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1. Action Potential Generation:

A stimulus triggers depolarization, causing a slight decrease in membrane potential to -40 mV.
This activates voltage-gated sodium channels, allowing sodium ions to rush into the nerve cell.
The rapid influx reverses the potential, making it positive (+30 mV) within a millisecond.
2. Repolarization and Propagation:
The positive potential closes sodium channels and opens potassium channels.
Potassium ions flow out, restoring the negative resting potential.
The membrane's ATPase pump helps accelerate this process (repolarization).
This cycle of depolarization and repolarization spreads down the axon, propagating the nerve
impulse.
3. Transmission between Cells:
At synapses, nerve cells release specific neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine) into the gap.
Neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap and bind to receptors on the second cell, triggering
new depolarization and propagating the signal.
Different types of synapses use different neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine, glutamate) for
various functions.
4. Saltatory Conduction in Myelinated Fibers:
Myelin sheath insulates most of the axon, except for nodes of Ranvier.
Action potentials only occur at the nodes due to saltatory conduction.
The depolarization at one node triggers the next, causing the impulse to jump along the axon,
increasing efficiency.
5. Nerve-Muscle Communication:
At the neuromuscular junction, acetylcholine triggers muscle contraction.
Calcium ions then trigger the release of acetylcholine from storage vesicles.
Acetylcholinesterase quickly degrades acetylcholine, preventing permanent muscle contraction.
6. Muscle Contraction:
The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores and releases calcium ions, contributing to contraction.
Actin and myosin, special proteins, use ATP to power muscle movement through a sliding
filament mechanism.
The Importance of pH Control:
Proteins are crucial for various biological functions, and their specific shape and charged side
chains are vital for their activity.
Protein function is sensitive to pH, with most optimal around pH 7.35-7.45.
Changes in cellular pH due to metabolic activities (lactate, ketoacids, CO2) can disrupt these
functions.
Mechanisms of pH Control:
Buffering in the blood:
Dissolved bicarbonate acts as a buffer, soaking up H+ ions and preventing pH drop.
Some proteins also contribute to buffering.
Gaseous exchange:
Breathing out CO2 removes it from the body, indirectly reducing H+ production.
Carbonic anhydrase enzyme speeds up CO2 conversion for efficient removal.
Kidney function:
Filters out waste products like lactate and acetoacetate that affect pH.
Reabsorbs or excretes bicarbonate depending on the need to raise or lower blood pH.