KWAME NKRUMAHUNIVERSITY

IN ASSOCIATION WITH
MPIKA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Date of publication: 7th JULY 2023.

This material is the property of the Mpika College Of Education.

Prepared by: NKATYA REUBEN BBSWE

EMAIL: reubenkangwankatya@gmail.com PHONE NUMBER: 0976735295/0968162484

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UNIT ONE

THE RISE OF THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Renaissance or rebirth is a term which is used to denote a moment in history when there was revival of
learning in Europe. This revival was based mainly on ancient Greek and Roman learning. Initially the
renaissance was entirely a Roman movement but later spread to all of Europe. As it spread the movement
acquired another name an it was called Humanism from an old Roman word (Humintas) which means
culture. It was during this period that the Italian Humanists reconstructed their Political and Social life.
During the reconstruction they applied and used methods of science which resulted in the development of a
new type of scholars that had in their possession a literary, artistic and historical appreciation. The
renaissance changed both the purpose and method of education. Earlier before the renaissance, up to the 4th
century, the aim of education in both Greece and Rome had been to prepare people to become good and
useful citizens of the state.

However all this changed when the Church took over control. The focus of education was now on
religious devotion with a view of preparing one for happiness in the next world. The Church socialised
people not to have much interest or get deeply involved with material possession of this world since their
treasure was in heaven. The renaissance was aimed at protesting against this kind of attitude but restoring
the ideals of earlier education system and goals. The ideals of the renaissance were; self culture and
preparation for usefulness and success in the world here and not the world to come.

Factors that were attributed to the revival of learning were as follows:-

The revival of commerce and City life. This saw the birth of a class of bourgeoisie who assisted in the
destruction of the medieval system.

The middle class that was created composed of merchants, bookkeepers, bankers and traders who
demanded an education system that would improve their skills in commerce and industry.

The emergence of nation states that required bureaucrats to work in various branches of government and
they embraced the humanistic education.

The diffusion of ideas and culture from different parts of the world which helped in breaking of new
frontiers of knowledge.

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Theorists Associated with the Spread of the Renaissance Movement

Vittorino De Feltre (1378-1446) was famous for spearheading the Italian renaissance movement by
establishing reforms in the Italian school system. He was a humanist and teacher who established a school
in which humanistic principles were introduced and instruction was mainly based on the study of Greek
and Latin. Latin

was the main medium of instruction. The curriculum also put emphasis on manners, morality and
reverence. The curriculum produced an all-round person and offered superior education compared to the
type of education offered in Church schools and their schools were mostly attended by children of the
middle class society.

Desiderius Erasmus 91467-1536). He was born in the Netherlands but considered to be a citizen of the
world. He was responsible for the spread of the humanism movement in

England and taught at Cambridge where he introduced the new learning there in humanistic principles and
curriculum. He was wrote the Latin Greek edition of the New Testament.

2.0. The Reformation

This referees to the movement that began in the 16th century with the intention of reforming the church.
The reformers wanted to return to the simpler religion of Christ. They also wanted and demanded that
Christians should be permitted to study the Bible by themselves, without an intermediary, and to reach
conclusions on their own as to the Christian duty. When these demands were not met, the reformers
decided to break away and they formed the Protestant

Church. Two prominent reformers were;

Martin Luther (1483-1546). Martin Luther enunciated the most progressive ideas on education in
Germany. He divided the school system into three levels; (a) Vernacular schools for the common people in
which medium of instruction was vernacular and they were open to all sexes. The curriculum included
reading, household duties or trade, writing, physical training, singing and religion. Attendance to this
school was compulsory. (b) The econd level was the Latin Secondary schools where a learned clergy was

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to be responsible for for instructions of the learners. (c). the third level were the Universities and these were
meant for training people for high service in church and the state.

John Calvin (1509-1564). He was a French reformer who wrote the first orderly presentation of the
principles of Christian faith from the Protestant point of view. Calvinists organized an extensive system of
schools from elementary, secondary to university levels in which they provided an education that was
religious, civil, intellectual, moral, social and economic Education was to be provided to all, rich and poor
alike. Protestant ethics contributed to largely to the rise and spreading of capitalism as an economic system
in the Western World.

UNIT TWO -EDUCATION IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES

The objective of this Chapter is to enable you to:

 Identify at least four (4) factors behind the rise of science education in the 17th century Europe.

 Mention at least five (5) inventions during the scientific revolution.

 Identify three (3) contributions to modern education by John Amos Comenius.

 Show at least four (4) ways in which naturalist educational thought has contributed to the theory
and practice of modern education.

Modern science arose in 17th century in Europe and was essentially a transition from natural philosophy to
science in which Metaphysical explanation of the natural world as espoused by Aristotle were set aside in
preference to much more empirical mechanistic models of nature. The birth of modern science is the
change over from the world of the ―more-or-less‖ to the ―universe of precision.‖

In the 17th century factors in Europe that were prevailing there exerted a lot of influence on the
development of science as well as the regard for manual labour and the work of intellectual artisans such as
engineers. This legitimized the study of science as a vocation. It was period that saw the Christian thought
help modernise science and have it thrive. The rise in science heralded for the course of human history in
all sectors of human activities including education.

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. Scientific revolution of the 17th century was in a way the final expression of the Renaissance. It was
essentially the transition from natural philosophy to science, in which metaphysical explanations of the
natural world (Such as Aristotle‘ s) were set aside in favour of a much more empirical approach. The
central features of this new science was the mechanistic model of nature, the emphasis on observation and
setting up of experiments designed to focus on aspects of nature and seek answers to precise questions. The
birth of modern science was regarded as the changeover to the universe of precision.

Internal factors prevailing in 17th century Europe. The internal factors prevailing in Europe also
exerted a significant influence on the development and growth of science. The climate in of thought within
the Protestantism‘ s high regard for manual labour as well as the work of intellectuals such as artisans like
engineers and architects.

Other Factors: Other factors included the transition from agrarian economy to the commercial-oriented
nation-states in which power moved to the middle class from the clergy and aristocrats.

Pansophism: Due to the overwhelming body of new ideas and information generated through the new
science, and the rich legacy of past scholars an attempt was made to develop a universal system of
knowledge or pensophia under-which utilitarian and realistic tendencies in education developed.

The new intellectual approach implied a search for a method by which

―reality‖ could be known , and was behind attempts to construct an education approach that could meet
felt human needs through the introduction of vernacular instruction, more efficient teaching methodologies,
better schools and scientific observation and experimentation, rather than deductively, with nature seen in
terms of the ends and purposes predetermined by God.

UNIT 3 : FACTORS AFFECTING EDUCATION SYSTEMS

You will notice that factors that affect national educational systems as follows; (a) ground motives, (b)
Natural factors and (c) Cultural factors. The correlation between education, society and development lies in
the belief that change in society should bring about change in education and vice versa. This will
depend on the natural and cultural factors.

Article 26 of UNO charter on Human rights

This article states the following that you need to know.

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Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free at least in the elementary and fundamental
stages. Technical and professional Education as well as higher education shall be made available and
equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.

Education shall be directed to the full development of the human rights and fundamental freedoms. It
shall promote understanding, tolerance friendship among nations, racial or religious groups and shall
further activities of the united nations in the maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior right to choose the
kind of education that shall be given to their children‘

Ground Motive

Ground motives are categorised into three elements. There are; Religious, Philosophical and political
ideologies. In countries where a single ground motive exists the Educational systems tends to be uniform
or centralised. In countries where there is a blending of various ground motives the education system is
decentralised.

CULTURAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS

You will realise that education is a cultural phenomenon and as such must be embedded in the culture of a
community. The following are some of the cultural factors that affect education;

Logical or Analytical Aspect

The logical or analytical aspect is reflected in the systematisation, planning and classification of the
education system. Every education system is functionally planned between primary, secondary and tertiary
education for easier classification.

Historical Influences

Every education system ensures the recasting and transmission of culture. In Africa colonial influences are
such in the educational philosophy Curriculum and institutional arrangements. Previously schools were
attached to examination boards of ex-colonial rulers e.g. France, England or Portugal.

Language aspects

An educational system is influence by language factors. In unilingual countries the language of the people
is also medium of instruction and therefore, tends to result into a centralised system of education.
Bilingual societies tend to adopt a decentralised education system. For example Canada and Cameroon are
bilingual countries with French and English as National languages. Therefore English speaking provinces

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have maintained. English education systems while French speaking provinces have maintained a French
speaking province have maintained a French education system. Thus, language is connected to the
historical cultural aspect of identity with which why education system must function.

Population factors

Educational facilities provided are directly influenced by spatial distribution and density of population.
The population ratio in relation to the size of the country offers variations in the administration of the
educational system. In India due to the large population, there are enormous variations between different
areas making it difficult for radical education reforms and planning. Large countries like the United State
of America and Canada have a decentralised system of education while smaller countries like Lesotho or
Malawi which have fewer variations, have centralised education systems.

Pistic or religious influences

Religious faith of any nation is reflected in the education systems. This determines the content, direction
and sometimes the structure of the education system. Differences between Roman Catholics and Protestant
Churches have resulted in each one wanting to have separate educational systems or schools. In Nigeria
the Muslim North and Christian south want to have separate education systems.

Religious cultural diversity and ethnicity in Asia has encouraged various cultural groups wishing to
exercise school of education system. In Pakistan separate Muslim Islamic and Buddhist institution exist.
The cost of incorporating such various cultural interests is often very high.

Racial factors

In South African, until recently, USA and Europe racial differences have been used to determine varieties
in education systems. Europeans or white ended up having progressive education compared with other
races that end up being provided inferior learning environments. This is mainly to preserve cultural
identity and superiority.

Political conflicts factor

Many developing countries allocate large portions of their budget to defence and security in order to keep
the regimes in power. Hence less money is spent on educational service. During conflicts the weak
economic are disrupted and many people are displaced. Boys and girls of school going aged are force to
leave school and become refugees there by discontinuing with school. Some are forced to join the fighting
as child soldiers like in Northern Uganda, Liberia, Ivory Coast and Sierra Leon. The conflicts thus deprive
them of the right to education.

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Juridical or Judicial consideration

An education system cannot be managed without laid down laws and principles. The rights of every
individual are stipulated in the education system in accordance with the public law. The learner must be
ethically guided to develop principles as stipulated in the national education Acts. The judicial aspect may
further lead to international co-operative and good social relationships.

Economic factors

Educational finance is one of the most important factors in the development of national systems of schools.
The amount of money spent on education is reflected in the structure and quality of national education
systems. The education systems functions economically as a mother of all professions by producing skilled
labour. The administration of educational finance must, therefore be done on an economic basis.

Aesthetic values

An education Systems is bound to aesthetic standards. In the curriculum provisions are made for aesthetic
education such as music, painting, poetry, designing and sculptor. The school environment also needs to
strive for beauty in order to ensure quality life.

NATURAL FACTORS AFFECTING N.E.S

The following are the natural factors that affect National Education Systems that you need to consider.

Numerical Aspect

Numeracy is a very important consideration in an education system. The number of schools, the number of
pupils the number of numerical aspect of classrooms are all examples of the numerical aspect of an
educational systems. Therefore, all educational planning must take into consideration the numerical aspect
of the country.

Spatial Aspect

The spatial distribution of the population can determine and affect the establishment of institutions of
learning. Areas with a high population density tend to have more education facilities than those with low
population density.

Kinematic factors

Kinematic aspect is associated with the movement of groups and services as well as mobility of the people
from one area to another. There is a connection between numerical, spatial and population aspects.

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People‗ s migration is one of the problems that can be considered under Kinematic aspect. Pupils migrate
from rural to urban areas in search of education facilities.

Physical factor

Physical aspects can be divided into two categories and these are:

Natural physical aspects such as climate, seasons, the terrain, mountains and rivers, swamps and diseases.

Technological Physical Aspects such as architectural features – like infrastructure, air conditioning,
lighting system and acoustics or hearing systems. The above aspect do most times influence the school
calendar of an educational system. School calendars are arranged according to the season. In the northern
cold parts of the world the school holidays are in most cases during the cold season to allow the pupils are
at home during that period.

Biotic factor

Biotic factor is associated with the biological growth of a child. The educational system levels and stages
are arranged according to the mental and physical development of a child. The child‘ s nutrition and needs
for medical services in school is another important biotic factor.

Psychic factor

The psychic factor includes aptitudes interest and disability of school going children. The education
systems should take into consideration the psychical and mental development of children with such
challenges. There must be special schools for the visually impaired, physically challenged and the
mentally impaired pupils.

UNIT 4 ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN EDUCATION

SPARTAN EDUCATION:

Sparta is a local name for the ancient city-state of Lace daemon. It was predominantly agrarian and military
state. The training of patriot warrior was the whole basis of Spartan education. The ideal of valour was
expressed in the concept of exercise or training. Training of the boys was designed to cultivate four great
virtues and these were; prudence, temperance, fortitude and obedience. Training for the girls was designed
to emphasise on the ideals of mother wood in the service of the state.

ATHENIAN EDUCATION:

While Spartan education focused on the training of the body, Athenian education focused on the training of
the intellect. Literacy was therefore, given much attention, to prepare the citizens for state service.
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Education was initially linked with practical ideas, i.e. the activities that were related to ensuring the
primacy of the state. The state was pictured as a big institution from which individuals drew their identity.

SOCRATES

(All pictures and Illustrations herein courtesy of Wikipedia.org)

Amongst the greatest sophists during the later fifth century BC was Socrates (469-399). Socrates exercised
a considerable influence on the development

of education in Athens. He was known for using the question and answer method to find out the level of
ignorance or the amount of knowledge possessed by individuals. The purpose was to usually lead the
individual to a better understanding of the problem.

SOCRATES PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Socrates divided knowledge into two types - ordinary knowledge, i.e. specific knowledge which was not
much worth for the possessor, and higher knowledge, which involved the definition of words and concepts
which were helpful in the quest for truth. His idea of education included interpretation of statements,
examination of knowledge, learning from wise people, examining oneself as well as others and attaining
moral knowledge. Interestingly, Socrates also believed that our quest for truth was blurred by our pursuit of
any specific discipline

Two other prominent philosophers of classical Greece were Plato (428-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322).

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(All pictures and Illustrations herein courtesy of Wikipedia.org)

PLATO

Most Roman artists often depict Plato pointing to the heavens and Aristotle pointing to the earth.
Metaphorically, this illustration is the main difference between the two philosophers. Plato was an Idealist
and lover of myth. He divided the soul of a human being into three parts-the appetite: (desire, pleasure-
seeking and other needs), the spirit: (energy and courage) and the rational: (wisdom). Plato‘s education
theory was based on the notion that education at all levels should be the state‗s responsibility for since the
individual citizen existed mainly to serve the state. On the other hand Aristotle was a Realist, a practical
man mostly referred to as ―The hard intellectualist‖, ―A master of many sciences‖ and ―A father of
Biology‖

EDUCATION THEORIES OF ARISTOTLE.

ARISTOTLE

(All pictures and Illustrations herein courtesy of Wikipedia.org)

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Aristotle was born in Stagier in 384 BC. He was a son of a physician and when he was 18 years old he
became a student in Plato‘s Academy. Plato regarded Aristotle as a brilliant and often referred to him as the
nous of the mind. At the age of 50 years Aristotle established a school of higher education in Philosophy
known as The Lyceum in Athens in Greece. He dedicated it to Apollo Lyceum from that the god Lyceum.
It won acclaim for its distinguished works in the Natural Sciences.

TEACHINGS

The Lyceum had two distinctive features and these were;

(a). Students’ role.

Students at the Lyceum organised and ruled themselves. Every ten days a different student would be
elected to handle administrative duties

(b). Students’ research.

All students were assigned tasks involving historical or scientific research. Aristotle based many of his
activities proposition upon his research. He continued teaching at the Lyceum until 323BC.

HIS PHILOSOPHY

Some of the important parts that influenced the Aristotelian education and its theories are as follows;

METAPHYSICS.

(a). Reality: Under reality he believed that the universe is composed of two ultimate entities i.e., Spirit or
form and Materiality or mater.

Aristotle believed that all things are reducible to one or other of these basic entities.

(b). The nature of Man: Aristotle believed that man is a rational being because man has a soul. The active
element of the is part of the universal principle of life. This element is immortal. The passive element of
the soul is the individual personality with memories and thoughts relating to the experiences of life. This
passive element ceases to exist with death.

The implications of this theory are;

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(i). Destiny: Man has no eternal destiny and he ceases to exist and learn upon death because man has to
learn even how to die.

(ii). Nature: The highest faculty in man is his spiritual nature. A person acts according to their nature when
they subordinate their physical appetite to reason.

(iii). Teleology: This is purpose, order and intelligence in the universe. It stems from the first being “the
unmoved mover GOD”.

EPISTEMOLOGY.

Epistemology is the philosophical dispositional knowledge and enquiry into the nature, condition and
extent of human knowledge.

(a). Science of Truth. The fact of reason in every person can be trained through the principles of logic, to
reason towards conclusions.

(b). Nature of Truth. Aristotle indicates that truth is objective, that is, a true proposition does not depend
upon the mind of the individual person for its existence. Truth exists in nature and is discoverable by the
reason of a person.

ETHICS.

(a). Eudemonia. The highest good to which a person may aspire is happiness. Aristotle indicates that a
truly happy life can be assed only upon completion. He said ‗Eudemonia‘ or happiness is an achievement
of those who have mastered the art of hard working.

(b). Naturalism. A person lives happily when their actions are in accordance with their nature. A person‘s
spiritual nature is superior to their physical nature. The highest good for any person is the activity of their
soul.

(c). Reason. The faculty of reason, resident in the soul of a person must guide their every action. The
physical appetites must be controlled by reason. Therefore, reason is the source of virtue.

(d). Virtue. A person uses their reason to judge between the extremes of any given act.

THE AIM OF EDUCATION

The purpose of education is, according to Aristotle, to produce a good person. Every person must learn to
control their animal activities through the use of reason. Only when a person behaves by habit and reason,
according to their nature as a rational being, are they capable of happiness. Education must aim at the

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development of the full potentialities of each individual. It must seek the development of a person‘s
capacities to the fullest.

THE CONTENT OF EDUCATION AT THE LYCEUM

We may infer from the curriculum of the academy that the following subjects were taught;

(a). Basics. These included reading, writing and mathematics.

(b). Natural Sciences. Aristotle emphasised the natural sciences of astronomy, biology, zoology,
physiology, chemistry and physics.

(c). Physical Education. The training of the body is important to the physical well being of every citizen.

2.1.7 THE METHODOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Aristotle placed habit high in the learning process. He contended that human beings learn by nature, by
habit and by reason. Consequently, the teacher sould organise materials according to the laws of reason.

UNIT
5

OTHER GREEK PHILOSOPHERS

THE PHILOSOPHER ISOCRATES

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Isocrates was born to a wealthy family in Athens and received a first-rate education. He was greatly
influenced by his sophist teachers, Prodicus and Gorgias, and was also closely acquainted with Socrates

His professional career is said to have begun with logography: he was a hired courtroom speechwriter.
Athenian citizens did not hire lawyers; legal procedure required self-representation. Instead, they would
hire people like Isocrates to write speeches for them. Isocrates had a great talent for this since he lacked
confidence in public speaking. His weak voice motivated him to publish pamphlets and although he played
no direct part in state affairs, his written speech influenced the public and provided significant insight into
major political issues of the day.

Isocrates defined rhetoric as outward feeling and inward thought of not merely expression, but reason,
feeling, and imagination. Like most who studied rhetoric before and after him, Isocrates believed it was
used to persuade ourselves and others, but also used in directing public affairs. Isocrates described rhetoric
as "that endowment of our human nature which raises us above mere animality and enables us to live the
civilized life. He promoted broad-based education by speaking against two types of teachers: the Eristics,
who disputed about theoretical and ethical matters, and the Sophists, who taught political debate
techniques. While Isocrates is viewed by many as being a rhetor and practicing rhetoric, he refers to his
study as philosophia—which he claims as his own. Around 392-390 BC, Isocrates founded his academy in
Cius which was known as the first academy of rhetoric. Isocrates encouraged his students to wander and
observe public behaviour in the city (Athens) to learn through imitation. His students aimed to learn how to
serve the city.

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Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 B.C.) was a Roman orator, statesman and above all, a philosopher. He
wrote on moral and political philosophy, as well as religion.
This webpage is a discussion of the philosophy / metaphysics of Cicero's religious writing, 'On The Nature
of the Gods'. The following quotes from Cicero well illustrate his skeptical mind and philosophical inquiry
into the religious customs and beliefs of his time.

There are many questions in philosophy to which no satisfactory answer has yet to be given. But the
question of the nature of the gods is the darkest and most difficult of all. Yet an answer to this question
could shed the clearest light upon the nature of our own minds and also give us the essential guidance
which we need in our religion. So various and so contradictory are the opinions of the most learned men on
this matter as to persuade one of the truth of the saying that philosophy is the child of ignorance: and that
the philosophers of the Academy have been wise in withholding their consent from any proposition that has
not been proved. There is nothing worse than a hasty judgement, and nothing could be more unworthy of
the dignity and integrity of a philosopher than uncritically to adopt a false opinion or to maintain as certain
some theory which has not been fully explored and understood. (Cicero)

Are you not ashamed as a scientist, as an observer and investigator of nature, to seek your criterion of truth
from minds steeped in conventional beliefs? (Cicero)

.. as a philosopher, I have a right to ask for a rational explanation of religious faith. (Cicero)

Marcus Tullius Cicero is widely considered Rome‘s greatest orator and verse writer but he was also an
influential statesman, successful lawyer and philosopher. He has greatly influenced the Western thought
and philosophy despite the fact that his own contribution to the discipline is generally considered of lesser
importance. However, thanks to Cicero, Western philosophers gained access to many important ancient
philosophical works that would otherwise be lost forever.

Cicero‘s Philosophical Works

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Although Cicero is considered one of the most important Western philosophers, he did not make any major
contributions to the discipline as such. All his works are written in outstanding Latin prose, proving his
brilliance with words but do not offer much originality. However, it is important to note that Cicero was
primarily a politician and considered politics a priority. Ironically, he turned out to be the least successful
in politics which was directly responsible for his premature death. Cicero‘s philosophical works are mostly
reproductions of the prominent Greek philosophers, mostly stoic. However, his works ―De amicitia‖ (On
Friendship), ―De senectute‖ (On Old Age), ―De officiis‖ (On Duty), ―De natural deorum‖ (On the Nature
of the Gods), to mention only a few are a priceless source of ancient Greek philosophy, while rediscovery
of Cicero‘s letters by Petrarch in the 14th century is by some thought to gave rise to Renaissance. Cicero‘s
writings also had a major influence on the Enlightenment philosophers, particularly Montesquieu, John
Locke and David Hume.

.. as a philosopher, I have a right to ask for a rational explanation of religious faith. (Cicero)
.. it is improbable that the material substance which is the origin of all things was created by divine
Providence. It has and has always had a force and nature of its own. (Cicero)

Cicero realised the unity and interconnection of the universe, as he writes; God and the world of Nature
must be one, and all the life of the world must be contained within the being of God. (Cicero)

The idea that 'All is one' is the foundation of philosophy and comes from the ancient Eastern and Greek
Philosophers (~ 5th Century B.C.). Along with these ancient philosophers, Cicero also believed the
universe was eternal. .. it is improbable that the material substance which is the origin of all things was
created by divine Providence. It has and has always had a force and nature of its own. (Cicero)

The fact is that everything which grows and flourishes contains in itself a natural heat without which it
could not grow or flourish. Everything which has within it heat and fire is stirred and enlivened by their
motion. And while anything grows and flourishes, this motion is steady and regular. And so long as it
remains so with us, our life and consciousness continue. But when this vital warmth grows cold and finally
extinct, we ourselves decline and die. So we see that the parts of the world (for there is nothing in the world
which is not a part of the universe as a whole) have sense and reason. So these must be present to a higher
and greater degree in that part which provides the organising principle of the whole world. So the universe
must be a rational being and the Nature which permeates and embraces all things must be endowed with
reason in its highest form. And so God and the world of Nature must be one, and all the life of the world
must be contained within the being of God. (Cicero)

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The Educational Theory of Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus)

Quintilian is thought to have been born somewhere around 35-40 A. D. Quintilian believed that all forms
of knowledge were equally important and that speaking, writing and reading were the most dominant of
skills. He illustrated that talent, good health and valuable attributes are "of no profit without a skilled
teacher, persistence in study, and much continued practice in reading, writing and speaking". Learning to
speak well was so important that Quintilian advised that upon the child's birth, the parent must "make sure
that the nurses speak properly" for the parent must "devote the keenest possible care, from the moment he
becomes a parent, to fostering the promise of an orator to be". If such resources were unavailable,
Quintilian later insisted there be "one person always at hand who knows the right ways of speaking, who
can correct on the spot any faulty expression used by others"

Quintilian believed that knowledge was not inherent and could only be acquired through proper education;
that is, knowledge exists, but must be attained through proper training and learning. Quintilian believed
that the proper training one must undertake to possess knowledge is the art of oratory. Quintilian believed
that learning was the acquisition of knowledge and its associated abilities and competently committing
them to memory. He stated that children must begin learning at an early age for "the elements of reading
and writing are entirely a matter of memory" which is at "it's most retentive" during childhood. Memory is
an important trait and is the key feature of learning according to Quintilian, and he felt that there was
nothing more important than "practice for nourishing and strengthening it". Adding to the importance of
rehearsal, he later stated that "continual practice...is in fact the most effective way of learning"

In order to manage a class, Quintilian stated that it is important the population not be an over abundance: "a
good teacher will not burden himself with a bigger crowd of pupils that he cannot manage". In addition to
this, Quintilian added "it is very important to ensure that he looks at his teaching not as a matter of duty but
of affection.

John Comenius‘ Philosophy of Education

John Comenius was a Moravian teacher, educator, bishop, and writer in the seventeenth century. He is
considered the father of modern education because he advocated universal education in his book The Great
Didactic. Comenius revolutionized education in three ways: school systems, educational theories, and
educational methods. First, Comenius outlined the school system prominently used in America today:
kindergarten, elementary school, secondary school, college, and university. Secondly, he created a general
theory of education around the idea of education according to nature whereby children learned at a natural
pace from simple concepts to challenging theories. Thirdly, he wrote a series of textbooks on educational

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methods and teaching subject matter. His work included applications for and illustrations of how to teach
children. He wanted children to learn in their native language with hands-on activities.

THE PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION

This was a commission that was sponsored by the Phelps –Stokes Trust Fund that was created by a wealthy
American woman by the name of Caroline Phelps-Stokes to help the disadvantaged Negroes and African in
their education. The commission was given the task of studying the colonial education system and make
recommendations to the British colonial Office. In 1924 the commission made a comprehensive assessment
and evaluation of educational opportunities for Africans in Northern Rhodesia and came up with
recommendations. The deliberated with colonial government officials and members of the General
missionary Conference, representing fifteen protestant and catholic societies before making
recommendations for effective development of African Education. The Commission was charged with the
task of;

a). Investigating the educational needs of the indigenous people

b). To ascertain the extent to which the needs of the indigenous people were being met

c). To assist in the formulation of plans to meet the educational needs of the natives.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMISSION

It recommended that government should increase expenditure on education for the Africans in form of
grant-in-aid to Missionary Societies.

Provision of financial aid to be made to central mission schools to be selected on geographical basis.

Government should allocate sufficient funds for the employment of native visiting teachers in order to
improve village schools.

To promote a rationalised, coordinated and efficient system of education under the supervision of
missionaries.

Mission Societies to establish a central training institution.

Emphasis to be placed on practical education and character building in the education of the African child.

The inclusion of representatives on African opinion

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UNIT 6: EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES AT INDEPENDENCE

At independence there was very limited higher education of any kind and no university in the country.
Enormous demand on part of people for education increased as people expected immediate delivery of
more education on attainment of independence. There were also inadequate financial resources for the
provision of the much needed social services like schools and this in turn led to a very limited supply of
skilled labour force to promote rapid economic development.

The problem of devising realistic development plans which were related to the needs of the nation couple
with the difficulties faced in raising the necessary funds required to build teachers‘ houses, classrooms as
well as to train the additional teachers for the service did not assume any significance at all. Besides these
challenges, although some modest expansion of the school facilities was made, it could not match the rapid
increase in the number of schoolchildren demanding places.

The other problem was that as late as a year before independence in 1964, the Colonial Government had
not carried out a full human resource survey before preparing to hand over the government to Africana. It
was , therefore, very difficult for the education planners to know the real needs of the country from an
educational point of view until as late as 1965 when the Government‘s Manpower Report was published.

Besides, though some modest expansion of the school facilities could not match the rapid increase in the
number of school children demanding places, the problem was further compounded by the uneven
distribution of educational facilities between urban and rural areas mainly due to political and sociological
reasons.

In 1964, it was decided that there should be free education in former African schools in order to provide the
bulk of education for the African children. There was also the problem of technical education offered in
trade schools which were in general poorly equipped and inadequately staffed with trained instructors.

Regrettably, nearly all trade schools were seriously under-enrolled Technical education had been neglected
although high standards in some courses were still available at the Hodgson Technical College to prepare
candidates for examinations of the City and Guilds of London. The syllabus for technical training required
to be revised in order to meet the needs of a young nation which was on the verge of experiencing
unprecedented development.

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 UNIT 7 The Education Act of 1966

The Education Act of 1966 was passed by Parliament in April 1966 and came into operation on 2nd
September 1966.

The Act was divided into seven (7) parts all dealing with the broad issues of educational administration and
organisation as follows;

The first part dealt with terms used in the Act, such as ‗aided schools‘, ‗board of governors‘, ‗Ministry‘,
‗school‘ as well as others.

The second part dealt with the functions of the Minister as well as the division of the republic into
educational regions.

The third part dealt with the establishment and maintenance of government schools.

The fourth part dealt with the provision for the registration and control of Private schools.

The fifth part dealt with the establishment and incorporation of Boards of Governors and their functions.

The Final parts six and seven dealt respectively with general provisions and transitional provisions which
were intended to effect the smooth and efficient operations of the Act as a whole.

In the 1966 Act various regulations were made by Statutory Instruments inter alia Te Local Councils of
Education Regulations; The Education (Primary and Secondary) Regulations; The Education (Private
Schools) Regulation; and the Education (Aided Schools)Regulation.

In 1966, all children who were to complete a four-year primary course in both Urban and Rural schools
were to be given the opportunity to complete the full primary course of seven years.

UNIT
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8
 UNIT 8:THE EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

The Educational Reforms of 1976

Following the UNIP document the Ministry of Education began an Education Reform exercise and in 1976
published a document entitled ―Education for Development-Draft statement on Education Reforms‖
Education for Development was the first National Educational Policy for Zambia. This document on
reforms was subjected to six (6) months national debate after being translated into seven Zambian
languages aired on the National Broadcaster after which the Ministry of Education reflected further and in
19976 the proposal were published as, ―Educational Reforms Proposal and Recommendations‖

In 1964 the government adopted a 4+3+2+3=12 school pattern of education. This was replaced in 1974
with the 7+3+2=12 school pattern. In the 1976 reforms which were implemented in 1977, a 9+3=12 school
pattern structure was proposed. The structured consisted of the following stages;

STAGE 1:- This was called Basic Education from grade 1 to 9. Graduates from this level were expected
to have practical skill in Agriculture Commerce, Basic technology and Graphic Arts. In 9 years the basic
education system would consist of Lower Basic-Grade 1 to 7 and Upper Basic-Grade 8 to 9. Under t he
Basic Education Sub-Sector Implementation Programme (BESSIP) basic education was divided into three
categories, namely, Lower Basic- Grade 1 to 4, Middle Basic- Grade 5 to 7 and Upper Basic- Grade 8 to 9.

STAGE 2:- This is the senior Secondary School Education from Grade 10 to 12. The school drop outs at
this level were expected to enter specialised Vocational Training for Certificate Courses.

STAGE 3:- This consisted of Advanced Specialised Training for Crafts Certificates, Diploma and Degree
Certificates. Continuing Education was expected to be offered to cater for youth and adults who left
fulltime education.

The main recommendations were as follows:

To provide nine years‘ universal education from grade 1 to grade 9.The first step was the expansion of
primary schools.

To expand primary teacher training by providing more in-service courses for untrained teachers.

To reform secondary school teacher training at the University of Zambia.

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To establish resource teachers‘ centres at the Curriculum Development Centre and at some primary
teachers‘ colleges.

To revise the curriculum for primary education.

Successes of the reforms:

Provision of enough places in grade one (1) which was compulsory

Maximising the use of time and facilities at institutions of learning e.g. double class sessions.

Encouraging community self help projects such as construction of self-help community schools.

Establishment of subject committees to work on curriculum changes such as localisation of examinations

and printing of text books

Failures of the Reforms:

Insufficient qualified teachers

Financial constraints due to high cost of implementation

Opposition from parents who preferred academic education rather than the proposed study and work
principle

Rapid social and political changes such as retrenchments and population growth

Variations in abilities and aptitudes of students enrolled for continuing education.

The Jomtien Conference of 1990

This was a World Conference on Education for All that took place in Jomtien, Thailand, from 5 th March to
9th March 1990.It focused on Education for All- child, youth and adult.

It emphasised that education should empower individuals in any society.

It focused on making education‘s fundamental aim should be the transmission and enrichment of common
cultural and moral values.

It emphasised on making Basic as fundamental education as the foundation for life-long learning and
human development on which to build further levels of education and training.

The focus of Basic Education should be on actual learning acquisition and outcomes, rather than just
enrolment and certification requirements.

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It advocated for the strengthening of partnerships at National, Regional and Local levels.

The conference advocated for the creation of supportive policies in the social, cultural and economic
sectors.

The conference also emphasised on resource mobilisation if learning needs were to be achieved.

The Dakar Conference

The Dakar Conference was a Forum which was held in Dakar, Senegal and came up with six (6) major
goals for education in developing nation. Basic learning needs . . . comprise both essential learning tools . .
. and the basic learning content . . . required by human beings to be able to survive, to develop their full
capacities, to live and work in dignity, to participate fully in

development, to improve the quality of their lives, to make informed decisions, and to continue learning.
The following are the goals that delegates promulgated at the conference;

Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most
vulnerable and disadvantaged children

Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those
belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of
good quality

Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to
appropriate learning and life skills programmes

Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015 especially for women, and
equitable access to basic and continuing education for

all adults

Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender
equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls‘ full and equal access to and achievement in
basic education of good quality

Improving every aspect of the quality of education, and ensuring their excellence so that recognized and
measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills

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The Education Act of 2011
This is a law on the Zambian education system. It stipulates guiding policies on how best education in
Zambia could be provided at all levels in the light of democratic dispensation. The Act adheres to the
education development principles of Liberalisation, Decentralisation, Equality, Equity, Partnership and
Accountability. It is from this Act that the emphasis on the need to clearly include knowledge, skills and
values in the curriculum from ECCDE to Tertiary is based.

UNIT 9. Focus on Learning of 1992

The declining economy in the 1980s had a negative effect on the provision of social services Including
education.

All Government institutions of learning experienced serious inadequate resources of all kinds, including
materials to support the curriculum. In 1990, Zambia attended the World Conference on Education for All,
and in 1991 a National Conference on Education for All was held in Zambia. The proposals and working
strategies aimed at;

Improving education delivery were drafted at the conference and compiled as Focus on Learning. The
document was used to lobby Government and Cooperating Partners to consider allocating enough
resources to the education sector in order to improve the quality and quantity of education in Basic
Schools.

The aims of Focus on Learning were as follows;

Ensuring that the focus in all schools is on learning.

Physically expanding primary schools and rehabilitating the existing ones.

Developing books for primary schools and equipping these schools with an abundance of books and
educational materials

Transforming the secondary selection examinations so that they serve educational objectives.

Enabling under-nourished, handicapped and other disadvantaged children to benefit from school education.

Improve teacher education and, expand facilities in order to increase the number of trained teachers.

Foster teacher morale and competence through improved professional and administrative support and a
comprehensive programme for in-service teacher education.

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Strengthen the organization and management of the education system.

Enabling the inspectorate to carry out effective school monitoring and quality control functions.

Educating Our Future of 1996

The National Policy on Education, Educating Our Future (1996) is developed according to the aims of
education outlined as goals in the Education Policy Document.

Principles for the Development of Education in Zambia as Stipulated by the National Policy on Education

The education system in Zambia is guided by the principles of Liberalisation, Decentralisation, Equality,
Equity, Quality, Partnerships and Accountability.

Liberalisation. Under a liberalised educational system, the right of private organisations, individuals,
religious bodies and local communities to establish and control their own schools is given subject, however
to stipulated rules and regulations.

Decentralisation involves the devolution of power from the central government to the local level, districts
and schools. It provides for broader participation in the management of education with emphasis on
creativity, innovativeness and imagination of the local-level education managers. Decentralisation fosters a
sense of local ownership and cuts down on unnecessary bureaucratic procedures that negatively affect and
inhibit efficiency in the education system. It also allows for greater responsiveness to the needs of the local
communities.

Equality. Every Individual in Zambia has a right to education. It is a matter of fairness or justice that access
to education and participation and benefit of the same is made available to all. Measures to promote
equality will include allocation of resources and provision of appropriate support systems to cater for the
diverse educational needs and interests of the cross section of the population.

Equity. Where access, participation and achievement in education are impended by gender, physical,
mental, economic or social factors, the government seeks to eliminate sources of educational disadvantage
in order to enhance equity. The achievement of fairness in education demands should address the issues of
developing citizens with due consideration of their uniqueness so that they all participate in the
development of the nation economically, socially and culturally.

26
 Quality. All learners should be availed the highest standards of learning through teaching of excellent
quality in all the structures of the system such as from pre-school to University where the standards of
achievement, in accordance with an individual‘s ability, are obtained by every student.

Partnerships. Government has desired to follow an education policy that encourages and strengthens
partnerships in educational development. The Government has allowed human, financial and other
resources under the control of private and voluntary agencies, communities and religious bodies to be
channelled without hindrance into the education sector.

Accountability . Effective systems have been put in place at national, provincial, district and institutional
levels to allow for full public accountability. Accountability measures will pay particular attention to how
well education serves parents, learners and the wider community.

UNIT
10
UNIT 10.PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Philosophy of Education is a general principle or theoretical framework which is expected to guide

educational practices in which the main educational goals, methods of achieving those goals and the
methods of determining whether or not the goals have been achieved are defined. So Philosophy of
Education is a Sub-discipline of knowledge. It is an area of study that attempts to specialize at addressing
issues and problems with in the field of education

The term Philosophy means ―Love of wisdom‖. It is made up of two Greek words, philo, meaning love or
devotion, and sophos, meaning wisdom. Philosophy is thus an activity that people undertake in their quest
to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world we live in and our relationships to the world
and to each other.

So Philosophers are people who are devoted to wisdom and the discipline of philosophy appeared more
than 5,000 years ago. In philosophy questions are classified into two categories; Empirical Questions and
Philosophical Questions.

Examples of Empirical Questions are as follows;

In which Town where you born?

What is the currency of Zambia?

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Who is the current President of Zambia?

Where is room B1?

Empirical questions have clues and what is required of us is to look for the right answer. For instance, the
question asking where room B1 could be found suggests that the rooms are numbered and all you need to
do is to go from door to door and read the number that is placed against each door.

Examples of Philosophical questions are as follows;

they deal with the metaphysical world that is beyond the physical word. A philosophical question raises a
problem that requires us to sit down and think, reflect and speculate about the problem. The philosophical
questions do not have clues because they depend on individual‘s interpretation and this makes philosophy
an important component of social sciences. Philosophical questions may include questions such as;

How did man come into existence?

What is the principle of things?

How does a man think?

What is the difference between being and existence?

Philosophy is a thought which is critical, analytical, synthetic, comprehensive, logical, practical and
theoretic, speculative and Empirical.

The term “Philosophy” is illustrated by its use in different context. Professional philosophers and
pioneers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle classified philosophy into four areas, namely;

Epistemology, which is the study of knowledge

Axiology which is a study of values

Metaphysics which deals with questions that transcends ordinary experience

Logic which is a study of correct reasoning or the structure and principle of sound argument.

7.0. The above four are the traditionally formalised study of philosophical issues let us now deal with each
one of them;

Epistemology. This refers to a general theory of knowledge. It is meant to capture the philosophical issues
or problems, which are in the area of human knowledge.Epistemology helps learners to determine the

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various forms of knowledge that they are likely to be subjected to within the education system. The process
of knowing somet++

Thing that are addressed within epistemology. Epistemology raises and addresses questions in philosophy
such as ―what is to know?‖, ―How do we know what we claim to know?‖ and ―What are the sources of our
knowledge?‖

Axiology. This is the area of study that deals with issues regarding values and value systems. The most
likely issues with in this area for instance are questions such as; how do we determine what is the best life
fur human beings to follow as opposed to the type of life they ought to avoid? Humans are always making
value judgements about what are the right actions. Value issues related to human goals and actions are
usually treated called under a sub-section of axiology ethics or moral philosophy. Axiology is associated
with values and value judgements. It looks at and explains the aims and objectives of education and how
education is involved in making value judgement. It further explains the development of moral values from
the basic goals of education and assists the learner to appreciate some of the approaches used for the
developing moral values within the school system and curriculum. Both the individual and the society at
large are convinced that skills, characteristics, attitudes and knowledge are usually developed in an
individual who goes through an education system. As far as axiology is concerned education is a process of
developing and transmitting values and societal norms from one generation to another. Simply stated,
moral values are the judgment of worth whileness that we make towards human conduct. This is usually
directed towards an individual‘s intentions, motives and emotions. In a situation where one‘s action are
said to be morally right or morally wrong. In the same vein society is able to identify some human actions
as being morally right such as telling the truth and those that are morally wrong such as hurting someone
severely or terminating their life.

There are also what we term as non-moral values which may include judgement on material objects such as
cars, money, buildings and other material possessions. Historically, the word ‗moral‘ is derived from the
Latin word ‗morale‘, simply meaning manners, traditions or norms. In Greek, the same idea is represented
by the word ‗ethikos‘, the current term ‗ethics‘. Moral values have something to do with human actions,
intentions, emotions and the reasons why other actions are considered to be wrong. Thus learners are
introduced to moral values which should guide their very actions. In the early stages if a learner behaves in
a certain way they are rewarded either with praise or something concrete and punished if they behaved in
another way. As a process the development of moral values seem to occur gradually from the time one is
born until they are fully mature.

THEORIES OF MORAL PRINCIPLES.

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There are basically two principles why human being rely upon when called upon to make a decision
on specific moral issues.

TELEOLOGICAL THEORIES OF OBLIGATION.

Teleology deals with mostly purpose, causes and orderliness. Teleology sates that what should determine
the rightness or wrongness of an action is the result or the consequence of the action.

DEONTOLOGICAL THEORIES OF OBLIGATION.

Deontological theories state that an action is right if the intention or motive for the action is a good one or
if the action is in agreement with acceptable known principles. Equally, an action is considered wrong if
the intention for the action is bad or in disagreement with established principles.

Metaphysics. This term was first used during the early Greek philosophy and Aristotle, one of the founders
of western philosophy, his major works are entitled The Metaphysics. In its Greek origin the term
metaphysics literally means the study ‗beyond‘ or ‗after‘ (meta) the physical world or reality (physics).
But now we do realise that as a branch of philosophy metaphysics deals with issues that are within both the
physical and the non-physical worlds. Such as human life, the existence of or non-existence of super-
human being(s) who control other human beings and things.

Logic. This is the study of the principles and methods used to distinguish between correct and incorrect
types of reasoning. This is the process in which an attempt is made in trying to scrutinise the completed
thinking process usually identified with reasoning, is made. The philosopher Aristotle is considered to be
the founder of traditional Logic in the western world.

We should understand that both logic and psychology are areas that deal with the study of our thinking
processes. Psychological studies deal with all workings of the mind as expressed through its activities and
human behaviour, while philosophy deals with thinking that is associated with completed structures of
human reasoning to reality.

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