
intracultural communication relies on a mutual understanding of cultural
context, enabling smoother interactions and fostering a sense of belonging within
the cultural group.
 Intercultural Communication :

Intercultural communication refers to the process of exchanging information and

interacting between people from different cultural backgrounds. It involves
individuals who may have distinct values, beliefs, communication styles, and
social norms. Effective intercultural communication requires awareness,
sensitivity, and adaptability to navigate potential cultural differences and ensure
mutual understanding. This form of communication is essential in today’s
globalized world, where people from diverse cultures frequently interact in
various personal, professional, and social contexts. Successful intercultural
communication enhances collaboration, reduces misunderstandings, and
promotes respect among individuals from different cultural backgrounds.
Uncertainty and ambiguity.

 Uncertainty and ambiguity refer to situations where information is unclear,

imprecise, or lacking in specificity. Uncertainty implies a lack of surety or
predictability, while ambiguity suggests multiple possible interpretations or
meanings.
 In communication, dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity requires individuals to
navigate and make sense of information despite its unclear or variable nature.
This could involve seeking clarification, making assumptions, or adapting to the
circumstances.
 In intercultural communication, individuals may encounter uncertainty due to
cultural differences in communication styles, norms, or expectations. Adapting to
ambiguity involves being open-minded, flexible, and employing effective
communication strategies to bridge gaps in understanding. It’s an essential skill,
especially in diverse and multicultural environments where interpretations of
communication cues may vary.
Conflict:

 Conflict in communication arises when there are differing opinions, interests,

or goals between individuals or groups. It can manifest in various forms, such
as verbal disagreements, misunderstandings, or clashes in values.
 Resolving conflict involves effective communication, active listening, and
finding common ground. Addressing the underlying issues, acknowledging
diverse perspectives, and seeking compromises are essential steps toward
conflict resolution. In intercultural communication, understanding cultural
nuances and adapting communication styles can help prevent and manage
conflicts arising from cultural differences.
 Conflict, when managed constructively, can lead to improved relationships
and a deeper understanding between parties. It’s an inherent aspect of
human interaction that, when navigated skillfully, can contribute to personal
and collective growth.
Improving Intercultural Communication

Barriers to Effective Communication

Barna (1996) has outlined six major obstacles or “stumbling blocks” to

effective intercultural communication.

 Assumption of Similarity
 Stereotyping
 Language Differences
 Nonverbal Misinterpretations
 Tendency to Evaluate
 High anxiety or tension
 Assumption of Similarity
Assuming that others perceive and interpret things the same
way as individuals from one’s own culture. This can lead to
misunderstandings when cultural perspectives differ.

 Stereotyping
Applying generalizations or stereotypes to individuals from a
particular culture, oversimplifying and ignoring the diversity
within that group.
 Language Differences:
Variances in language can lead to misunderstandings,
misinterpretations, and communication breakdowns. Even
when individuals speak the same language, nuances and
idioms may differ.

 Nonverbal Misinterpretations:
Different cultures may interpret nonverbal cues, such as
gestures, facial expressions, and body language, in various
ways. Misreading these cues can lead to confusion and
miscommunication.
 Tendency to Evaluate:
Evaluating other cultures based on one’s own cultural norms and
values, leading to ethnocentrism. This inhibits a genuine
understanding of diverse perspectives.

 High anxiety or tension:

Intercultural communication episodes are often associated with greater anxiety and
stress than are more familiar intracultural communication situations. In many cases,
some degree of anxiety and tension is necessary for optimal “performance,” whether
in intercultural communication or in other arenas of life (such as taking a test or
competing in sports). Too much anxiety and stress, however, can lead to dysfunctional
thought processes and behaviors. Stress and anxiety can exaggerate all of the other
stumbling blocks, making it more likely that people will cling dogmatically to rigid
interpretations, hold onto stereotypes despite objective evidence to the contrary, and
make negative evaluations of others. Thus, too much anxiety or stress is not at all
functional for intercultural communication. Given these stumbling blocks, as
presented by Barna (1996) and throughout this chapter, how can we overcome them
to engage in effective intercultural communication?
CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, effective communication is vital in both intracultural and intercultural contexts.

Intracultural communication benefits from shared understanding within a cultural group,
fostering a sense of identity. On the other hand, intercultural communication requires navigating
cultural differences, necessitating awareness, adaptability, and open-mindedness.

Barna’s stumbling blocks highlight the challenges in intercultural communication, emphasizing

the importance of overcoming assumptions, stereotypes, and language barriers. Additionally, high
anxiety or tension can hinder communication by creating barriers, impairing cognitive function,
and escalating conflicts.

By promoting cultural sensitivity, active listening, and addressing emotional barriers, individuals
can enhance both intracultural and intercultural communication. Ultimately, fostering a
communication environment that values diversity and encourages mutual understanding
contributes to more meaningful and positive interactions across cultures.
Done ✅
Thank You ☺️