1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACK GROUND

Heavy metal contamination refers to the excessive deposition of toxic heavy metals in the soil
caused by human activities. Heavy metals in the soil include some significant metals ofbiological
toxicity, such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As), etc.
They also include other heavy metals of certain biological toxicity, such as zinc (Zn), copper
(Cu), nickel (Ni), stannum (Sn), vanadium (V),and so on((Doumett et al., 2008; Nouri et al.,
2006). Heavy metals are metals or metalloids (elements that have both metal and non-metal
characteristics), Persistent in all parts of the environment. Generally, have densities above 5
g/cm3 and cannot be degraded or destroyed.
In recent years, with the development of the global economy, both type and content of heavy
metals in the soil caused by human activities have gradually increased, resulting in
thedeterioration of the environment (Han et al., 2002). Heavy metals are highly hazardous to the
environment and organisms. It can be enriched through the food chain. Once the soil suffers
from heavy metal contamination, it is difficult to be remediated.

In the past, soil contamination was not considered as important as air and water pollution,
because soil contamination was often with wide range and was more difficult to be controlled
and governed than air and water pollution. However, in recent years the soil contamination in
developed countries becomes to be serious. It is thus paid more and more attention and became a
hot topic of environmental protection worldwide ( Nouri, 1980; D’amore et al., 2005).

Growth reduction as a result of changes in physiological and biochemical processes in plants

growing on heavy metal polluted soils has been recorded . Continued decline in
plantgrowthreduces yield which eventually leads to food insecurity.
Therefore,thremediationoheavy metal polluted soils cannot be veremphasized.Various methods
of remediating metal poll

1
soils exist; they range from physical and chemical methods to biological methods. Most physical
and chemical methods (such as encapsulation, solidification, stabilization, electro kinetics,
verification, vapour extraction, and soil washing and flushing) are expensive and do not make the
soil suitable for plant growth )(Wood, 1974) . Biological approach (bioremediation) on the
other hand encourages the establishment/reestablishment of plants on polluted soils. It is an
environmentally friendly approach because it is achieved via natural processes. Bioremediation
is also an economical remediation technique compared with other remediation techniques. This
paper discusses the nature and properties of soils polluted with heavy metals. Plant growth and
performance on these soils were examined. Biological approaches employed for the remediation
of heavy metal polluted soils were equally highlighted.

Soils contaminated with heavy metals are very difficult to restore. Heavy-metal pollution of soil
is mainly accredited to human activities, including, smelting, mining and various industrial
activities (Wang et al., 2005). With the new era of urbanization and industrialization, soils have
become more tainted progressively by heavy metals which cause threats to ecosystems, surface,
and ground waters, food safety and human health (Kachenko et al., 2006).

1.2. STATEMENT PROBLEM OF THE REVIEW

Heavy metal contamination of soil is one of the most important environmental problems
throughout the world (Doumett et al., 2008; Nouri et al., 2006). The ability of heavy metals to
accumulate and cause toxicity in biological systems - humans, animals, microorganisms and
plants has been reported ( Nouri,1980; D’amore et al., 2005). As chemical hazards, heavy metals
are non-biodegradable and can remain almost in definitely in the soil environment. However,
their availability to biota can change considerably depending on their chemical speciation in the
soil.

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 1.3. OBJECTIVE

1.3.1. General objective

 To state the effect of heavy metals contamination in the soil and remediation techniques

1.3.2. Specific objectives

 To state the effect of heavy metal on soil microorganisms.

 To state the effect of heavy metal contamination in the plants.
 To state the effect of heavy metal contamination in human.
 To state the remediation techniques

3
2. HEAVY METALS CONTAMINATION IN THE SOIL

2.1. SOURCES OF HEAVY METALS

Two of the main sources of heavy metal pollution are geological and anthropogenic activities
(Dembitsky, 2003). Anthropogenic sources of heavy metal contamination come from industrial
effluents, mining, fuel production, military operations, smelting processes, and utilization of
agricultural chemicals, brick kilns, small-scale industries and coal combustion (Zhen-Guo et al.,
2002). One of the dominant sources taking part in increased budget of soil pollution include
municipal waste disposal, this may be roadside dumping or end up in land fills, while sewage
consumed for irrigation purposes. These contaminants are although a handy source of nutrients,
but are proved to be carcinogens and sources of toxic metals. Other types of pollution come from
unsafe or excess application of fungicides, fertilizers and pesticides (Zhen-Guo et al., 2002).
Water polluted with sewage and industrial emissions, resulting in contaminated vegetables and
soils are some other sources of heavy metal pollution (Bridge, 2004).

2.1.1. Atmosphere to soils pathway

Heavy metals in the atmosphere are mainly from gas and dust produced by energy, transport,
metallurgy and production of construction materials. Excepting mercury, heavy metals basically
go into the atmosphere in the form of aerosol and deposit to the soil through natural
sedimentation and precipitation, etc. For example, the lead pollution (Lin, 1998) in a downtown,
Central Sweden, was reported mainly from the urban industrial copper plant, sulfuric acid plant,
paint factory, and the large amount of waste from mining and chemical industries. Due to
transporting by wind, these fine lead particles spread from industrial waste heap to surrounding
areas. Transport, especially the automotive transport, causes serious heavy metal contamination
(Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, leaded gasoline and the dust produced by automobile tire wear. According to the
report, the exhaust from the can contained Pb up to 20 ~ 50 μg / L, which formed a zonal
distribution and there was a clear difference as the change of the distance of from railway, traffic
highway, city center, and the car traffic volume. In the Nanjing section of Nanjing-Hangzhou
highway, the soil on both sides of the road had formed contamination zone of Pb, Cr, and Co.

4
And the contamination zone was distributed along the direction of the highway. The
contamination was weakened along the direction of the both sides of the highway. The amount of
heavy metals which went intomthe soil through natural deposition and raining sedimentation are
related to the level of development of heavy industry, the city's population density, land
utilization and traffic level. Soil contamination became to be heavier as closing to the city (Chen,
2002).

2.1.2 Sewage to soils pathway

Wastewater can be divided into several categories, sanitary sewage, chemical wastewater,
industrial mining wastewater and urban mining mixed sewage, etc. Heavy metals are brought to
the soil by irrigative sewage and are fixed in the soil in different ways. It causes heavy metals
(Hg, Cd, Pb, Cr, etc.) to continually accumulate in the soil year by year. Sewage irrigation is a
feasible way to solve the problem of crop irrigation in the arid area. Heavy metal contamination
caused by sewage irrigation must be paid enough attention. Quality of irrigative sewage must be
strictly controlled within the national quality standard for irrigation water.

2.1.3. Solid wastes to soils pathway

There are a variety of solid wastes which have complex composition. Of which mining and
industrial solid waste contamination is the most serious. When these wastes are in the process of
being piled or governed, heavy metals move easily due to the facilitation of sunlight, raining and
washing. And they spread to the surrounding water and soils at the shape of funnel and radiation.

With the development of industry and the acceleration of urban environmental construction,
sewage treatment is continuing to be strengthened. China now has more than 80 sewage
treatment plants, with the estimated 400 million tons of sludge production. Due to the high
content of organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus in the sludge, soils become the main places
for soil sludge treatment. In general, Cr, Pb, Cu, Znand as in the sludge will exceed the control
standards easily (Ding, 2000).Solid wastes can expand contamination scope easily with the help
of wind and water.

e2.1.4 .Agricultural supplies to soils pathway

Fertilizers, pesticides and mulch are important agricultural inputs for agricultural production
(Zhang and Zhang, 2007; Zhang et al., 2011). Nevertheless, the long-term excessive application

5
has resulted in the heavy metal contamination of soils. The vast majority of pesticides are
organic compounds, and a few are organic - inorganic compound or pure mineral, and some
pesticides contain Hg, As, Cu, Zn and other heavy metals (Arao et al., 2010).
Heavy metals are the most reported pollutants in fertilizers. Heavy metal content is relatively low
in nitrogen and potash fertilizers, while phosphoric fertilizers usually contain considerable toxic
heavy metals in the compound fertilizers are mainly from master materials and manufacturing
processes. The content of heavy metals in fertilizers is generally as follows: phosphoric
fertilizer> compound fertilizer>potash fertilizer> nitrogen fertilizer (Boyd, 2010). Cd is an
important heavy metal contaminant in the soil. Cd is brought to soils with the application of
phosphoric fertilizers. Many studies showed that, with the application of a large amount of
phosphate fertilizers and compound fertilizers, the available content of Cd in soils increases
constantly, and Cd taken by plants increases accordingly. In recent years, the mulch has been
promoted and used in large areas, which results in white pollution of soils, because the heat
stabilizers, which contain Cd and Pb, are always added in the production process of mulch. This
increases heavy metal contamination of soils (Satarug et al., 2003).

2.2. EFFECT OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION OF SOILS

2.2.1 Effect on soil microorganisms and enzymatic activity

Microbial activity and enzymatic activity of the soil can sensitively reflect the quality of the soil
(Lee et al., 1996). Aceves et al. (1999) held that microbial biomass of the soil was an important
indicator of determining the extent of soil contamination.Microbial activity is inhibited
significantly in the heavy metal contaminated soil. Kandeler et al. (1997) indicated that the
microbial biomass in the soil contaminated by Cu, Zn, Pb and other heavy metals were inhibited
severely. The soil’s microbial biomass near the mine was significantly lower than that far away
from the mine. And the effects of different concentrations of heavy metals and different heavy
metals on soil microbial biomass were different. Chander et al. (1995) studied the effect of
different concentrations of heavy metals on soil microbial biomass, and found that only if the
concentration of heavy metals in the soil was three times above the environmental standard,

6
established by the European Union, it could inhibit microbial biomass. Fliebbach et al. (1994)
found that low concentrations of heavy metals could stimulate microbial growth and increase
microbial biomass; while concentrations could decrease soil microbial biomass significantly. In
addition, the enzymes in the soil play an important role in the process of organic matter
decomposition and nutrient cycling. Studies have showed that the activities of enzymes in the
soil are related to the heavy metal contamination. Chander et al. (1995) found that the activitie s
of almost all enzymes in the soil were significantly reduced by 10 to 50 times with then increase
of the concentration of heavy metals.

2.2.2 . Effect on the plants

The heavy metals that are available for plant uptake are those that are present as soluble
components in the soil solution or those that are easily solubilized by root exudates. Although
plants require certain heavy metals for their growth and upkeep, excessive amounts of these
metals can become toxic to plants. The ability of plants to accumulate essential metals equally
enables them to acquire other nonessential metals . As metals cannot be broken down, when
concentrations within the plant exceed optimal levels, they adversely affect the plant both
directly and indirectly.

Low concentration of soil heavy metals, regardless of necessary or unnecessary to plants, will
not affect the growth of plants in a certain range. But if the concentration is too high, the content
of heavy metals enriched by the plant exceeds its tolerance threshold, and thus the plant will be
poisoned and it even leads to death of the plant. In Florida, it was found that if the copper content
in soil was more than 50 mg/ kg, it would affect citrus seedlings; if soil copper content reached
200mg/ kg, wheat would wither (Zhang et al., 1989). Research found that the growth of cabbage
and bean seedling under Cd concentration of 30 μ mol/ L was inhibited: the root length
decreased, and the plant height and leaf area dropped (Qin et al., 1994). Cd may interfere crop
photosynthesis and protein synthesis, and may cause membrane damage,etc (Acar and
Alshawabkeh,1993;Kale, 1993).

7
 2.2.3. Effect on Humans

Existing research showed that heavy metals in urban soils may go into the human body through
skin absorption and inhalation of dust, etc., and thus directly damage, especially children's
health. They also affect the urban environmental quality and damage human health indirectly
through polluting the food, water and atmosphere. In astudy on the content of Pb in children
blood. Yabe et al. (2010) found that the contaminated soil dust in the city was an important
factor to affect human health. According to the survey, there is about 30% of Chinese children's
blood whose content of Pb exceeds the home standard (100 g/ L); this rate in cities is more than
60%. According to a study (Robert and Jones, 2009), the content of Pb in urban children's blood
and the content of Pb in the soil of the city exhibited a significant exponential relationship (blood
Pb=18.5+7.2*soil Pb± 0.4).

Cd may damage the metabolism of calcium, which will cause calcium deficiency and result in
cartilage disease and bone fractures, etc. Agency for Toxic Substances Management Committee
has listed Cd as the sixth most toxic substance that damages human health. Pb mainly enters
human body through the digestive tract and respiratory tract, and then goes into the blood
circulation in the form of soluble salts, protein complexes or ions, etc. 95% of the insoluble
phosphate lead accumulates in bones. Pb is strongly pro-organizational. It affects and damages
many of the body organs and systems, such as kidney, liver, reproductive system, nervous
system, urinary system, immune system and the basic physiological processes of cells and gene
expression. Cu, Zn and Ni are essential trace metals in the human body, but if the Some heavy
metals (e.g. Iron, Selenium, Cobalt, Copper, Manganese, Molybdenum, and Zinc) are essential to
humans at varying amounts. Some toxic heavy metals found in the environment:

Mercury (Hg): Enters the environment through the leaching of soil due to acid rain, coal burning,
or industrial, household, and mining wastes. Causes damage to nervous system, kidneys
Lead (Pb): Sources include paint, mining wastes, incinerator ash, water from lead pipes and
solder, and automobile exhaust. Causes damage to kidneys, nervous system, learning ability,
ability to synthesize protein, and nerve and red blood cells.

8
Cadmium (Cd): Sources include electroplating, mining, and plastic industries, as well as sewage.
Causes kidney disease.

Arsenic (As): Enters the environment through herbicides, wood preservatives, and mining
industry. Causes damage to skin, eyes, and liver. May also cause cancer.
Body takes excessive Cu, Zn and Ni from the outside

3. REMEDIATION OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATED SOILS

3.1. Engineering remediation

Engineering remediation refers to using physical or chemical methods to control heavy metal
contamination of
Soils.

3.1.1 Replacement of contaminated soil, soil removal and soil isolation

Replacement of contaminated soil means adding large amount of clean soil to cover on the
surface of the contaminated soil or to blend with the latter. Soil removal refers to remove the
contaminated soil and renew it with the clean soil, which is necessary for the seriously
contaminated soil with little area. Soil isolation means that to isolate the contaminated soil from
the uncontaminated soil, but to completely remedy it still needs other auxiliary engineering
measures (Zheng et al., 2002). All of these methods will cost large amount of manpower
and material resources, so they can only be applied to small area of soils.

3.1.2. Electro kinetic remediation

Soil electro kinetic remediation is a new economically effective technology. The principle is that
the33Environmental Skeptics and Critics, 2014, 3(2): 24-38IAEES www.iaees.org

9
DC-voltage is applied to form the electric field gradient on both sides of the electrolytic tank
which contains the contaminated soil; contaminants in the soil is taken to the processing
chamber, which is located at the two polar sides of electrolytic cell, through the way of electro-
migration, electric seepage or electrophoresis, and thus reduce the contamination. The method
performs well in the soil with low permeability (Hanson et al.,1992).

3.1.3 Soil leaching

The principle of soil leaching is to wash the heavy metal contaminated soil with specific reagents
and thus remove the heavy metal complex and soluble irons adsorbed on the solid phase
particles. By using this method, heavy metals are separated from the soil, and heavy metals are
then recycled from extracting solution.

3.1.4. Adsorption

Adsorption method is based on the fact that almost all heavy metal ions can be fixed and
adsorbed by clay mineral (bentonite, zeolite, etc.), asteel slag, furnace slag, etc (Wang and Zhou,
2004).

3.2. Bioremediation

Bioremediation is the use of organisms (microorganisms and/or plants) for the treatment of
polluted soils. It is a widely accepted method of soil remediation because it is perceived to occur
via natural processes. It is equally a cost effective method of soil remediation. Blaylock et al. [
Wood, 1974] reported 50% to 65% saving when bioremediation was used for the treatment of 1
acre of Pb polluted soil compared with the case when a conventional method (excavation and
landfill) was used for the same purpose. Although bioremediation is a nondestructive method of

10
soil remediation, it is usually time consuming and its use for the treatment of heavy metal
polluted soils is sometimes affected by the climatic and geological conditions of the site to be
remediated (Zhou, 1995).

Heavy metals cannot be degraded during bioremediation but can only be transformed from one
organic complex or oxidation state to another. Due to a change in their oxidation state, heavy
metals can be transformed to become either less toxic, easily volatilized, more water soluble (and
thus can be removed through leaching), less water soluble (which allows them to precipitate and
become easily removed from the environment) or less bioavailable (Yang and Sun, 2009).

3.2.1. Phytoremediation

Grow specific plants in the soil contaminated by heavy metals. These plants have the certain
Hyper-accumulation ability for the contaminants in the soil (accumulated mainly in the root or
above the root).
When the plants are ripe or reach certain enrichment level of heavy metals, remove heavy metals
in the contaminated soil layer thoroughly by harvesting, burning and curing plants. Using plants
and their coexisting microbial system to remove heavy metals is a new technology. The key of
the method is to find the suitable plants with strong ability for heavy metal accumulation and
tolerance. Now more than 400 species of such plants have been found in the world, and most of
them belong to Crucifer, including the genus Brassica, Alyssums, and Thlaspi (Xing et al.,
2003).

3.2.2. Microbial remediation

Microbial remediation refers to using some microorganisms to perform the absorption,

precipitation, oxidation and reduction of heavy metals in the soil. Siegel et al. (1986) found that

11
fungi could secrete amino acids, organic acids and other metabolites to dissolve heavy metals
and the mineral containing heavy metals. Fred etal. (2001) reported that the fungi,
Gomusintraradices, may impromay improve the tolerance and absorption of sunflower to
Cr.Cultivating microorganisms that have degradation capacity on heavy metals by using
biotechnology genetics, genetic engineering, etc.) are one of the current focuses in this area.

3.2.3 Animal remediation

Some animals living in the soil (maggots, earthworms, etc.) can take heavy metals in the soil.
Wang et al.(2007) proved that when the concentration of Cu was low in the soil, the activities
and secretion of earthwormscould promote the absorption of Cu by ryegrass.

4. CONCLUSION

Plants growing on heavy metal polluted soils show a reduction in growth due to changes in their
physiological and biochemical activities. This is especially true when the heavy metal involved
does not play any beneficial role towards the growth and development of plants. Bioremediation
can be effectively used for the treatment of heavy metal polluted soil. It is most appropriate when
the remediated site is used for crop production because it is a nondisruptive method of soil
remediation. Using plants for bioremediation (phytoremediation) is a more common approach to
bioremediation of heavy metal compared with the use of microorganisms.

Plants employ different mechanisms in the remediation of heavy metal polluted soils.
Phytoextraction is the most common method of phytoremediation used for treatment of heavy

12
metal polluted soils. It ensures the complete removal of the pollutant. Combining both plants and
microorganisms in bioremediation increases the efficiency of this method of remediation. Both
mycorrhizal fungi and other PGPR have been successfully incorporated in various
phytoremediation programmes. The success of the combined use of these organisms depends on
the species of microbe and plants involved and to some extent on the concentration of the heavy
metal in soil. Heavy metal contamination refers to the excessive deposition of toxic heavy metals
in the soil caused by human activities. Heavy metals in the soil include some significant metals
of biological toxicity, such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr) and
arsenic (As), etc. They also include other heavy metals of certain biological toxicity, such as zinc
(Zn), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni), sternum (Son), vanadium (V), and so on. Mining,
manufacturing, and the use of synthetic products (e.g. pesticides, paints, batteries, industrial
waste, and land application of industrial or domestic sludge) can result in heavy metal
contamination of urban and agricultural soils. Heavy metals also occur naturally, but rarely at
toxic levels. Potentially contaminated soils may occur at old landfill sites (particularly those that
accepted industrial wastes), old orchards that used insecticides containing arsenic as an active
ingredient, fields that had past applications of waste water or municipal sludge, areas in or
around mining waste piles and tailings, industrial areas where chemicals may have been dumped
on the ground, or in areas downwind from industrial sites.
Excess heavy metal accumulation in soils is toxic to humans and other animals. exposure to
heavy metals is normally chronic (exposure over a longer period of time), due to food chain
transfer. Acute (immediate) poisoning from heavy metals is rare through ingestion or dermal
contact, but is possible. Chronic problems associated with long-term heavy metal exposures are:
Lead – mental lapse. Cadmium – affects kidney, liver, and GI tract. Arsenic – skin poisoning,
affects kidneys and central nervous system. The most common problem causing cationic metals
(metallic elements whose forms in soil are positively charged captions e.g., Pb2+) are mercury,
cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, zinc, chromium, and manganese.

13
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