DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL BANGALORE-EAST

PHYSICS LAB
MANUAL
CLASS XI (2023-24)
 PHYSICS (Code No. 042)
COURSE STRUCTURE
Class XI – 2023-24 (Theory)
Time: 3 hrs. Max Marks: 70

No. of Marks
Periods
Unit–I Physical World and Measurement
08
Chapter–1: Units and Measurements
Unit-II Kinematics
24
Chapter–2: Motion in a Straight Line 23
Chapter–3: Motion in a Plane
Unit–III Laws of Motion
14
Chapter–4: Laws of Motion
Unit–IV Work, Energy and Power
14
Chapter–5: Work, Energy and Power
Unit–V Motion of System of Particles and Rigid
Body 18 17
Chapter–6: System of Particles and
Rotational Motion
Unit-VI Gravitation
12
Chapter–7: Gravitation
Unit–VII Properties of Bulk Matter
Chapter–8: Mechanical Properties of Solids
24
Chapter–9: Mechanical Properties of Fluids
Chapter–10: Thermal Properties of Matter
20
Unit–VIII Thermodynamics
12
Chapter–11: Thermodynamics
Behaviour of Perfect Gases and Kinetic
Unit–IX 08
Theory of Gases
Chapter–12: Kinetic Theory
Unit–X Oscillations and Waves
26 10
Chapter–13: Oscillations
Chapter–14: Waves
Total 160 70
 QUESTION PAPER DESIGN
Theory (Class: XI)
Maximum Marks: 70 Duration: 3 hrs.

S Typology of Questions Total Approximate

Marks Percentage
1 Remembering: Exhibit memory of previously learned 27 38 %
material by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts, and
answers.
Understanding: Demonstrate understanding of facts and
ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting,
giving descriptions, and stating main ideas
2 Applying: Solve problems to new situations by applying 22 32%
acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a
different way.
3 Analysing : Examine and break information into parts by 21 30%
identifying motives or causes. Make inferences and find
evidence to support generalizations
Evaluating:
Present and defend opinions by making judgments about
information, validity of ideas, or quality of work based on a
set of criteria.
Creating:
Compile information together in a different way by
combining elements in a new pattern or proposing
alternative solutions.
Total Marks 70 100
Practical 30
Gross Total 100
 PRACTICALS

Total Periods: 60

The record, to be submitted by the students, at the time of their annual examination,
has to include:

• Record of at least 8 Experiments [with 4 from each section], to be performed by

the students.

• Record of at least 6 Activities [with 3 each from section A and section B], to be
performed by the students.

• Report of the project carried out by the students.

EVALUATION SCHEME

Time 3 hours Max. Marks: 30

Topic Marks

Two experiments one from each section 7+7

Practical record (experiment and activities) 5

One activity from any section 3
Investigatory Project 3
Viva on experiments, activities and project 5
Total 30
 SECTION–A
Experiments

1. To measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body and to measure internal

diameter and depth of a given beaker/calorimeter using Vernier Callipers and hence
find its volume.
2. To measure diameter of a given wire and thickness of a given sheet using screw
gauge.
3. To determine the mass of two different objects using a beam balance.

4. Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the effective length
of second's pendulum.
Activities
1. To make a paper scale of given least count, e.g., 0.2cm, 0.5 cm.

2. To determine mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of moments.

3. To plot a graph for a given set of data, with proper choice of scales and error bars.

SECTION–B
Experiments

1. To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and
extension.
2. To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring
terminal velocity of a given spherical body.
3. To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire under constant
tension using sonometer.

4. To find the speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube by
two resonance positions.

Activities

1. To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip.

2. To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by observing capillary
rise.
3. To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped metre scale loaded
at (i) its end (ii) in the middle.
 INDEX
S.NO Pg.No Teacher’s Signature
EXPERIMENT Date
SECTION A
To measure diameter of a small spherical/ using
1. 1-2
Vernier Callipers.
To measure diameter of a given wire
2. 3-4
and thickness of a given sheet using
screw gauge.
To determine the mass of two different objects
3. 5-6
using abeam balance.
Using a simple pendulum, plot its
4. L-T2 graph anduse it to find the 7-8
effective length of second's
pendulum.
SECTION B
To find the force constant of a helical 9-10
5. spring byplotting a graph between load and
extension.
To determine the coefficient of viscosity
6. 11-12
of a given viscous liquid by measuring
terminal velocity of a givenspherical
body.
To study the relation between frequency and length 13-14
7. of agiven wire under constant tension using
sonometer.
To find the speed of sound in air at room
8. 15-17
temperatureusing a resonance tube by two
resonance positions.
S.NO ACTIVITIES Pg.No Date Teacher’s Signature

SECTION A
To make a paper scale of given least count, e.g., 18-19
1 0.2cm, 0.5 cm.
To determine mass of a given body using
2 a metre scale by principle of moments 20-21
To plot a graph for a given set of data, with proper
3 choice of scales and error bars 22
SECTION B
To observe and explain the effect of heating on a 23-24
4
bi-metallic strip.

5 To study the effect of detergent on surface 25-26

tension of water by observing capillaryrise.

6 To study the effect of load on depression of a 27-28

suitably clamped metre scale loadedat (i) its end
(ii) in the middle
Guidelines to Write Records:

1. Use BLUE INK only.

2. Diagrams to be drawn in pencil. Geometry instruments to be used. Nofree

hand diagrams.

3. Table borders to be drawn using ruler and pencil. Content to be written in

pen.

4. Page borders to be drawn on blank page.

5. BLANK PAGE RULED PAGE

Figure, Observation (tabular Aim, Apparatus, Theory,

column etc.), Calculations Procedure, Result, Precautions,
Sources of Error.

6. Date of experiment, tabular column and result to be entered after

experiment is conducted in lab.

7. A printout of this file to be taken and brought to the lab every lab
session.

8. Please follow all the instructions.

All the Best to You…Batch 2023-24.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Aim:
To measure diameter of a small spherical body (pendulum bob) using Vernier Callipers.
Apparatus:
Vernier callipers, a spherical body (pendulum bob) or a cylinder and a magnifying lens.

Theory:

A.

B. If with the body between the jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of Nth. division of
main scale, then main scale reading (M.S.R.) = N.
If nth division of vernier scale coincides with any division of main scale, then vernier scale
reading (V.S.R.) = n x (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of vernier callipers)
Total reading, T.R. = M.S.R. + V.S.R.
= N + n x (L.C)
Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e., least count (L.C.) of the Vernier callipers
and record it step wise.
2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero error.
If there is no zero error, record zero error nil.
3. Open the jaws, place the sphere or cylinder between the two jaws A and B and adjust the
jaw DB, such that it gently grips the body without any undue pressure on it. Tight the
screw S attached to the vernier scale V.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale and the vernier
scale division which coincides with some division of the main scale.
5. Repeat steps 4, five times. Record the observations in each set in a tabular form.
6. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
7. Take mean of diameter and show that in the result.
8. Write it with proper unit.

1
Observations:
A. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers

B. Zero error = 0 cm
Mean zero error (e)=0 cm.
Mean zero correction (c) = -e = 0cm.
(C) Table for the Diameter (D)
S.NO Main scale Vernier scale reading Observed
reading(N) Diameter
No. of division Value
coincide(n) n x L.C
(cm) D=N + (n x L.C)
(cm) (cm)
1 𝐷 1=
2 𝐷 2=
3 𝐷 3=
4 𝐷 4=
5 𝐷5=
Calculation:
𝐷1+ 𝐷2 +𝐷3+𝐷4 +𝐷5
D= = …… cm
5
Zero error, e = ± ... cm
Mean observed diameter = ... cm
Corrected diameter = Mean observed diameter – Zero Error
Result:
The diameter of the given sphere is .................cm.
Precautions:
1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pressure
on it from the jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least as three
different places.
Sources of Error:
1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.
2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.
3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.
4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.

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2
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Aim:
To measure diameter of a given wire using screw gauge.
Apparatus:
Screw gauge, wire, half-metre scale and magnifying lens.

Theory:
A. The pitch can be represented as;

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

Pitch(p) =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

B. The least count can be calculated using the formula;

𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
Least count (L.C) =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

C. When the wire is Placed between the face A and the face B,
Then, the diameter of the wire is given by;
 Linear scale reading (L.S.R.) = N.
 If nth division of circular scale lies over reference line.
Then, circular scale reading (C.S.R.) = n x (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of screw
gauge)

 Total reading (T.R.) = L.S.R. + C.S.R. = N+ n x (L.C.)

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D.).

2. Determine the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge and record it step wise.
3. Bring the plane face B in contact with plane face A and find the zero error. If there is no
zero error, then record zero error nil.
4. Place the wire lengthwise over face A and move the face B towards face A using the
ratchet head R. Stop when R turns (slips) without moving the screw.
5. Note the number of divisions of the linear scale visible and uncovered by the edge of the
cap and the division of the circular scale lying over reference line.
6. Repeat steps 5, five times. Record the observations in each set in a tabular form.

3
 7. Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case.
8. Take mean of different values of diameter
Observations:
A. Determination of Least Count of the Screw Gauge.
1 L.S.D. = 1 mm
Number of full rotations given to screw =
Distance moved by the screw = mm
Hence, pitch(p) = mm
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100
Hence, least count (L.C) = mm = cm.
B. Zero Error. (i) mm, (ii) mm, (iii) mm.
Mean zero error (e) = mm
Mean zero correction (c) = – e = mm = mm
C. Table for diameter (D)

S.NO Main scale Circular scale reading Observed Corrected

reading(N) Diameter(D)(cm) D= 𝐷0+ c
No. of circular Value
division on n x L.C 𝐷0=N + (n x L.C)
(mm) reference line (n)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1 𝐷 1=
2 𝐷2=
3 𝐷 3=
4 𝐷 4=
5 𝐷 5=

Calculation:
𝐷1+ 𝐷2 +𝐷3+𝐷4 +𝐷5
D= = ……mm
5
Result:
The diameter of the given wire is ................. mm.
Precautions:
1. To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by
cap K.
2. For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction to
avoid back-lash error of the screw.
3. Error due to parallax should be avoided.
Sources of error:
1. The screw may have friction.
2. The screw gauge may have back-lash error.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size.

*****************

4
 EXPERIMENT No - 3
Aim:

To determine the mass of two different objects using a beam balance.

Apparatus:
Beam balance, weight box, forceps, two objects of different masses.
Theory:
Correct mass of the body using the beam balance,
(1)
Where,
W - Mass in the pan
R0 - Zero resting point
R - Resting point with the body counter-poised with weight W
S - Sensibility of the balance.
The sensibility S, the weight required to shift the resting point by one division is
calculated from the equation,

R1 – Resting point with 10 mg in the right pan

Diagram:

Observations:

Serial body Weight in x(g) Weight in y(mg) Total weight

no. (x + y) g
1. I

2. II

5
Result:
The gravitational mass of the bodies is:
i. mass of one body, m1 = g
ii. mass of other body, m2 = g.

Precautions:

1. Put the weight and a body in pans gently with the help of forceps.
2. Close the front glass door gently while taking the measurement so that air current
should not disturb the weighing.
3. Pointer should coincide to the zero mark or oscillate equally on both side the central
mark.

Sources of error:

1. Air can disturb the weighing.

2. Pointer can oscillate unequally about the zero mark.

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6
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Aim:
Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the effective length of second’s
pendulum.

Apparatus:
A clamp with stand, a split cork, thread, bob, vernier callipers, stop clock/watch, metre scale
and a piece of chalk.

Theory:
Time Period of the Simple Pendulum. Time taken by the bob of the simple pendulum to make
one complete vibration, is called the time period of the simple pendulum. It
is represented by the symbol T. The time period is given by the formula,

Second’s pendulum:
A second’s pendulum is such a pendulum which has a time period of exactly 2 seconds.

Diagram:

Observations:
1. Vernier constant of vernier callipers (V.C.) = ……. cm.
Zero error of vernier callipers (e): ……cm.
zero correction (c) = – e =… ........ cm
2.Observed diameter, d0 =….cm
corrected diameter, d=d0+c=… ........ cm
radius of the bob, r=d/2=… ............ cm
3.Length of hook of the bob, h=… ........ cm
Standard value of g= 980 cm s-2.
4. Table for Length (l) and time (T)
7
 Length of Time For 20 Time period T2
S. no. oscillations T= 𝑡 s
20
Effective length of Thread t
simple Pendulum (s)
l=l’+ h+ r l’
(cm) (cm)
1. 80 cm
2. 90 cm
3. 100 cm
4. 110 cm
5. 120 cm
Calculations:
(a) For each length, write time taken (t)for 20 vibrations in column (4) of above table.
𝑡
For each length, find time period T = s and write its value in column 5 and write the value of
20
T2 in column 6 of the above table.

(b) l-T2 graph

Plot a graph between l and T2 by taking l along X- axis and T2 along Y-axis.

Result:
The graph comes to be a straight line.
Length of seconds pendulum (T=2s) is cm from the graph.
Precautions:
1. Amplitude should be small to have sin 𝜃 ≈ 0[when 𝜃 < 18°].
2. The bob should move along a straight line.
3. Length of pendulum should be increased in steps of 10 cm to bring appreciable change in
time period
Sources of error:
1. The amplitude may not be small.
2. The air currents may disturb vibrations.
3. There may be an error in counting.
∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗

8
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

Aim:
To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and extension.

Apparatus:
Spring, a rigid support, a 50 g or 20 g hanger, six 50 g or 20 g slotted weights, a vertical
wooden scale, a fine pointer, a hook.

Theory:
When a load F suspended from lower free end of a spring hanging from a rigid support,
increases its length by amount l,

It is called the force constant or the spring constant of the spring,

From above if l = 1, F = K.
Hence, force constant (or spring constant) of a spring may be defined as the force required to
produce unit extension in the spring.

Diagram:

Procedure:
(1) Upper end of the spring is suspended to rigid support and the lower end to pointer,
hook and slotted weights.
(2) Add 50 g slotted weight hanger from the hook, such that the tip of the pointer comes
over the divisions on the scale, note the reading of the position of the tip of pointer
on scale in loading column. Gently add 50 g,100 g, 150 g……slotted weights to the
hanger and the pointer tip moves down.
(3) Remove 50 g each time from 300 g, 250g, 200g slotted weight from the hook, the
pointer tip moves up, Record the readings in the unloading column.

9
 Observations:
Least count of vertical scale = 0.1 cm

Load on Reading of position of pointer tip Extension

S. hanger(W) = Loading x Unloading y Mean z = l
No. Applied force (cm) (cm) 𝑥+𝑦
(F) (g wt) 2
(cm)
(cm)
1 50
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
6 300

Graph:

Plot a graph between F and l by taking F along X- axis and l along Y-axis.

Calculations:

From graph, Force constant= 𝐹= 𝐵𝐶= g wt. per cm

𝑙 𝐴𝐶

Result:

The force constant of the helical spring is g wt. per cm

Precautions:
(1) Loading and unloading of weight must be done gently.
(2) Loading should not be beyond the elastic limit.

Sources of Error:
(1) The support may not be rigid.
(2) The slotted weights may not have correct weight.

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10
 EXPERIMENT NO.6

Aim:

To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring terminal velocity
of a given spherical body.

Apparatus Required:

5 cm broad glass cylindrical jar, transparent viscous liquid, steel balls, screw gauge, stop clock,
clamp with stand.

Theory:

Where,

 v is the terminal velocity

 r is the radius of the spherical body
 g is the acceleration due to gravity
 ρ is the density of the spherical body
 σ is the density of the liquid
 η is the coefficient of viscosity

Diagram:

Procedure:

(1) Fill the glass jar with a transparent viscous liquid.

(2) Determine the least count, zero error, mean radius of the spherical ball using screw
gauge.
(3) Drop the ball gently in the liquid. It falls down in the liquid with the accelerated velocity
for about one-third of the height of liquid. Then it falls with uniform terminal velocity.

11
 (4) Start the stop clock, when the spherical ball reaches around 30 cm and stop the stop
clock, when the spherical ball reaches around 90 cm. Find the distance fallen and time
taken by the ball.

Observations:

1. Least count of vertical scale = 0.1 cm

2. Least count of stop clock = s,
zero error of stop clock= 0s
3. Least count of screw gauge (LC)= 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Zero correction of screw gauge (-e) = mm= cm
4. Diameter of spherical ball using screw gauge (D) = PSR + (CSR+(-e)) x LC = mm
(Note: 1 trial is enough to find diameter of spherical ball)
5. Radius of spherical ball (r) =𝐷 = mm = cm
2
6. Density of sphere (ρ) = 7.8 gm/cm 3

7. Density of viscous liquid (σ) = 0.95 gm/cm3

Calculations:
To calculate the terminal velocity of spherical ball(v):
Distance fallen (S) = …. cm
Time taken
(t1) = … s
(t2) = … s
(t3) = …… s
𝑡1+𝑡2+𝑡3
Mean time (t) = = s
3
𝑠
Terminal velocity (v)= = cm/s
𝑡

Therefore, Coefficient of viscosity (η) =2 r2(ρ - σ) g / 9 v = poise

Result:
The coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid = poise

Note:
poise is the C.G.S. unit of coefficient of viscosity

Precautions:
(1) Liquid should be transparent to watch motion of the ball.
(2) Ball should be perfectly spherical.

Sources of error:
(1) The liquid may not have uniform density.
(2) The ball may not be perfectly spherical.

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12
 EXPERIMENT NO.7
Aim:

To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire under constant tension
using sonometer.

Apparatus:

A sonometer, A set of tuning forks of known frequency, 0.5kg weight hanger, Some 0.5kg
slotted weights, Rubber pad, Paper rider.

Theory:

If a string which is stretched between two fixed points is plucked at its center, vibrations
produced and it move out in opposite directions along the string. Because of this, a
transverse wave travel along the string.

If a string of length l having mass per unit length m is stretched with a tension T, the
fundamental frequency of vibration f is given by;

From the law of length, f ×l = constant. A graph between f and 1/l will be a straight
line.

Diagram:

Procedure: To find the relation between frequency and length

1. Place the sonometer on the table.

2. Make sure that the pulley is frictionless. If you feel any friction, oil them.
3. Stretch the wire by placing a suitable maximum load on the weight hanger.
4. Move the wooden bridges outward, so that the length of wire between the bridges is
maximum.
5. Take a tuning fork of known frequency. Make it vibrate by strike its prong with a rubber
pad. Bring it near the ear.
6. Pluck the sonometer wire and leave it to vibrate.
7. Compare the sounds produced by tuning fork and sonometer wire. (Sound which has
low pitch has less frequency).
8. Gently adjust the bridges for decreasing the length of wire, till the two sounds appear
alike.
13
 9. Put an inverted V shaped paper rider on the middle of the wire.
10. Vibrate the tuning fork and touch the lower end of its handle with sonometer board. The
wire vibrates due to resonance and the paper rider falls.
11. Measure the length of wire between the bridges using a meter scale. It is the resonant
length and record it in the ‘length decreasing’ column.
12. Now, bring the bridges closer and then slowly increase the length of the wire till the
paper rider falls.
13. Measure the length of wire and record it in ‘length increasing’ column.
14. Repeat the above steps with tuning forks of other frequencies, and find resonant length
each time.

Observations:

To find the relation between frequency and length

Constant tension on the wire, T=.......... kg

Sl Frequency of tuning fork used, Resonant length of wire 1/ l

No f (Hz)
l (cm) (cm-1)

1
2
3
4

Calculations:

To find the relation between frequency and length

 Find mean resonant length,
 Calculate 1/l in each case.
 Plot a graph between frequency and reciprocal of length, taking frequency along X axis
and reciprocal length along Y axis.

Results:

 The frequency V/s reciprocal of length graph is a straight line, which indicates that,
frequency is inversely proportional to resonant length.

Precautions:

1. Pulley should be friction less.

2. Wires used should be kink less and of uniform cross-section

Sources of error:

1. Wire may not be rigid and of uniform cross-sectional area.

2. Pulley may not be friction less.
3. Weights used may not be correct.

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14
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

Aim:

To find the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using the resonance column by
determining two resonance positions.

Apparatus:

 Resonance column apparatus

 Tuning forks of known frequency
 Rubber hammer

Theory:
Let l1 and l2 be the length of the air column for the first and the second resonance respectively
with a tuning fork of frequency v.

Diagram:

Procedure:

 The inner tube of the resonance column is lowered to minimum so that the length of air
column inside the tube is very small.
 Take a tuning fork of known frequency and striking it with a rubber hammer. The tuning
fork now produces longitudinal waves with a frequency equal to the natural frequency
of the tuning fork.
 Place the vibrating tuning fork horizontally above the tube. Sound waves are passes
down to the tube and reflect back at the water surface.
 Now, raise the tube and the tuning fork until a maximum sound is heard.
 Measure the length of air column at that position. This is taken as the first resonant
length, l1.

15
  Then raise the tube approximately about three times the first resonant length.
 Excite the tuning fork again and place it on the mouth of the tube.
 Change the height of the tube until the maximum sound is heard.
 Measure the length of air column at that position. This is taken as the second resonant
length, l2.
 We can now calculate the velocity of sound in air at room temperature by using the
relation,

 Repeat the experiment with tuning forks of different frequencies and in each time,
calculate the value of v.
 The mean of the calculated values will give the velocity of sound in air at room
temperature.

Observations:
Temperature of air in air column:
(a) in the beginning, t1 =… ......... °C
(b) at the end, t2 = ................ °C

Calculation:

From first tuning fork v1=2ⱱ1 (l’2-l’1)

From second tuning fork v2=2ⱱ2 (l’’2-l’’1)

16
Mean velocity at room temperature= V1+V2
2

Result:

Velocity of sound in air at room temperature, v =… ........... m/s

Precautions:

1. Resonance tube should be vertical.

2. Pinch cock should be tight.
3. Tuning fork should be vibrated gently by a rubber pad.

Sources of error:

1. Resonance tube may not be vertical.

2. Pinch cock may be loose.

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17
 ACTIVITY 1
To make a paper scale of least count e.g., 0.2 cm, 0.5 cm.
Aim: To make a paper scale of least count e.g., 0.2 cm, 0.5 cm.
Apparatus: A thick white paper sheet, pencil, scale, fevicol, scissor, paper cutter, thick ivory sheet
Theory
Least count. The minimum observation that can be measured by the instrument accurately is called the least count of
instrument.

Diagram:

Procedure:
(a) Paper scale of least count 0.2 cm:
1. Fold a white paper sheet in the middle, mark the upper mark PQ line 15 cm, with P as zero
mark point on PQ, at 1 cm distance, and write as 0,1,2 …. Up to 15, with marked vertical
lines.
2. Draw another line XY parallel to PQ at a distance of 25 mm and make rectangle ABXY.
3. Divide 1 cm into 5 equal divisions on PQ with 2 mm interval up to 15 cm, drawsmall lines
about 3 mm perpendicular to PQ, on each point separated by 2 mm.
4. Draw another line AB at 3 mm gap, darken each line and division by black sharppen, and
write 1,2…15 at each cm mark.
5. Cut rectangular scale by sharp paper cutter, paste it on ivory sheet and cut sheet along
rectangular boundary by scissors and now paper scale is ready with least count 0.2 cm and
range of 15 cm.
(b) Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm:
1. Repeat the steps 1 and 2 as in part (a) of the above activity.
2. Divide 1 cm into 2 equal divisions on PQ with 5 mm interval upto 15 cm, drawsmall lines
about 3 mm perpendicular to PQ, on each point separated by 5 mm.
3. Draw another line AB at 3 mm gap, darken each line and division by black sharppen, and
write 1,2…15 at each cm mark.
4. Cut rectangular scale by sharp paper cutter, paste it on ivory sheet and cut sheetalong
rectangular boundary by scissors and now paper scale is ready with least count 0.5 cm and
range of 15 cm.

(C) Measure the length of pencil with the paper scale

1. Place one end A of the pencil along the scale (A) in such a way so that A lies at full mark say 1 cm
and read the position of the other end. Repeat the observation by placing the one end A of the pencil
at 2 cm mark and take the reading of the other end.
2. Use the second scale (B) of least count 0.5 cm in the similar manner as explained in step 1 and record
the observations.
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 Result
The scales of the least count 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm have been made.
1.The length of the pencil, using scale (A) = …….cm.
2. The length of the pencil, using scale (B) = ……….cm

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 ACTIVITY 2

To Determine Mass of a Given Body Using a Metre Scale by Principle of Moments

Aim:
To Determine Mass of a Given Body Using a Meter Scale by Principle of Moments

Apparatus:
A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge with sharp edge, a weight box, a body of unknown mass.

Theory:
If m and M be the mass of the body and mass of the weight used and a1 and a2 be the distances of their loops from wedge.
Then power (mass) arm = a1, weight arm =a2
From principle of moments mg a1 = Mg a2
or m = Ma1/a1 which can be calculated.

(i) Arm lengths fixed and equal, weight adjustable.

The thread loops are suspended at positions forming both arm of equal length. Weights in the paper pan are
adjusted till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
In this case a1 = a2 = a
Hence, mg a1 = Mg a2
or m = M
A physical balance makes use of this method.
(ii) Masses and power arm fixed, weight arm adjustable.
Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1
Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight loop thread in and out till the metre scale become horizontal.
In this case a1 = a1 a2 = A
Hence mg a1 = Mg a2, becomes mg a = Mg A
or m = M A/a

Diagram:

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 Procedure:
1) Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it at the sharp edge of the broad heavy wedge at 50 cm
mark.
2) Suspended the body of unknown mass by a loop thread at affixed mark on the left of the wedge.
3) Suspended paper pan at same distance on the right of the wedge with some weights in it.
4) Adjust the weighs in the paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5) Note the mass of the weighs in the pan.
6) Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing the length of the arms in equal steps keeping the lengths equal.
7) Record the observations as given in the following table.

Observations and Calculations:

Length of fixed arm A = _______ cm.

S. No. Length of weight (or power) arm Known mass M(g) U Unknown mass m(g)
a (cm) M m = MA/a
1.
2.
3.
4.

𝑚1 + 𝑚2 +𝑚3
Mean mass, 𝑚 = 𝑔 = ⋯𝑔
3
Result
The unknown mass of the body, m = ………… g.

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 ACTIVITY 3
To Plot a Graph for a Given set of Data, with Proper Choice of Scales and Error Bars
Aim
To plot a graph for a given set of data, with proper choice of scales and error bars.
Apparatus
Graph paper, scale, rubber, pencil.
Data
Load (gf) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Extension
0.08 0.15 0.23 0.31 0.4 0.49 0.57
(cm)

Procedure
(a) To identify dependent and independent variable
1. The load is taken as independent variable and should be taken on X-axis. The extension is taken as dependent variable
and should be taken on Y-axis.

(b) To select proper scale for load and extension

2. Find the range of load i.e., 350 -50 = 300 gf and extension i.e., 0.57 – 0.08 = 0.49 cm. Since the range of load is greater
than extension, then load-axis is taken parallel to longer side and extension axis is taken to smaller side of graph paper.
3. Since, the data have the positive values, then origin is taken at the lower left comer of the graph paper.
4. Along the load-axis (X-axis), one small division (1 S.D.) = 5 gf and along the extension axis (Y-axis).1 S.D. = 0.01 cm

(c) To plot the data with error bars

5. Mark the points 50, 100, 150, 350 gf on the load axis and the points 0.10, 0.20, 0. 30 0.60 cm on the extension-axis of
the graph paper.
6. For the first data point, the value of load is 50 gf and extension is 0.08 cm measured with an accuracy of ± 0,2 cm.
Mark the dot on the graph paper against the load 50 gf and extension 0.08 cm and surround it by a small circle
Corresponding to the load of 50 gf, the error bars are indicated against the upper and lower limiting values of the
extension as 0.08 – 0.02 and 0.08 + 0.02 i.e., 0.06 and 0.10 cm. The first data point is then completely plotted as
7. Similarly, plot the remaining data points, all the data points should lie in a straight line. In general, a few data points
may be of the expected straight line graph.
8. Draw a straight line joining the data points, taking care that the points, which do not lie on the straight line graph are
distributed evenly above and below it.
9. Write down the title of the graph i.e., ‘Graph between load and extension’ and the scales used along the two axes on
the graph-paper.
Graph

GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND

EXTENSION
0.6
0.57
0.5 0.49
EXTENSION (cm)

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.31
0.23
0.2
0.15
0.1 0.08
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
LOAD (gf)

Result
The graph between load and extension for the given set of data along with the error bars is as shown in Graph.

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 ACTIVITY 4

To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip

Aim
To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip.
Apparatus
A bi-metallic strip (made of iron and brass bars), a board with clamp screw on one side and vertical scale on the other
side, electric heating arrangement, or a burner thermometer.
Theory
If two rods of different metals have same length L1 at temperature t1°C, their length at higher temperature t2 °C will be
different. The rod of a metal having more value of ‘coefficient of linear expansion will have more length than the other
rod.
Diagram

Procedure

1. Clamp one end of the brass-iron bi-metallic strip, keeping brass bar on the lower side.
2. Keep the strip horizontal rested on a vertical support.
3. Fix a vertical scale near the free end of the bi-metallic strip.
4. Suspend a thermometer with its bulb touching the strip in the middle.
5. Note the initial temperature of the strip.
6. Note the vertical scale division coinciding with the upper edge of the strip.
7. Heat the strip by passing electric current through it or by using a burner. The thermometer will show a rise
of temperature.
8. Watch the movement of the free end of the strip. The strip bends upwards (towards iron bar side) and
position of upper edge of the strip changes.
9. Note the temperature after each rise of temperature by 2°C and also the position of the upper edge at that
temperature.
10. Record your observations as given below.

Observations
Room temperature = 30°C (say)
Least count of vertical scale = 1 mm.
Table for temperature and vertical scale reading

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Calculations

S.NO Temperature of Position of upper edge Amount of bending

bi-metallic strip of bi-metallic strip upward
t(οC) x (mm)

1. 30(οC) x1 x1- x1 =
2. 32(οC) x2 x2- x1 =
.
.
.
6. 40(οC) x6 x6- x1 =

1. Find the amount of bending by taking difference of position with initial position.
2. It is found that amount of bending increases as temperature rises.

Result
Bi-metallic strip bends more and more as its temperature rises.

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 Activity 5
To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by observing capillary rise

Aim: To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by observing capillary rise .

Apparatus: A capillary tube, 15 CM plastic scale, rubber band, an iron stand with clamp, small quantity of solid or
liquid detergent and water.

Theory: Detergents can be used to remove oil stains, grease and dust from dirty clot easily. When added to
water, detergents lower its surface tension due to additional interactions between detergent and grease
molecules. Due to the formation of water- grease interface, greasy dot is held suspended and can be easily
washed away by running water.

The lowering of surface tension by addition of detergent in water can be measured by capillary rise method.

When a capillary tube of radius r is dipped in a liquid of density ρ and surface tension T, the liquid Rises or
false through a distance ,
2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳
h= 𝑟ρg

For pure water in contact with the clean glass capillary tube, angle of contact, ϴ =80 or cos ϴ ≌1. Therefore,
2𝑇
h=𝑟ρg

When a detergent is added to water, it lowers its surface tension. So, the capillary rise would be lower than that for pure
water.

Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Take a capillary tube of uniform bore. Clean and rinse it with distilled water. Ensure that the tube is dry and free from
grease, dirt etc. Take a plastic scale and mount the capillary tube on it using rubber bands.
2. Take a 250 mL beaker. Clean it and rinse with distilled water. Fill half of the beaker with distilled water.
3. Hold the capillary tube along with the scale in vertical position in a clamp stand.
4. Place the beaker half filled with water below the lower end of the scale and adjust the scale till its lower end gets
dipped in water, shown in figure.
5. Wait for few minutes to allow water to rise through the capillary tube. Note the position of water level both inside and
outside the capillary tube on the plastic scale. Let their positions be h2 and h1 respectively. Then the rise of water in the
capillary tube will be h= h2-h1.
6. Remove the capillary from the beaker. Rinse it with running water and dry it thoroughly.
7. Take a small quantity of the given detergent and mix it well with water in the beaker.
8. Now repeat the experiment with detergent solution and find capillary rise again. Let it be h'.

25
Observations:

The height to which the distilled water rises in the capillary tube h= h2-h1 = _____________cm
The height to which the detergent solution rises in the capillary tube, h' = h2'-h1' = ____________cm

Result :
1. The capillary rise of detergent is less than that of pure water.
2. The addition of detergent to water decreases its surface tension and hence increases
its cleansing power.

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 Activity- 6
To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped metre scale loaded at its one end.

Aim:
To study the effect of load on depression of a suitable clamped metre scale loaded at its one end.

Apparatus and material required:

A wooden metre scale to be used as a cantilever, a cantilever(G) clamp, slotted weights with hanger(
50g,100g,150g,200g, 250g), another graduated scale used to measure vertical depression, thread , a pin and cello tape.

Theory:
A beam supported at one end and loaded at its free end is called a cantilever. Consider a rectangular beam of length L,
breadth b and depth d. If it is clamped at one end and loaded at its free end with load W= mg, then the depression of its
free end is given by
𝑀𝑔𝐿3
y=
4𝑏𝑑 3

yα M
The readings of the depression y of the cantilever with variation of load suspended at its end are taken. Clearly the
depression y varies linearly with load M.

Diagram:

Procedure:
1. One using a G clamp, clamp the metre scale firmly to the edge of the table such that its length and breadth are in the
same horizontal plane and 90 cm length of the scale is projected out as shown in figure.
2. With the help of cello tape, fix an alpin at the free end of the metre scale along its length to act as a pointer.
3. Hold a graduated scale vertically near the free end of the clamped metre scale such that the pointed end of the pin just
move over its graduations but does not touch the vertical scale.
4. Note the least count of the vertical scale. Read the position of the pointer P when the clamped metre scale is not loaded.
5. Suspend a 50g hanger with the help of a thread loop near free end of the clamped scale. slotted weights can be slipped
on to the Hanger to depress the free end of the cantilever.
6. Read the position of the pointer on the vertical scale and record the observation.
7. Go on adding slotted weights in the hanger in steps of 50g and each time not the position of the pointer on the vertical
scale when it stops vibrating.
8. After taking 6 observations with increasing load, gradually and gently remove the slotted weights one by one and each
time note the reading of the pointer while unloading.
9. Record the observations in a tabular form.
10. Plot a graph between the depression y and load M.

Observations:
Least count of the vertical scale = _________cm.

27
Table: Depression of the cantilever when loaded at its free end.

S.No. Load M (g) Reading of the free end of Depression for

the cantilever with load M
Y= r– ro (cm)
Increasing load r(cm)
1. 0(unloaded) 0
2 50(hanger only) r1 - r0
3. 100 r2 – r0
4. 150 r3 – r0
5. 200
r4 – r0
6. 250 r5 – r0

Graph:
Plot a graph between load M (in grams) and depression Y ( in cms) , taking load M along X-axis and depression y along
Y-axis.

Result
The straight-line graph between load and depression shows that the depression Y is directly proportional to the load M.

28