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Honoring the Memory
and Celebrating the Life
of James J. Gallagher
Dr. James J. Gallagher, senior author of Educating

Exceptional Children, died on Friday, January
17, 2014 at the age of 87 in Chapel Hill, NC.
Dr. Gallagher made numerous vital contribu-
tions to educational policy on state, national,
and international levels. From 1967 to 1970, he
served as the U.S. Associate Commissioner for
Education and was the first Chief of the Bureau
of Education for the Handicapped in the U.S.
Office of Education. In that capacity he out-
FPG Child Development Institute
lined the components of the first Handicapped

Children’s Early Education Assistance Act,
beginning a national program of model pro-
jects that changed the nature of special edu-
cation for young children with disabilities. He
subsequently served as the Deputy Assistant
Secretary for Planning, Research, and Evaluation for the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare (HEW).
He contributed to groundbreaking efforts to establish federal policy for gifted
and talented students, including The Marland Report and National Excellence: A
Case for Developing America’s Talent. During his career, Dr. Gallagher served as
president of the Council for Exceptional Children, the National Association for
Gifted Children, and the World Council for Gifted and Talented Children.
Dr. Gallagher was a pragmatic visionary. He saw what could be, what should
be. He saw the vision of educational excellence for all children, and he devoted
his life to making this a reality.
●● He realized that the complex needs of a child with disabilities would require
a unique educational response and the IEP (Individualized Education Plan)
was born.
●● He understood that a prepared workforce of teachers would be critical to stu-
dents’ success and he wrote textbooks and created model demonstration sites.
●● He knew that families were key to supporting child development and he
advocated family friendly practices.
●● He believed that gifts and talents existed across all cultural and economic
groups and he advanced appropriate policies for identification and services.
●● He saw that a strong infrastructure was critical for sustaining positive changes
and he developed a technical assistance model of support.
From 1970 to 1987, Dr. Gallagher served as the Director of the Frank Porter Graham
Child Development Institute at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, one
of the leading institutes dedicated to research in early childhood education. He was
iii
Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
iv Honoring the Memory and Celebrating the Life of James J. Gallagher
a researcher on the Abecedarian Project,

one of the first scientific studies to dem-
onstrate important long-lasting benefits
in academic performance in a cohort of
children from lower socioeconomic cir-
cumstances. During his tenure, he served
as Director of the Carolina Institute for
Child and Family Policy.
Dr. Gallagher published over 200
journal articles and 39 books. He
has been the recipient of numerous
national and international awards,
including the Gold Medal of the
FPG Child Development Institute

American Psychological Association for
Psychology in the Public Interest, the
John Fogarty Award for Distinguished
Government Service, and the Old North
State Award (the premier award for
public service bestowed by the state of
North Carolina). Other awards include
the Distinguished Scholar and Distinguished Service Awards from the National
Association for Gifted Children, the J. E. Wallace Wallin Award for Contributions to
Special Education from the Council on Exceptional Children, the North Carolina
Department of Education Lifetime Award for Exceptional Service, and the Peabody
Award from the University of North Carolina School of Education.
Special and gifted education exist as we know them today to a large extent
because of Dr. Gallagher.
Brief Contents
Dedication xx
Preface xxi
Introduction xxxiii
About the Authors xli
PART ONE I ntroduction, History, and Social Forces in Special

Education 2
1 Children with Exceptionalities and Their Families 3
2 Children with Exceptionalities and Social Institutions:
Government, Courts and Schools 31
PART TWO High-Incidence Exceptionalities 64

3 Early Intervention Supports and Services 65
4 Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 105
5 Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders 141
6 Children with Learning Disabilities 171
7 Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorders (ADHD) 207
8 Children with Emotional and Behavior Disorders 245
9 Children with Communication, Language, and Speech Disorders 283
10 Children Who Have Special Gifts and Talents 317
PART THREE Low-Incidence Exceptionalities 348

11 Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 349
12 Children with Visual Impairments 387
13 Children with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments, and Multiple
Disabilities 419
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Subject Index SI-1
Name Index NI-1
Contents
Dedication xx
Preface xxi
Introduction xxxiii
About the Authors xli
PART ONE
Introduction, History, and Social Forces in Special
Education 2
1 Children with Exceptionalities and Their Families 3
1-1 The Child with Exceptionalities: 1-5f Siblings of Children with

An Overview 4 Exceptionalities 19
1-1a Educational Areas of Exceptionalities 4 Digital Download: Box 1.3: Concerns of Siblings of a Child
Digital Download: Table 1.1: Disability Categories under with Disabilities 20
IDEA (2004) 5 1-5g Assessment of Families 21
1-1b Interindividual and Intraindividual 1-6 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Differences 6 Families 22
1-1c The Story of Max: A Historical Case Study 7 1-6a Alternative Families 23
Teachsource Video Connection: Inclusion: Grouping 1-6b Technical Assistance for Parents 23
Strategies for the Classroom 8 1-6c Family as Advocate: The Power of Parents 23
Digital Download: Figure 1.1: Information Processing 1-6d Assessment of Family Programs 24
Model 9 1-6e The Influence of Culture and
Community 24
1-2 Early Identification of Children with
Exceptionalities 9 1-7 Transition to Community 25
1-3 Causation of Exceptionalities 10 Moral dilemma: The Cost of Educating Children with
1-3a The Interaction of Heredity and Disabilities 26
Environment 10 1-7a Community Resources 26
Moral Dilemmas in Special Education 26
1-4 Prevalence: How Many Children with
Summary 26
Exceptionalities Are There? 12
1-4a Disproportionate Representation of Digital Download: Future Challenges 27
Culturally/Linguistically Diverse Children in
Special Education 14
1-5 The Family System and Exceptional
Children 16
1-5a Ecology and Exceptional Children 16
1-5b Role of Families 17
Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning
Box 1-2 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: A Day in

the Life of Roger’s Family 18
1-5c Family Response to a Child with a
Disability 18
1-5d Family-Professional Relationships 19
1-5e Emotional Development and the Family 19
vii
viii Contents
2 Children with Exceptionalities and Social Institutions:

Government, Courts and Schools 31
Digital Download: Figure 2.1: The Exceptional Child and 2-4b Planning for Children with Special
Social Institutions 32 Needs 43
2-1 Societal Responses to Children with 2-4c Individual Education Programs (IEP) 43
Exceptionalities 33 Digital Download: Figure 2.2: A Student’s IEP Team 44
2-2 The Role of Government 33 Digital Download: Table 2.4: Individualized Education
2-2a A Summary of Special Education Program (IEP) 45
Legislation 34 IEPs and Transition 45
Public Law 88-164 34 2-4d Adapting the Learning Environment 46
Public Law 94-142 34 The Inclusion Movement 46
Digital Download: Table 2.1: Six Key Provisions of the Social Relationships in the Inclusive
Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975) 35 Classroom 47
Public Law 99-457 35 2-4e Organizing Special Planning to Meet
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 2004 Needs 47
(IDEA 2004) 35 The Information Processing Model in Identifying
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 Needs 47
(PL 93-112) 36 Box 2-1 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: Inclusion
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1992 36 for Caryn 48
Public Law 107-110: No Child Left Behind Act of 2-4f The Need for Collaboration 48
2001 36 Digital Download: Figure 2.3: Dianne’s Information
Teachsource Video Connection: Aligning Instruction with Processing Model 49
Federal Legislation 37 Introducing the Team Approach 49
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of Team Teaching 50
2009 37 2-4g Support Services 50
Federal Actions for Students with Special Gifts 2-4h Curriculum and Instruction for Students
and Talents 38 with Special Needs 50
2-3 The Role of the Courts 38 Common Core State Standards 51
2-3a Inclusion and Funding Issues 39 Building on Developmental
2-3b Appropriate Special Education Services 40 Strengths 53
2-3c Parental Involvement 40 Adapting Teacher Strategies 53
2-4i Technological Assistance for
2-4 Educational Responses for Students with Instruction 54
Exceptionalities 41 Assistive Technology 55
2-4a Finding the Child with Special Needs 42 Instructional Technology 55
Digital Download: Table 2.3: Educational
Adaptations 43 2-5 Cultural Differences and
Exceptionalities 56
2-5a Cultural and Language Diversity and
Assessment 56
2-5b Assessment and Culture 56
2-5c The RtI Model and Culturally/Linguistically
Diverse Students 57
2-6 Proving That Special Programs Work:
Accountability 57
2-6a Assessment 58
MR Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works
2-6b Student Expectations 59

Moral dilemma: The Inclusive Classroom 60
2-7 Transition from School to Work or Advanced
Education 60
Summary 60
Digital Download: Future Challenges 61
Contents ix
PART Two High-Incidence Exceptionalities 64
3 Early Intervention Supports and Services 65
3-1 History of Early Intervention 66

3-1a Legislation on Early Intervention 69
3-2 What Is Early Intervention and
Why Is It So Important? 69
3-2a Defining Early Intervention 70
3-2b Why Is Early Intervention So
Important? 70
Neurology and Brain Development: Neonatal, in
Infancy, and During Early Childhood 70
nandana de silva/Alamy
3-2c Profiles of Two Children Who Need Early
Intervention Supports and Services 71
Jennifer 71
Tyron 71
Digital Download: Figure 3.1: Information Processing Model
Digital Download: Table 3.3: Levels of Support Provided in
for Tyron 72
Tiers I, II, & III within an RtI Framework 88
3-3 Family-Centered Support as Part of Early Behavioral Support Models for Inclusive
Intervention 73 Environments 89
The Family-Centered Approach and Cultural The Individualized Family Services Plan 90
Diversity 73 Collaboration and the Multidisciplinary Team 91
3-3a Early Intervention in “Natural
Digital Download: Table 3.4: Possible Multidisciplinary Team
Environments” 74
Members 91
3-4 Detecting Potential Problems 77 3-6b Curriculum and Instruction
Digital Download: Table 3.2: Summary of Jennifer’s Newborn for Young Children 92
Behavior Observation (NBO) Findings 78 Digital Download: Figure 3.6: Tyron’s Individual Family
Box 3-1 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: Welcome Service Plan 93
to Holland 79 Inclusion for Young Children with
3-5 Children with Developmental Delays 79 Disabilities 94
3-5a What Puts Children at Risk for Importance of Learning Through Play 94
Developmental Delays? 82 Developmentally Appropriate Practices 96
Genetic Disorders 82 Teachsource Video Connection: Assistive Technology in the
Events during Pregnancy and Birth 82 Inclusive Classroom: Best Practices 96
Environmental Risks 83 Assistive Technology for Young Children 96
3-5b Child Find for Children Who Need Early
Teachsource Video Connection: Preschool IEP and
Intervention 84
Transition Meeting 97
3-6 Educational Responses for

3-7 Navigating Transitions
Children Needing Early Intervention 86
in Early Childhood 97
3-6a Organizational Structures to Support Young
Children 86 Moral dilemma: Using Genetic Counseling 98
Quality of Early Childhood Services 86 Summary 99
RtI Approaches for Young Children 87 Digital Download: Future Challenges 99
4 Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 105
4-1 A Brief History of Intellectual and 4-2 Defining Intellectual and Developmental
Developmental Disabilities 106 Disabilities 106
4-1a What Is in a Name? 106 4-2a Levels of IDD 107
4-2b Levels of Support 107
x Contents
4-2c Adaptive Skills 108 Children with IDD Have Potential 120
4-2d Prevalence 109 RtI Approaches for Students with IDD 120
4-2e Cultural Differences 109 Digital Download: Table 4.4: Micah’s IEP Goals and
4-2f Measuring Intelligence and Adaptive Objectives (Chronological Age 5 9;8, IQ 5 67) 122
Behavior 109 4-6b Curriculum and Instruction for
4-3 Biological and Environmental Students with Intellectual and Developmental
Causes of IDD 110 Disabilities 123
4-3a Genetic Factors and IDD 110 Teacher Strategies 125
Down Syndrome 111 Case Study: Audrey 125
Phenylketonuria 111 Language and Communication 126
Fragile X Syndrome 112 Social Skills 126
4-3b Toxic Agents and Causation 113 Positive Behavior Interventions and
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 113 Supports 127
The Effects of Lead 113 Digital Download: Box 4.2: Micah’s Functional
Infections 113 Assessment 128
4-3c Neurology and Brain Development 113 Scaffolding 128
4-3d Environmental Factors That Influence Reciprocal Teaching 128
IDD 114 Cooperative Learning 129
4-4 Characteristics of Children with Intellectual Motivation 129
or Developmental Disabilities 114 Self-Determination 129
4-4a Two Students with IDD 114 Effectiveness of Intervention 130
Digital Download: Figure 4.2: Information Processing Model Fidelity of Special Programs 130
for a Child with Mild IDD 115 Assistive Technology for Students with IDD 131
4-4b The Information Processing Model and Box 4-3 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: Eunice
Special Characteristics 115 and Me 132
4-4c Cognitive Processes 116
4-4d Ability to Acquire and Use Language 117 4-7 Transition from School to Work
4-4e Ability to Acquire Emotional and Social and Community 132
Skills 117 4-7a Special Olympics 132
4-4f Social Adaptation 117 4-7b Transition to Adulthood 132
Teachsource Video Connection: Serving a Student with 4-7c Studies on Transition 133
Down Syndrome in an Inclusive Classroom 117 What happened to youths identified as having
4-5 Identification of Children with IDD 118 IDD? 133
4-5a One or Two Populations? 118 What about responsibilities at home? 133
What about living independently? 134
4-6 Educational Responses for Students with 4-7d Family Support 135
Intellectual and Developmental Disorders 119 Moral dilemma: Inclusion and Student
4-6a Organizational Structures to Support Harassment 136
Students with Intellectual and Developmental Summary 136
Disorders 120 Digital Download: Future Challenges 137
5 Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders 141
Box 5.1 Exceptional Lives Exceptional Stories 142 5-4 Identifying Children with Autism 145
5-1 History of Autism 142 5-4a Diagnosing Autism: DSM-5 145
5-2 Defining Autism Spectrum Disorders 143 5-4b Prevalence of Autism 146
5-4c The Importance of Early
Digital Download: Figure 5.1: Autism Spectrum
Identification 147
Disorders 144
5-5 Characteristics of Children with
5-3 Causes of Autism 144
Autism 148
5-3a Genetics and Autism 144
5-5a Theory of Mind 148
5-3b Mistaken Causes of Autism 144
5-5b Behavior 148
5-3c Neurology and Brain Development: Recent
5-5c The Information Processing Model 149
Findings Related to ASD 145
Hypersensitivity to Sensory Stimuli (Input) 149
Contents xi

for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 149
Central Processing 150
Response Mode (Output) 150
5-6 Educational Responses for Students with

Autism Spectrum Disorders 151
5-6a Organizational Structures to Support
Students with ASD 151
RtI Approaches for Students with ASD 151
Major Centers for Children with Autism 153
5-6b Curriculum and Instruction for Students
with Autism Spectrum Disorders 154
Autism and the Common Core Standards 154
Early Childhood Strategies 154
Inclusion in Context: School-Age Children with
Autism 156
Digital Download: Table 5.3: IEP Elements
for Sam 157
Creating Structure 157
© dotshock/Shutterstock.com
Improving Social Skills 158
Functional Behavior Assessment 159
Assistive Technology for Students with
ASD 159
Teachsource Video Connection: Tyler: Augmentative
Communication Techniques for a Kindergarten Student
with Autism and Language Issues 160
Autism Intervention Effectiveness 160 Moral dilemma: Jerry’s Situation 165
5-7c Public Policy: The Courts and
5-7 The Role of Families and Legislation 165
Communities 162 5-7d How Legislation Affects the Education of
5-7a Family Involvement 162 Children with ASD 165
5-7b Transition to the Teen Years and Young Summary 166
Adulthood 163 Digital Download: Future Challenges 167
6 Children with Learning Disabilities 171
6-1 A Brief Historical Overview of Learning 6-3e Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 181
Disabilities 172 6-4 Appropriate Identification of Bilingual
6-2 Characteristics of Children with Learning Children 182
Disabilities 172 Box 6-1 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories:
Digital Download: Figure 6.1: Ray’s Information A Painful Situation 183
Processing Model 174 6-5 Using the Information Processing Model to
6-3 Defining and Identifying Understand Learning Disabilities 184
Learning Disabilities and Looking at 6-5a Problems with Input 184
Causes 175 6-5b Problems with Processing or
6-3a Learning Disabilities: The Paradigm Shift Thinking 185
to RtI 177 Teachsource Video Connection: Managing an
6-3b Dyslexia 178 Inclusive Classroom: High School Math
6-3c Importance of Early Recognition of Children Instruction 186
with Learning Disabilities 179 6-5c Problems with Output 187
6-3d Causes of Learning Disabilities 181 6-5d Problems with Executive Functions 187
Genetics of Learning Disabilities 181 6-5e Emotional Context of Information
The Brain and Learning Disabilities 181 Processing 188
xii Contents
6-5f The Information Processing Model as a

System 189

Learning Disabilities 190
6-6a Organizational Structures and
Support for Students with Learning
Disabilities 190
Where Are Students with Learning Disabilities
Served? 190
RtI Approaches for Students with Learning
Disabilities 191
with Learning Disabilities 195
Strategies That Work to Support Students with
Learning Disabilities 195
Digital Download: Table 6.3: Meeting the Needs of Students
with Learning Disabilities: Information Processing and
Universal Design for Learning 195
Teachsource Video Connection: Including Students
with High-Incidence Learning Disabilities: Strategies
for Success 197
Access to the Common Core Standards: Universal
Design for Learning 197
Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning
Assistive Technology for Students with Learning

Disabilities 197
Digital Download: Table 6.4: Using Universal
Design Principles to Give Students with Learning
Disabilities Access to the Common Core State
Standards 198
Summary of Evidence-Based Practices for Students
with Learning Disabilities 199 6-8 Transitions to Postsecondary Life for
Individuals with Learning Disabilities 201
6-7 Family and Support Issues 199 Moral dilemma: Classroom Modific tions 202
Digital Download: Table 6.5: Ideas for Parental Support for Summary 203
Students with Learning Disabilities 201 Digital Download: Future Challenges 203
7 Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorders (ADHD) 207
7-1 History of the Field of ADHD 208 7-3b Families from Culturally/Linguistically
7-2 Characteristics of Children with Diverse Backgrounds 213
ADHD 209 Going Beyond Checklists 215
7-2a Let’s meet Angelina 209 Complications Impacting Identification of Children
with ADHD 215
Prevalence of ADHD 217
for Angelina, a Child with ADHD 210
7-3c Neurological, Genetic, and Environmental
7-2b Information Processing Model and
Causes of ADHD 218
ADHD 211
Neurological Causes of ADHD 218
7-3 ADHD Definition, Identification, Genetic Causes for ADHD 218
and Causes 211 Environmental Causes for ADHD 219
Digital Download: Box 7.2: Federal Regulations for Other 7-4 Comorbidity: ADHD and Other Areas of
Health Impairments 212 Disability or Concern 219
7-3a Identification of Students with 7-5 Using Medication for ADHD
ADHD 212 Symptoms 220
Contents xiii
Box 7-5 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: Meet Digital Download: Figure 7.4: Four Variables for
Michael 222 Success 232
7-6 Educational Responses Design for Learning 233
for Children with ADHD 224 Digital Download: Table 7.5: Using Universal Design
Digital Download: Table 7.3: Comparison of Principles to Give Students with ADHD Access to the
IDEA 2004 and Section 504 for Students with Common Core State Standards 234
ADHD 224 Assistive Technology for Students with
7-6a Organizational Structures to Support ADHD 235
Students with ADHD 225 Behavioral Interventions for Students with
RtI Approaches for Students with ADHD 225 ADHD 235
Special Programs: After School, Saturdays, and Digital Download: Table 7.6: Evidence-Based Behavior
Summer 227 Intervention Strategies 236
7-6b Curriculum and Instruction for Children
with ADHD 227
7-7 Families of Children with ADHD 237
Digital Download: Table 7.4: Steps for Instructional Planning
7-8 Transition to Post-secondary and Adult Life
for Students with ADHD 229
for Individuals with ADHD 238
Strategies: Four Variables for Success 230
Moral dilemma: Austin’s behavior 239
Teachsource Video Connection: Edward: Instructional
Modific tions for a Gifted Student with Attention Deficit Summary 239
Hyperactivity Disorder 231 Digital Download: Future Challenges 240
8 Children with Emotional and Behavior Disorders 245
8-1 History of Emotional and Behavior

8-4 Characteristics of Students with EBD 260
Disorders 246
8-4a Information Processing Model 260
8-2 Emotional and Behavior Disorders: A Slippery
Digital Download: Figure 8.3: Information Processing
Definition 246
Model for Students with Emotional and Behavior
Digital Download: Table 8.1: Federal Definition of Emotional Disorders 260
and Behavior Disorders 247
8-2a Cultural Perspectives on Defining EBD 248 8-5 Educational Responses for Students with
8-2b Misidentifying Students with EBD 248 Emotional and Behavior Disorders 261
8-2c Prevalence of Children with EBD 249 8-5a Organizational Structures to Support
8-2d Is the Prevalence of Aggression Long- Students with EBD 262
Lasting? 249 RtI Approaches for Students with Emotional and
8-3 Causation of Emotional Behavior Disorders 263
and Behavior Disorders 250 The Wraparound Approach 266
8-3a Interaction Between Genetics and Technical Assistance 266
Environment 250 8-5b Curriculum and Instruction for Students
8-3b Neurology and Brain Development 251 with EBD 267
8-3c Risk Factors for Externalizing Access to Common Core State Standards: Universal
Disorders 251 Design for Learning 267
Family Risk Factors 252 Digital Download: Table 8.3: Using Universal Design
The Family and Society 253 Principals to Give Students with EBD Access to the Common
School Risk Factors 253 Core State Standards 268
Cultural and Ethnic Risk Factors 256 Sequencing Treatments 268
Substance Abuse Risk Factors 256 Social Skills Training 269
Violent Video Games 257 Cognitive Strategies Approach 270
What Have We Learned About Externalizing Digital Download: Figure 8.6: Sample IEP Goals for
Behaviors? 257 Pete 271
8-3d Risk Factors for Internalizing
Digital Download: Box 8.2: Behavior Contract
Disorders 258
for Pete 272
Learned Helplessness 258
Teacher Preparation 272
Suicide 259
xiv Contents
Teachsource Video Connection: Brittany and Trisha: 8-6 The Role of Family and Community 275
Teaching Strategies for Students with Emotional and Moral dilemma: Emotional and Behavior Disorders 276
Behavioral Disorders 273 8-6a Transition and Life 276
Peer Tutoring 273 8-6b In Conclusion 277
Assistive Technology for Students with Summary 278
EBD 274 Digital Download: Future Challenges 278
9 Children with Communication, Language, and Speech Disorders 283
9-1 History of Communication, Language, and Box 9-1 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: Have you ever
Speech Disorders 284 wondered what it would be like not to be able to communicate?
9-1a Studying Brain Injury to Understand It’s very frustrating. It’s very lonely. It hurts 300
Language 285 9-5a Assessment and Identification of
9-1b Study of Linguistics 285 Problems with Communication, Language, and
9-2 Characteristics of Students Speech 300
and Definitions of Communication, Assessment of Children from Culturally or
Language, and Speech 286 Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds 301
9-2a Characteristics of Children with Teachsource Video Connection: Bilingual Education: An
Communication, Language, and Speech Elementary Two-Way Immersion Program 302
Disorders 286
Meet Johnny and Michelle, Two Students with 9-6 Educational Responses for Children with
Speech Disorders 286 Communication, Speech, and Language
Digital Download: Figure 9.2: Michelle’s Information Disorders 302
Processing Model 287 9-6a Organizational Structures to Support
9-2b Definitions of Communication, Language, Students with Communication, Speech, and
and Speech 287 Language Disorders 302
9-2c Communication 288 RtI Approaches for Students with Communication,
9-2d Language 288 Speech, and Language Disorders 303
Language Form 289
Language Content 289
Language Function 289
Speech 290
9-3 Typical and Atypical Language
Development 291
9-3a Disorders in Communication, Language,
and Speech 292
Communication Disorders 293
Language Disorders 293
Speech Disorders 294
9-3b Prevalence of Communication, Language,
and Speech Disorders 296
9-4 Importance of the Child’s Cultural and
Linguistic Context 296
9-4a Bilingual Learners 296
9-4b Language Differences 297
9-4c Dialects 297
9-5 Disability Areas and Problems
Elizabeth Crews/The Image Works
with Communication, Language, and

Speech 298
Digital Download: Table 9.2: Possible Problems with
Communication, Language, and Speech That May
Accompany Disability Area 299
Contents xv
9-6b Curriculum and Instruction for Students Teachsource Video Connection: Tyler: Augmentative
with Communication, Speech, and Language Communication Techniques for Kindergarten Students
Disorders 305 with Autism and Language Issues 308
Common Core Standards for Students with
Communication, Speech, and Language 9-7 Family and Lifespan Issues 309
Disorders 305 9-7a How Parents Can Support Their Child’s
Digital Download: Table 9.4: Using Universal Design Communication 309
Principals to Give Student with Communication, Speech, 9-7b Transitions for Students with
and Language Disorders Access to the Common Core State Communication Disorders 310
Standards 306 Moral dilemma: Children with Communication
Specific Strategies to Support English-Language Disorders 311
Learners 306 Summary 311
Assistive Technology for Augmentative and
Alternative Communication 307
10 Children Who Have Special Gifts and Talents 317
10-1 Why Should We Care about Students with

10-4b Culturally Diverse Students with SGT 331
Special Gifts and Talents? 318
10-4c Children With Disabilities Who Have SGT
10-2 Definitions of Special Gifts and Talents (Twice Exceptional) 331
(SGT) 318
Digital Download: Table 10.1: Federal Definition of Stude ts 10-5 Educational Responses for Students with
Who Are Gifted 319 Special Gifts and Talents 332
10-2a Eminence 320 10-5a Organizational Structures to Support
10-2b One Gift or Many? 320 Students with Special Gifts and Talents 332
10-2c Children of Extraordinary Ability 321 RtI Approaches for Students with Special Gifts and
Box 10-1 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: Terry and Talents 332
Lenny 322 Teachsource Video Connection: Middle School Science
10-3 Characteristics of Students with Special Instruction: Inquiry Learning 334
Gifts and Talents 322 10-5b Curriculum and Instruction for Students
10-3a The Information Processing Model 322 with Special Gifts and Talents 335
Digital Download: Figure 10.1: Information Processing Advanced Placement and International
Model for Gifted Students 323 Baccalaureate 335
10-3b Characteristics of Three Students with Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 336
SGT 323 Curriculum Compacting 337
Cranshaw 323 Problem-Based Learning 337
Zelda 324 Curriculum Example for Young Students with
Pablo 324 SGT 338
10-3c Neurology and Brain Development: What Adapting to Cultural Differences 338
We Know about SGT 325
10-3d Genetic Factors and SGT 325
10-3e Family 326
10-3f Gender 326
10-3g Social and Emotional
Development 326
10-3h Perfectionism 327
10-3i Suicide 327
10-3j Do Special Gifts and Talents Persist into
Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works
Adulthood? 327
10-3k Creativity 328
10-4 Identification of Students with
Gifts and Talents 329
10-4a Students with SGT Who Are
Underachievers 330
xvi Contents
Assistive Technology for Students with 10-6 Family and Lifespan Issues 342
SGT 340 10-6a Prolonged Schooling and Financial
Effective Education Programs 341 Considerations 342
Summary 343
Moral dilemma: What to Do with Postgraduate SGT? 342 Digital Download: Future Challenges 343
PART Three Low-Incidence Exceptionalities 348
11 Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 349
11-1 History of Education for Individuals Who Are 11-4d Social and Personal Adjustment of Children
Deaf or Hard of Hearing 350 with Hearing Loss 368
11-2 Characteristics of Children and Definitions 11-5 The Deaf Culture or Community and
of Deaf/Hard of Hearing 352 Bilingual Approaches to Deafness 369
11-2a Meet Three Children Who Are Deaf or Hard 11-5a The Bilingual-Bicultural Approach to
of Hearing 352 Deafness 369
Kiesha 353
Carlos 353 11-6 Educational Responses for Children Who Are
Digital Download: Figure 11.1: Kiesha’s Information Deaf or Hard of Hearing 371
Processing Model 353 11-6a Organizational Structures and Supports for
Raymond 354 Students with Hearing Loss 371
11-2b Definitions of Deafness, Hard of Hearing, RtI Approaches for Students with Hearing Loss 371
and Central Auditory Processing Disorders 354 Special Programs for Students with Hearing
Degree of Hearing Loss 355 Loss 374
Types of Hearing Loss 356 Residential Schools for the Deaf 374
Age of Onset of Hearing Loss 357 11-6b Curriculum and Instruction for Students
Teachsource Video Connection: Amy: Accommodating a with Hearing Loss 374
Gifted Student with Hearing and Visual Impairments in a The General Education Teacher’s Role in
Middle School Classroom 358 Recognizing Hearing Problems 374
11-2c Prevalence of Hearing Loss 358
11-3 Causes and Detection of Hearing Loss
in Children and the Importance of Early
Intervention 359
11-3a Causes of Hearing Loss 359
Genetic Causes of Hearing Loss 359
Neurology and Brain Development Related to
Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 359
Environmental Causes of Hearing Loss 360
11-3b Assessing Hearing Loss in Children 361
Measuring a Hearing Loss 361
11-3c The Importance of Early Intervention for
Children with Hearing Losses 362
Box 11-3 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: The Gift
of Sight: A Story of Mathew 363
11-4 Cognitive, Academic, Communication, and
Social Development of Children with Hearing
Loss 363
Ellen B. Senisi/The Image Works
11-4a Cognitive Development of Children with

Hearing Losses 364
11-4b Academic Development in Reading for
Children with Hearing Losses 365
11-4c Impact of a Hearing Loss on Language,
Speech, and Communication 367
Contents xvii
Instructional Strategies for Accessing the Common 11-7 Family and Lifespan Issues 378
Core State Standards for Children with Hearing Moral dilemma: Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of
Losses 375 Hearing 379
Digital Download: Table 11.4: Using Universal Design 11-7a Transitions for Students Who Are Deaf or
Principles to Give Students with Hearing Loss Access to the Hard of Hearing 379
Common Core State Standards 376 Summary 381
11-6c Assistive and Instructional Technology for Digital Download: Future Challenges 382
Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 377
12 Children with Visual Impairments 387
12-1 Brief History of the Field of Visual

Teachsource Video Connection: Amy: Accommodating A
Impairments 388
Gifted Student with Hearing and Visual Impairments in a
12-2 Definitions and Identification of Visual Middle School Classroom 403
Impairments 388
12-2a Identification and Assessment of Visual Digital Download: Table 12.2: Using Universal Design
Impairments 388 Principles for Accessing the Common Core State
12-2b Prevalence of Visual Impairments 390 Standards 404
12-8c The Expanded Core Curriculum for
12-3 Causes of Visual Impairments 390
Students with Visual Impairments 405
12-3a Genetic Factors and Visual Impairment 390
12-3b The Human Eye 391 Digital Download: Table 12.3: Expanded Core Curriculum for
Students with Low Vision and Blindness 405
12-4 Characteristics of Children with Visual
Compensatory or Access Skills 406
Impairments 391
Career Education 408
12-4a The Information Processing Model 392
Independent Living Skills 408
Digital Download: Figure 12.2: Information Processing Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Skills 408
Model for Students with Visual Impairments 393 Recreational and Leisure Skills 409
12-4b Cognitive Development of Children with Social Interaction Skills 409
Visual Impairments 393 Self-Determination Skills 410
12-4c Language Development for Children with Assistive Technology for Students with Visual
Visual Impairments 393 Impairment and Blindness 410
12-4d Personal and Social Adjustment 394 Sensory Efficiency Skills 411
12-5 Early Intervention for Children with Visual 12-8d Individualized Education Programs 412
Impairments 394
Box 12-2 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: One 12-9 Transition to Independent Living and
Person’s Refle tions on the Consequences of Using a Unique Work 413
Standard 395 Moral dilemma: To Braille or Not to Braille 414
12-6 The Role of the Family 396 Summary 414
12-6a A National Agenda for Students with Visual
Impairments 396
12-7 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Children with Visual Impairments 397

Visual Impairments 398
Students with Visual Impairments 399
RtI Approaches for Students with Visual
Mitch Wojnarowicz/The Image Works
Impairments 399
Special Schools for Students Who Are Visually
Impaired 400
with Visual Impairments 401
Design for Learning 402
xviii Contents
13 Children with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments,

and Multiple Disabilities 419
13-1 History of Special Education for Children RtI Approaches for Students with Physical and
with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments, Health Impairments, and Multiple or Severe
and Multiple Disabilities 420 Disabilities 436
13-2 Characteristics of Children with Physical Inclusion in General Education for Students with
Disabilities, Health Impairments, or Multiple Physical, Health-Related, and Multiple or Severe
Disabilities 421 Disabilities 437
Digital Download: Figure 13.1: Pam’s Information Processing 13-5b Curriculum and Instruction for
Model 422 Children with Physical, Multiple, or Severe
Disabilities 438
13-3 Definitions of Physical Disabilities, Health
Access to the Common Core State Standards
Impairments, and Multiple Disabilities 423
for Students with Physical Disabilities,
Digital Download: Table 13.1: Federal Definitions or Areas Health Impairments, and Multiple or Severe
That Include Physical Disabilities, Multiple Disabilities, and Disabilities 438
Other Health Impairments 423
Digital Download: Table 13.5: Using Universal Design
Digital Download: Table 13.2: List of Physical Principles to Give Students with Physical Disabilities Access to
Disabilities 424 the Common Core State Standards 439
13-3a Physical Disabilities 424 Expanded Core Curriculum for Students with
Cerebral Palsy 424 Physical, Health-Related, and Multiple or Severe
Seizure Disorders 426 Disabilities 440
Traumatic Brain Injury 427 13-5c Assistive Technology for Students with
13-3b Major Health Impairments 427 Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments,
Asthma 427 and Multiple Disabilities 441
Digital Download: Table 13.3: List of Health Augmentative Communication 442
Impairments 428
Cancer 429
Sickle Cell Anemia 429
HIV/AIDS 429
Acquired Diseases 430
Digital Download: Figure 13.4: Teacher and School
Roles in Supporting Children with Serious Health
Needs 431
13-3c Severe and Multiple Disabilities 431
Deafblindness 432
13-3d Prevalence of Physical Disabilities, Health
Impairments, and Multiple Disabilities in
Children 433
13-3e Genetic Factors and Disabilities 434
13-4 Assessment of Children with Physical
Disabilities, Health Impairments, and Multiple
Disabilities 434
13-4a Educational Assessments for Children with
Physical or Multiple Disabilities 434
13-5 Educational Responses

for Children with Physical Disabilities,
Health Impairments, and Multiple
© iStockphoto.com/ktaylorg
or Severe Disabilities 436

Children with Physical Disabilities, Health
Impairments, and Multiple or Severe
Disabilities 436
Contents xix
Teachsource Video Connection: Assistive Technology in Moral dilemma: Gene Replacement

the Inclusive Classroom: Best Practices 444 Therapies 450
13-5d Enhancing Self-Determination and 13-6c Honoring the Family’s Journey: Coping
Autonomy 444 with Chronic Sorrow 450
Summary 450
13-6 Family and Lifespan Issues 445 Digital Download: Future Challenges 451
Box 13-2 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: Glossary G-1
Counting on Me 446
13-6a Culturally Responsive Practices 447 References R-1
13-6b Transition for Students with Multiple Subject Index SI-1
and/or Severe Disabilities 448 Name Index NI-1
Dedication
We dedicate this 14th edition of Educating Exceptional Children to the memory of
Dr. Nicholas Anastasiow, a colleague, a mentor, and a friend.
Dr. Anastasiow was a dedicated teacher and scholar who worked for more than
50 years in the service of children with a focus on early childhood and develop-
ment. He began his work as an elementary school teacher and also served as a
principal. The senior author of this text met Nick Anastasiow when they were
both at Stanford University in 1960, and he was impressed by Nick’s intelligence,
commitment to education, and good humor. Nick received his Ph.D. from Stan-
ford University in 1963 and served as the Director of the Institute of Child Study
at the University of Indiana from 1967–79. He was on the faculty of the Univer-
sity of Colorado Medical School and was named the Thomas Hunter Professor
of Education at Hunter College in New York City and professor of educational
psychology at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY).
Nick retired from Hunter College in 1992.
Dr. Anastasiow was an influential member of the Division for Early Childhood
of the Council for Exceptional Children, and he served as its president in 1976. He
was devoted to his students, encouraging them in the same curiosity and integrity
that marked his own professional career.
Dr. Anastasiow was a widely respected researcher and prolific writer, publish-
ing both theoretical works and practical curriculum designs, and was an author
of more than 200 articles and books, including Languages and Reading Strategies for
Poverty Children, The At-Risk Infant, and Development and Disabilities.
Nick was coauthor of this textbook, Educating Exceptional Children, from the
eighth edition in 1998 through the 13th. Nick passed away in 2013. As we pre-
pared this 14th edition, we have missed his insights, guidance, and kind words
of support.
James J. Gallagher & Mary Ruth Coleman
xx
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of negroes in Puerto Rico, the number being only about 30,000,
for whom some $11,000,000 was paid the owners. That statement
gives a fair idea of the character of the population as
respects numbers and race." Several small adjacent islands are
regarded as belonging to Porto Rico and were included in the
cession to the United States. One of these, named Viequez,
about 15 miles long and 3 or 4 miles wide, is very fertile,
and has about 7,000 inhabitants. On another, called Culebra,
there are some 600 or 700 people. The remaining islands are
smaller and unimportant.
56th Congress, 1st Session,

Senate Document Number 147, pages 1-2.
PORTO RICO:
The government as it was under Spanish rule.
"The civil government of the island was the Governor-General,

and the Governor-General was the civil government. All power
was lodged in his hands and he was accountable only to Madrid.
He was at once the executive, the legislative, and the judicial
head. As Captain-General, he had chief command of the military
forces, and made such disposition of them as he chose; as
Governor-General, he conducted civil affairs, whether insular
or municipal, according to his own pleasure. … If, as
occasionally happened, he was a wise and good man, seeking the
welfare of the people rather than his own personal enrichment
or the advancement of his political friends, there was less
cause for complaint from the people, who were completely
ignored. As the position was one of great power and of large
opportunities for pecuniary profit, it not infrequently went
to those who were prepared to exploit it in their own
interests. …
"The system of autonomy, which was proclaimed November 25,

1897 [see, in this volume, CUBA: A. D. 1897 (NOVEMBER)], was
never fully installed. The war intervened, and the provincial
legislature, which was its most important feature, was
dissolved when Sampson's fleet appeared, and the
Governor-General conducted the government practically on the
old plan, except that the ministry, as provided by the
autonomistic law, was retained, as follows: Secretary of
government or of state, secretary of the treasury, secretary
of the fomento or interior, including public works, public
instruction, public lands, mines, etc., agriculture and
commerce, and secretary of justice and worship. The last three
secretaries were subordinate to the secretary of government,
through whom all orders from the Governor-General and all
communications to or from him must pass. The autonomist law
allowed the secretaries or ministers to be members of one or
the other of the two legislative chambers. The
Governor-General with his council constituted the executive
power. No act of his was valid unless approved by one of the
secretaries, and the secretaries could issue no order which he
had not countersigned. He had the power to convoke or dissolve
the chambers, to refer objectionable bills to Madrid for
approval or disapproval, and to appoint or remove the
secretaries. All matters of a diplomatic character were in his
hands exclusively, and, constituted by the Pope patronato
real, he was the head of the church in the island and
practical director of ecclesiastical affairs. The legislature
consisted of two chambers, the council and the house of
representatives. The council was composed of fourteen members,
eight of whom were elected, and six appointed by the Crown;
the house of representatives of one representative for each
25,000 inhabitants, elected by the people. The liberality of
this law is further indicated by the fact that it gave the
right of suffrage to all males of 25 years of age and over.
The two chambers were empowered to legislate on all insular
questions, such as the estimates, which must be adopted by the
Cortes at Madrid, public instruction, public works,
sanitation, charities, etc. It will be seen that the reforms
granted by this autonomistic decree were large in the letter,
taking powers which the Governor-General had exercised
unquestioned and giving them to the people, who had never been
allowed to participate in the government of their own country.
Whether it would have proved liberal in practical operation is
not so certain. The Government invariably discriminated
against Porto Ricans in favor of Spaniards, and it is also to
be remembered that Spanish laws as written and Spanish laws as
administered are not always identical."
H. K. Carroll (Special Commissioner),

Report on Porto Rico, 1899, pages. 15-16.
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898 (May).

American bombardment of forts at San Juan.
See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JUNE).
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898 (July-August).

American conquest of.

A. D. 1898 (JULY-AUGUST: PORTO RICO).
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898 (July-December).

Suspension of hostilities.
Cession to the United States.

A. D. 1898 (JULY-DECEMBER).
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898-1899 (August-July).

Popular feeling in the Island on the American occupation.
Welcome to the Stars and Stripes.
Expectations and desires of the people.
Their character.
Extent of illiteracy.
The Peones.
"All classes of natives of the island welcomed the American

Army, American occupation, and American methods, and accepted
without hesitation the Stars and Stripes in place of the red
and yellow bars. They had not been disloyal to the old flag;
but it had come to represent to them, particularly during the
present century, in which a class feeling developed between
the insular and the peninsular Spaniard, partiality and
oppression. In the short war, some of the natives occupying
official positions made demonstrations of loyalty to the Crown
of Spain, as was perfectly natural, but they were among the
first to submit to American rule when the protocol promised
cession of the island to the United States. On the other hand,
as the commissioner is informed, a Porto Rican who had hoped
and prayed for American intervention for fifty years enrolled
himself as a Spanish citizen some months after the war was
concluded, and his hopes had been realized. Porto Ricans
generally complained that the former Government discriminated
in favor of the Spaniard, who, in the distribution of the
offices, was preferred to the native, and who, aided by the
powerful influence of the authorities, prospered in business
as banker, merchant, manufacturer, or agriculturist. They also
insist that the internal improvement of the island was
neglected; that agriculture bore more than its share of the
burden of taxation; that the assessments were very inequitable
and unequal; that education was not fostered, and that in
general the welfare of the people was not the first concern of
their rulers.
{411}
"They expect under American sovereignty that the wrongs of

centuries will be righted; that they will have an honest and
efficient government; the largest measure of liberty as
citizens of the great Republic under the Constitution; home
rule as provided by the Territorial system; free access to the
markets of the United States and no customs duties on goods
coming from our ports; a school system modeled after that of
the United States; the adoption of the English language in due
time and the general adaptation to the island of all those
institutions which have contributed to the prosperity,
progress, and happiness of the American people. The largest
and most representative gathering, since American occupation,
was held in San Juan, October 30, 1898, without distinction of
party or class with the object of consultation and formulation of
a programme for the future. In brief, the propositions of the
congress as submitted to the commissioner for presentation to
the President of the United States were these: Immediate
termination of military and inauguration of civil government;
establishment of the Territorial system, with laws common to
other Territories of the Union; a legislature in two branches;
suffrage for all male citizens of 21 years of age or over, the
right to be surrendered at the end of the first two years by
those who do not then know how to read and write; judicial
reform; introduction of the jury system; autonomy for
municipal governments; taxation on the basis of valuation;
free and reciprocal commerce with the ports of the United
States; aid for agriculture; obligatory and universal
education; trade schools; savings banks. This programme of
reforms seems to have very general support, although there is
a difference of opinion on certain points. Many Porto Ricans
urged the commissioner to represent them as desiring that the
military regime be made as short as possible, not because the
military governors were in any way objectionable or their rule
oppressive, but because the civil status of the island should
be fixed with no unnecessary delay. There was no other opinion
except among foreign subjects, many of whom thought that the
people were not yet ready for self-government, and that the
firm hand of military power would be needed for probably two
years. …
"If the desire to assume the burdens of local self-government
may be taken as indicating some degree of capacity for
self-government, the people of Porto Rico certainly have the
desire. They may be poor, but they are proud and sensitive,
and would be bitterly disappointed if they found that they had
been delivered from an oppressive yoke to be put under a
tutelage which proclaimed their inferiority. Apart from such
qualifications as general education and experience constitute,
the commissioner has no hesitation in affirming that the
people have good claims to be considered capable of
self-government. Education and experience, although too high
a value can hardly be set upon them, do not necessarily make
good citizens. … The unswerving loyalty of Porto Rico to the
Crown of Spain, as demonstrated by the truth of history, is no
small claim to the confidence and trust of the United States.
The people were obedient under circumstances which provoked
revolt after revolt in other Spanish colonies. The habit of
obedience is strong among them. Their respect for law is
another notable characteristic. They are not turbulent or
violent. Riots are almost unknown in the island; so is
organized resistance to law; brigandage flourished only for a
brief period after the war and its object was revenge rather
than rapine. They are not a criminal people. The more violent
crimes are by no means common. Burglary is almost unknown.
There are many cases of homicide, but the number in proportion
to population is not as large as in the United States.
Thievery is the most common crime, and petty cases make up a
large part of this list of offenses. The people as a whole are
a moral, law-abiding class, mild in disposition, easy to
govern, and possess the possibilities of developing a high
type of citizenship."
H. K. Carroll (Special Commissioner),

Report on Porto Rico, 1899, pages 55-57.
"On the 25th day of July, 1899, an election was held in

Adjuntas for municipal officers, and the registration was made
in conformity to General Orders, No. 112, c. s., Headquarters
Department of Puerto Rico. The order imposed the following
qualifications for electors: Men over 21 years old, able to
read and write, or who were taxpayers of record, who had been
actual residents of the island for at least two years, and of
the municipality for six months preceding the date of the
election. The number who proved these qualifications before
the board of registration was 906, out of a population,
according to the census of 1897, of 18,505; that is, less than
5 per cent could vote under the conditions stated. There was
much public interest in this election, and it is believed that
about all who were eligible were registered. This incident
indicated that in the whole island there may be approximately
45,000 who could vote under the conditions of the order above
referred to. The class who can not fulfill these conditions,
say 75 per cent of the males over 21 years of age, are usually
in a state of abject poverty and ignorance, and are assumed to
include one-fifth of the inhabitants. They are of the class
usually called peones. This word in Spanish America, under old
laws, defined a person who owed service to his creditor until
the debt was paid. While those laws are obsolete, the
condition of these poor people remains much as before. So
great is their poverty that they are always in debt to the
proprietors or merchants. They live in huts made of sticks and
poles covered with thatches of palm leaves. A family of a
dozen may be huddled together in one room, often with only a
dirt floor. They have little food worthy of the name and only
the most scanty clothing, while children of less than 7 or 8
years of age are often entirely naked. A few may own a machete
or a hoe, but more have no worldly possessions whatever. Their
food is fruit, and if they are wage-earners, a little rice and
codfish in addition. They are without ambition and see no
incentive to labor beyond the least that will provide the
barest sustenance. All over the island they can be seen to-day
sitting beside their ruined huts, thinking naught of
to-morrow, making no effort to repair and restore their cabins
nor to replant for future food.
{412}
"The remarks of Mr. James Anthony Froude in his work on 'The

English in the West Indies' apply with full force to these
people: 'Morals in the technical sense they have none, but
they can not be said to sin because they have no knowledge of
law, and therefore they can commit no breach of the law. They
are naked and not ashamed. They are married but not parsoned.
The women prefer the looser tie, that they may be able to lose
the man if he treats her unkindly. Yet they are not
licentious. … The system is strange, but it answers. … There
is evil, but there is not the demoralizing effect of evil.
They sin, but they sin only as animals, without shame, because
there is no sense of doing wrong. They eat the forbidden
fruit, but it brings with it no knowledge of the difference
between good and evil. … They are innocently happy in the
unconsciousness of the obligations of morality. They eat,
drink, sleep, and smoke, and do the least in the way of work
they can. They have no ideas of duty, and therefore are not
made uneasy by neglecting it.' Between the negro and the peon
there is no visible difference. It is hard to believe that the
pale, sallow, and often emaciated beings are the descendants
of the conquistadores who carried the flag of Spain to nearly
all of South America, and to one-third of North America."
General George W. Davis,

Report on the Civil Government of Puerto Rico,
September 30, 1899
(Message and Documents: Abridgment, 1899-1900,
volume 2, pages 1293-1294).
"The educated class of Puerto Ricans are as well educated and

accomplished as the educated men of any country. They have had
the benefit of a liberal education, a few in the United
States, a good many in France, and a great many in Madrid and
Habana, where they have passed through the universities. The
lawyers and doctors are all graduates of either the university
in Habana or some university in Spain, with very few exceptions.
The merchants are largely Spanish, many of whom will probably
preserve their nationality under the provision of the Treaty
of Paris which gives them that right. A few may adopt American
citizenship, and ultimately possibly all will, but many of the
merchants who conduct the largest part of the business of
Puerto Rico will retain their Spanish citizenship. There are a
number of merchants who are natives, a few Germans, and a few
English. I do not remember any American merchant in business
there before the occupation. The schools in Puerto Rico
conducted under the Spanish system were few in number. The
amount allotted for education by the insular budget was
something like 300,000 pesos a year, as I now recall the
figures. The teachers were officers of the government, holding
life positions and receiving pensions when superannuated. They
belong to a civil-service class which is not dependent upon
any change of administration, only being removed for cause.
The lawyers, or judges, rather, of the island, occupy a
similar position."

Testimony before Senate Committee.
(56th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document. No. 147).
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898-1899 (October-October).

The military government instituted by the United States.
"The government of the island, its various civil institutions,

its codes and its courts, the systems of taxation, etc., have
been modified in very important particulars since the American
occupation began, October 18, 1898. It will be useful, perhaps,
to indicate the more important changes. Under General John R.
Brooke [in command of the Department, October 18 to December
5, 1898] orders were issued declaring
(1) That the political relations of Porto Rico with Spain were
at an end; that provincial and municipal laws were in force in
so far as not incompatible with the changed conditions, and
that they would be enforced substantially as they were before.
(2) Abolishing the use of all stamped paper and stamps of

every kind for documents, public and private.
(3) Exempting all conveyances and contracts from the payment

of royal dues.
(4) Discontinuing the diputacion provincial, and distributing

its duties among the secretaries or ministers.
(5) Directing that appeals should not be sent to the supreme

court in Madrid, but should be heard by the superior court at
San Juan.
(6) Abolishing the subdelegation of pharmacy which gave

degrees to pharmacists.
(7) Making the fisheries free to all.
Appropriations for the support of the church ceased with

American occupation, and the Government lottery was
discontinued.
"Under the military government of General Guy V. Henry

[December 6, 1898 to May 8, 1899], orders were issued:
(l) Appointing military commissions to try cases of arson and

murder which had accumulated in the civil courts.
(2) Closing public offices on Sunday, as far as possible.
(3) Suspending the municipal tax on fresh beef for use of the
Army.
(4) Making Christmas and New Year's holidays.
(5) Forbidding grants or concessions of public or corporate

rights or franchises without the approval of the commanding
general and the Secretary of War.
(6) Abolishing the municipal consumo tax on articles of food,

fuel, and drink, and providing for additional assessments on
the sale of liquors and tobacco.
(7) Separating the collection of customs duties from that of

direct taxes.
(8) Establishing a new system of land taxation, by which

agricultural lands should be taxed according to the several
classes instituted, from 1 peso down to 25 centavos per
cuerda, and levying 50 per cent additional on lands whose
owners reside abroad.
(9) Providing for the free vaccination of the people of the

island.
(10) Prohibiting the exhumation of bodies in the cemeteries,

recognizing the right of priests to control burials in
consecrated grounds, and requiring municipalities to keep
cemeteries in repair.
(11) Reducing notarial fees from $1.88 to $1, from $4.50 to

$1, from $11 to $1, and from $1 to 50 cents, according to
class of document, and canceling others.
(12) Reorganizing the cabinet, so as to make all the

secretaries directly responsible to the governor-general.
(13) Suspending the foreclosure of mortgages on agricultural

property and machinery for one year.
(14) Appointing February 22 a holiday.
(15) Prohibiting the sale of liquor to children under 14 years

of age.
(16) Modifying the civil marriage law.
(17) Declaring that eight hours shall constitute a day's work.
(18) Creating an insular police.
{413}
"Under the military government of General George W. Davis

[May 8, 1899, to May 1, 1900], orders were issued
(1) Modifying the order of
General Henry concerning hours of labor, so as to allow

agreements between employer and employee for longer or shorter
hours.
(2) Naming May 30 as a holiday.
(3) Allowing the writ of habeas corpus to be issued.
(4) Constituting a board of prison control and pardon.
(5) Continuing the observance as a holiday of June 24.
(6) Creating a provisional court on the basis of circuit and

district courts of the United States for the hearing of cases
not falling within the jurisdiction of local insular courts.
(7) Creating a superior board of health for the island.

(8) Reorganizing the bureau of public instruction and the
system of education.
(9) Relieving the judiciary from all control by the department

of justice, discontinuing the office of secretary of justice,
and appointing a solicitor-general.
(10) Abolishing the sale at auction of the privilege of

slaughter of cattle, and making it free.
(11) Reorganizing the judicial system of the island, with a

supreme court in San Juan and district courts in San Juan,
Ponce, Mayaguez, Arecibo, and Humacao, and with modifications
of civil and criminal procedure.
(12) Discontinuing the departments of state, treasury, and

interior, and creating bureaus of state and municipal affairs,
of internal revenue, and of agriculture, to be placed under
the direction of a civil secretary, responsible to the
governor-general, and continuing the bureaus of education and
public works, with an insular board of nine members to advise
the governor-general on matters of public interest referred to
them.
"The reductions in the budget of expenditures have been

extensive. That of 1898-99, adopted in June, 1898, amounted to
$4,781,920, native money. The appropriations for 'general
obligations,' which went to Madrid, $498,502, for the clergy,
$197,945; for the army, $1,252,378; for the navy, $222,668,
making a total of $2,171,493, ceased to be obligations,
leaving $2,610,428 for the fiscal year. A new budget was
adopted for the calendar year 1899, which still further
reduces expenditures, calling only for $1,462,276. This
budget, if carried out, would have involved a reduction from
the proposed budget of 1898-99 of $3,319,644; but a new budget
was formed, as already stated, for 1899-1900, which appears to
call for an increase over this very moderate sum. The revenues
were reduced by the abolition of stamped paper, personal
passports, export duties, royal dues on conveyances, the
lottery system, and other sources of income, amounting, all
told, to less probably than a million of pesos."
H. R. Carroll (Special Commissioner),

Report on Porto Rico, October 6, 1899, pages 53-55.
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1899 (August).

Destructive cyclone.
"On the morning of the 7th of August, 1899, the United States
Weather Bureau, through its branch establishment here,
announced the approach of a cyclonic disturbance, and the
danger signal was ordered to be hoisted at substations of the
Bureau at Ponce and Mayaguez. At the same time I directed that
the danger be reported to all commanding officers of posts
throughout the island. There had been no serious or
destructive storm in Puerto Rico since 1867, and the
inhabitants had ceased to feel great concern on account of
tropical tempests. Except at seaports, little heed was given
to the caution, and in some cases the telegraph operators
failed to receive or to promptly deliver the warning messages.
The vortex of the cyclone appears to have traversed the island
throughout its whole length, from about Humacao to Mayaguez,
and its path was a scene of very great devastation. … The gale
struck the island at Humacao about midnight of August 7, and
furiously blew all the rest of that night and well into the
next day, while at Mayaguez the violence was not great until 9
o'clock on the morning of the 8th. But as the latter town was
under the lee of high mountains, it suffered much less than it
would have done had it been higher or not thus protected. Most
of the habitations in the track of the center of the cyclone
were entirely smashed and the débris strewn all over the
country. The full reports of the loss of life bring the number
of deaths up to 2,700. The wind worked dreadful havoc with nearly
everything useful to man. Besides the mortality, which was
appalling, the material damage was almost beyond belief. But
the greatest loss of life resulted, not from the wind, but
from the terrible downfall of rain that immediately followed.
… Added to the horror of the situation there came with the
gale on the southern coast a tidal wave, which submerged large
areas with sea water and swept away what the wind and rain had
spared, in some places completing the destruction. Every river
bed or bottom of a land depression was a roaring torrent. The
wind uprooted myriads of trees, and the rain, entering and
permeating the soil, loosened it, and on steep declivities
resulted in avalanches of earth, mud, and water, covering wide
areas and piling up the debris in the ravines and gorges. … The
material loss to the coffee growers can as yet only be
estimated, but the most conservative figures received place
this year's crop at one-third of the normal. … Regard being
had to the fact that five years must elapse before the coffee
trees and their shade can be replanted and reach a normal
bearing condition, the total loss can not be safely placed
below 25,000,000 pesos for Puerto Rico on account of this
hurricane."

Report (Message and Documents: Abridgment, 1899-1900,
volume 2, pages 1343-1344).
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1899 (October).

Census of the Island taken under the direction of the
War Department of the United States.
"The population of Porto Rico shown by the schedules of the

present census taken with reference to the date of October 16,
1899, was 953,243. This was about nine-tenths of the
population of Maryland in 1890, the State whose population is
nearest to that of Porto Rico. … If the figures for … earlier
censuses may be accepted, it appears that the population of
Porto Rico has been growing through the last twelve years with
greater rapidity than before since 1860. Its present rate of
increase is about the same as that of Ohio, Tennessee, or the
Carolinas during the decade between 1880 and 1890. … It
appears that the average increase of population in the
interior has been more rapid than that on the coast. If the
figures for the coast cities of San Juan, Ponce, and Mayaguez
had been excluded, the difference would be yet more marked.
The depressed condition of sugar-cane growing in the West
Indies of recent years may have played an important part in
producing this difference, for the growing of sugar cane is
prevalent in the coast plains of Porto Rico.
{414}
"The area of Porto Rico, including the adjacent and dependent

islands of Vieques, Culebra, Mona, and Muertos, has been
measured in connection with this census and found to be 3,606
square miles. But owing to the imperfect surveys on which all
maps of Porto Rico are based there must be a considerable and
indeterminate margin of possible error in any such
measurement. The island is about three times the size of Long
Island, which was in 1890 perhaps the largest insular division
of the United States. It is also slightly greater than the
eastern shore of Maryland (3,461 square miles). … Porto Rico
has 264 persons to a square mile. This density of population
is about the same as in Massachusetts, twice that in New York
State, and thrice that in Ohio. It is more than seven times
that of Cuba and not much less than twice that of Habana
province. …
"The people of Porto Rico are, in the main, a rural community.

There are no large cities in the island, the two largest being
San Juan, which, regarding the entire municipal district as a
city, had a population of 32,048, and Ponce, which with its
port constituted practically one city, with a population of
27,952. These are the only two cities exceeding 25,000
inhabitants. The next city of magnitude is Mayaguez, on the
west coast, with a population of 15,187. The only other city
exceeding 8,000 inhabitants is Arecibo, with a population of
8,008. The total urban population of the island contained in
cities exceeding 8,000 inhabitants each is 83,195, or only 8.7
per cent of the population of the island. This is a much
smaller proportion than in Cuba, where the corresponding
figures are 32.3 per cent, or in the United States, where the
corresponding proportion in 1890 was 29.2 per cent. There are
in Porto Rico 57 cities, each having a population of 1,000 or
more. The total urban population of the island, under this
definition, numbers 203,792, or 21.4 per cent of the total
number of inhabitants of the island. Similar figures for Cuba
show 47.1 per cent of the population of that island."
Census of Porto Rico, Bulletin No.1.
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1899-1900.

The question of the tariff treatment of its new Territory
by the United States Government.
Writing in "The Forum," November, 1899, Mr. H. K. Carroll, who

had investigated the conditions in Porto Rico as a Special
Commissioner of the United States government, described the
obligation which, in his view, they imposed on the latter as
follows: "The only free market the Puertorican has for his
products is the island market. All the rest of the world is
closed to him. He cannot even buy in a free market; everything
he buys as well as everything he sells being subject to
duties. This is the penalty of independence; but Puerto Rico
is not, and does not want to be, independent. She wants such
commercial relations with us as Alaska, New Mexico, and
Arizona have, and desires a territorial form of government. I
am of the opinion that we cannot refuse these reasonable
requests without doing great injustice to Puerto Rico. It must
be remembered that we sought Puerto Rico; for Puerto Rico did
not seek us. We wrested her from the sovereignty of Spain,
without asking her if she desired to change her allegiance. We
were of the opinion that she was not justly treated by Spain;
that she was governed in the interests of the mother country
solely; that she was oppressed and overtaxed and denied a
proper measure of home rule; and that in consequence we were
serving the cause of humanity in breaking the chains that
bound her. This was what the Puertoricans thought also. They
welcomed our troops and our control. They were glad to turn
their backs on the history of the past, and begin under the
glorious Republic of the North a new and more prosperous
career. They are disappointed, perhaps unreasonably, that
their new life has not already begun; they are eagerly
expectant. They look to the President to recommend, and to
Congress to adopt, a system of government which will make the
island a Territory, equal in rank and rights and privileges to
existing Territories. They ought not to be disappointed
without the best and strongest of reasons. Three reasons are
mentioned in opposition to the granting of territorial
government to Puerto Rico. First, admission as a Territory
implies ultimate admission to statehood; and statehood for
islands separated as Hawaii and Puerto Rico are by from 1,200
to 2,500 miles from the United States is not to be thought of
for a moment. Second, territorial organization involves the
relinquishment of customs duties; and the cane and tobacco
growers of our West India possession would have free access to
the markets of the United States, and thus come into injurious
competition with our own farmers. Third, the people of Puerto
Rico are not competent for the measure of self-government
which the territorial system provides."
This most reasonable and just view of the duty of the American
people to their new fellow citizens received strong
endorsement from higher official authority in the subsequent
annual report of the Secretary of War, who said: "It is plain
that it is essential to the prosperity of the island that she
should receive substantially the same treatment at our hands
as she received from Spain while a Spanish colony, and that
the markets of the United States should be opened to her as
were the markets of Spain and Cuba before the transfer of
allegiance. Congress has the legal right to regulate the
customs duties between the United States and Porto Rico as it
pleases; but the highest considerations of justice and good
faith demand that we should not disappoint the confident
expectation of sharing in our prosperity with which the people
of Porto Rico so gladly transferred their allegiance to the
United States, and that we should treat the interests of this
people as our own; and I wish most strongly to urge that the
customs duties between Porto Rico and the United States be
removed."
Message and Documents:

Abridgment, 1899-1900, volume 2, page 757.
And, finally, the President of the United States, in his

Message to Congress, December 5, 1899, gave his high authority
to the declaration that this duty of his government to Porto
Rico was "plain": "It must be borne in mind," he said, "that
since the cession Porto Rico has been denied the principal
markets she had long enjoyed and our tariffs have been
continued against her products as when she was under Spanish
sovereignty. The markets of Spain are closed to her products
except upon terms to which the commerce of all nations is
subjected. The island of Cuba, which used to buy her cattle
and tobacco without customs duties, now imposes the same
duties upon these products as from any other country entering
her ports.
{415}
She has therefore lost her free intercourse with Spain and
Cuba, without any compensating benefits in this market. Her
coffee was little known and not in use by our people, and
therefore there was no demand here for this, one of her chief
products. The markets of the United States should be opened up
to her products. Our plain duty is to abolish all customs
tariffs between the United States and Porto Rico and give her
products free access to our markets."
Message and Documents: Abridgment,
volume 1, page 53.
Notwithstanding all which high official acknowledgments and

declarations of obligation and duty, on the part of the
Republic of the United States to the people of the island
which it had wrested from Spain, certain interests in the
former that objected to competition from the latter were able
to secure legislation which deferred the performance of the
"plain duty" required. An Act of Congress which the President
approved on the 12th of April, 1900, "temporarily to provide
revenues and a civil government for Porto Rico and for other
purposes," enacted as follows:
"SECTION 3.
That on and after the passage of this Act all merchandise
coming into the United States from Porto Rico and coming into
Porto Rico from the United States shall be entered at the
several ports of entry upon payment of fifteen per centum of
the duties which are required to be levied, collected, and
paid upon like articles of merchandise imported from foreign
countries; and in addition thereto upon articles of
merchandise of Porto Rican manufacture coming into the United
States and withdrawn for consumption or sale upon payment of a
tax equal to the internal-revenue tax imposed in the United
States upon the like articles of merchandise of domestic
manufacture; such tax to be paid by internal-revenue stamp or
stamps to be purchased and provided by the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue and to be procured from the collector of
internal revenue at or most convenient to the port of entry of
said merchandise in the United States, and to be affixed under
such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with
the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall
prescribe; and on all articles of merchandise of United States
manufacture coming into Porto Rico in addition to the duty
above provided upon payment of a tax equal in rate and amount
to the internal-revenue tax imposed in Porto Rico upon the

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(eBook PDF) Educating Exceptional

Children 14th Edition

Dr. James J. Gallagher, senior author of Educating

lined the components of the first Handicapped

a researcher on the Abecedarian Project,

FPG Child Development Institute

PART ONE I ntroduction, History, and Social Forces in Special

PART TWO High-Incidence Exceptionalities 64

PART THREE Low-Incidence Exceptionalities 348

1 Children with Exceptionalities and Their Families 3

1-1 The Child with Exceptionalities: 1-5f Siblings of Children with

Box 1-2 Exceptional Lives, Exceptional Stories: A Day in

2 Children with Exceptionalities and Social Institutions:

2-6b Student Expectations 59

PART Two High-Incidence Exceptionalities 64

3 Early Intervention Supports and Services 65

3-1 History of Early Intervention 66

3-6 Educational Responses for

4 Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 105

5 Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders 141

Digital Download: Figure 5.4: Information Processing Model

5-6 Educational Responses for Students with

6 Children with Learning Disabilities 171

6-5f The Information Processing Model as a

6-6 Educational Responses for Students with

Assistive Technology for Students with Learning

7 Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorders (ADHD) 207

8 Children with Emotional and Behavior Disorders 245

8-1 History of Emotional and Behavior

9 Children with Communication, Language, and Speech Disorders 283

with Communication, Language, and

10 Children Who Have Special Gifts and Talents 317

10-1 Why Should We Care about Students with

PART Three Low-Incidence Exceptionalities 348

11 Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 349

11-4a Cognitive Development of Children with

12 Children with Visual Impairments 387

12-1 Brief History of the Field of Visual

12-8 Educational Responses for Students with

13 Children with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments,

13-5 Educational Responses

or Severe Disabilities 436

Teachsource Video Connection: Assistive Technology in Moral dilemma: Gene Replacement

56th Congress, 1st Session,

"The civil government of the island was the Governor-General,

"The system of autonomy, which was proclaimed November 25,

H. K. Carroll (Special Commissioner),

PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898 (May).

See (in this volume)

PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898 (July-August).

See (in this volume)

PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898 (July-December).

See (in this volume)

PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898-1899 (August-July).

"All classes of natives of the island welcomed the American

"They expect under American sovereignty that the wrongs of

H. K. Carroll (Special Commissioner),

"On the 25th day of July, 1899, an election was held in

PART ONE I ntroduction, History, and Social Forces in Special

2 Children with Exceptionalities and Social Institutions:

13 Children with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments,