Chapter 2 Permutation and Combination

Fundamental counting principle: The first major idea of combinatorics is the fundamental
principle of counting. This is the idea that:

If two events occur in succession and there are m ways to do the first one and n ways to do
the second (after the first has occurred), then there is m∗n ways to complete the two tasks in
succession.

Example 1: An ice cream shop offers Vanilla, Chocolate and Strawberry ice cream. The ice
cream comes with either a waffle cone, a sugar cone or a wafer cone and can be plain or with
sprinkles. How many different ways are there to order a single scoop of ice cream?

With 5 different types of ice cream, 3 different cones and 2 choices for sprinkles, there would
be 3∗3∗2=18 different possibilities.

Example 2: In throwing two six-sided dice, there are 36 possibilities - six possibilities from the
first die and six from the second.

Question: In how many different ways can the five letters a, b, c, d, and e be arranged?
Answer:

Question: If a man has six different sports shirts and four pairs of slacks, how many
combinations can he wear?

Question: How do you interpret the number C (20,3) based on the concept of counting
objects?

Question: How do you interpret the numbers C (7,2) and P (7,2) based on the counting
concept? Explain the difference between.

Question: What is the formula that shows the relation between C (n, r) and P(n, r)?

Question: In how many ways can 15 runners win the gold, silver, and bronze medals in a
running game?

Question: How many ways can the 11 players of Canada’s soccer team take different
photographs?

Question: In how many ways we can set off a rescue team of four people out of 10
volunteers?
 Question: We intend to put 10 books on our bookshelf such that the Math, Chemistry,
and Physics books come jointly with?

Question: A company has 3000 employees. They plan to implement an employee ID

numbering system that would consist of a letter followed by two digits. Is it possible to
give each employee a different ID code under this plan?

Answer: The employee ID consists of two digits and a letter. So, we have 10 option digits
from 0 to 9 for the first space a similar option for the second spot, and 26 options for
choosing a letter of the alphabet. So, in total 10 ∗ 10 ∗ 26 = 2600 which is less than the
number of employees.

Question: A string of five letters is created using the letters A, B, C, D and E. How many
of these letter strings are possible if:
a. Each letter string must begin with C
b. B must be the middle letter
c. A, B, and C must be the middle letters in any order.
For Part (c) please list all possibilities.

Combination
The number of different ways that we can select r objects out of n objects so that the
order of the objects does not cause a new version would be a combination problem.
This can be done in C(n, r) different ways. The exact number is

n!
C (n, r) = (n−r)!r! 0≤r≤n

Combination and Permutation

The following is the relation between combination and permutation.

p(n,r)
C (n, r) = r!

Two Important Examples of Combination

1. Number of subsets with a specific number of members

We want to figure out how many different subsets we can make from a set of things when we
want each subset to have a specific number of elements.

Theorem: If set X has n objects in it, then there are C (n, k) subsets that have exactly k objects.

Example: Let's say we have a set X with 5 things in it. We can find out how many different sbsets
we can make with 5 things in X.

5
a) ( ) = 1 Subset with 0 elements (which is ø)
0
This means how many ways can we make groups with 0 things? There's only one way: to
have no things in the group, which we write as "ø."
b) (5) = 5 Subsets with 1 element
1
This means how many ways can we make groups with 1 thing? We can make 5 different
groups, each with one member in it.
c) (5) = 10 Subsets with 2 elements
2
This means how many ways can we make groups with 2 things? We can make 10
different groups with two members in each group.
5
d) ( ) = 10 Subsets with 3 elements
3
This means how many ways can we make groups with 2 things? We can make 10
different groups with three objects in each group.
e) (5) = 5 Subsets with 4 elements
4
This means how many ways can we make groups with 4 things? We can make 5 different
groups with four items in each group.
5
f) ( ) = 1 Subset with 5 elements (which is X)
5
This means how many ways can we make groups with 5 things? There's only one way: to
have all 5 things in one group, which is the whole set X itself.

So, in summary, for our set X with 5 members, we can make different groups with different
numbers of things, and there are specific ways to figure out how many groups we can make for
each number of things in the group.

Question: If a set X has 7 members, how many subsets with 4 elements does X have?

7 7 7! 4! ∗ 5∗6∗7
Answer: The set X has ( ) subsets, each with exactly 4 elements. That is ( ) = 4!3! = 4!∗ 6 =
4 4
35.

Question: Let |X|= 19.

 a) How many subsets does set X have?
b) How many subsets have 7 members?
c) How many subsets of set X have 13 members?

Answer:
a) Set X has 219 subsets.
19
b) ( )
7
19
c) ( )
3

Question: A set X has ten subsets that each have only two elements. What is the value of |X|?

Answer: Let's say |X| = n. We want to find n, the number of members in set x, given that it has
ten subsets, each with exactly two elements.

𝑛
We use the formula ( )= 10. This formula calculates the number of ways to choose 2 elements
2
from a set of n.

𝑛! (𝑛−2)! (𝑛−1)𝑛
So = 10 or = 10
2!(𝑛−2)! 2 (𝑛−2)!

𝑛 (𝑛−1)
Hence, = 10 or n(n-1)= 20
2

𝑛2 -n-20= 0 or (n-5)(n+4)= 0 the answers are n= 5 and n= -4.

By solving the equation, we find two possible solutions: n= 5 and n= -4. However, since the
number of members in a set cannot be negative, the correct answer is n= 5. Therefore, set X has
5 members.

Question: If the number of 3-member subsets of a set X is 20, how many elements does set X
have?

Answer: The number of subsets of a set that have exactly 3 members can be calculated using
𝑛 𝑛
the formula ( ), where n represents the number of elements in set X. We are given that ( )=
3 3
20.

We can set up the equation:

𝑛! (𝑛−3)! (𝑛−2)(𝑛−1)𝑛
=> = 20 or n(n-1)(n-2)= 120
3! 𝑛−3)!
( (𝑛−3) ! 6

To find n, we need to look for three consecutive integers whose product is 120.
n(n-1)(n-2)= 120 = 6*5*4
The correct answer is n = 6 because:
6 * 5 * 4= 120

Note: The precise solution to the equation provided is as follows:

n (n-1) (n-2) = 120

or
n (𝑛2 -3n+2) = 120
𝑛3 -3𝑛2 +2n-120 = 0
(n-6) ( 𝑛2 +3n+20) = 0

Upon solving, we find two potential solutions:

n= 6 or 𝑛2 +3n+20 = 0 (which does not yield a valid positive integer solution)
Since n= 6 is the only valid positive integer solution that satisfies the equation, it is the
correct answer.

Therefore, set X has 6 elements.

Question: Interpret the following combinations based on the concept of sets and subsets, then
obtain those numbers:
40
a) ( )
3
10
b) ( )
8
7
c) ( )
7

Answer:
40
a) ( ) represents the number of 3-member subsets of a set with 40 elements. We
3
𝑛 𝑛!
calculate it using the formula ( )=𝑘! (𝑛−𝑘) !
𝑘
40 40! 37!∗38∗39∗40
For ( )= 3! 37! = 37! ∗ 6 = 38 ∗ 13 ∗ 20
3

10
b) ( ) is the number of 8-member subsets of a 10-member set. Using the same formula,
8
10 10! 8!∗9∗10
it becomes ( )= 8! 2! = 8! ∗ 2 =45
8
7
c) ( ) is the number of subsets that have 7 elements from a set with 7 members. Using
7
7 10! 7!
the same formula ( )= 8! 2! = 7! ∗ 0! = 1. It simplifies to 1 because there's only one way to
7
select 7 elements from a set of 7 members, which is the entire set itself.

Question: Let's understand the following numbers based on the concept of sets and subsets:
 7 7
a) ( )+( )
2 3
5
b) (5)+(5 )+( )
1 2 3
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
c) ( )+( )+…+( )
0 1 𝑛

Answer:
7 7
a) ( )+( )
2 3
This means finding the number of two-member and three-member subsets of a set that
has 7 members.
5
b) (5)+(5 )+( )
1 2 3
This involves calculating the number of one-member, two-member, and three-member
subsets of a 5-member set X.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
c) ( )+( )+…+( )
0 1 𝑛
This is a general expression that represents the total number of subsets, including
subsets with 0, 1, 2, and so on, up to n members, of a set with n members. In simpler
terms, it's the total number of subsets of a set X, which is 2𝑛 .

Note:
There's a special formula that tells us that the sum of all possible subsets of a set X with n
members is equal to 2𝑛 . So, for example, if we have a set with 6 members, the total number of
subsets, including the empty set and the set itself, is 26 , which is 64. Similarly, for a set with 17
members, the total number of subsets is 217 . This formula simplifies the counting process.

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
( )+ ( )+…+ ( )= 2𝑛
0 1 𝑛

6 6 6
Ex.: ( )+ ( )+…+ ( )= 26 = 64
0 1 6

17 17 17
Ex.: ( )+ ( )+… +( )= 217
0 1 17

2. Binomial expansion
Let us recall the following identities:
(x + y)0 =1
(x + y)1 =x+y
(x + y)2 =x²+2xy+y²
(x + y)3 =x³+3x²y+3xy²+y³
As you can see all the terms have x and y with different powers to the form x

Now, consider the general case (x + y)𝑛 which is

(x + y)𝑛 = (x + y) (x + y) … (x + y)
To obtain each term you must select some x and some y from each parenthesis. Let us focus to
the term that has y, k times. It would be 𝑦 𝑘 but this term has also some x. Since there are n
parenthesis (x + y), so by choosing letter y, k times, you must choose x, n-k times, so your term
would be exactly 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 𝑦 𝑘. Now, let’s find the coefficient of the term 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 . Since we intend to
choose letter y exactly k times from n parenthesis this would be possible by C (n, k) different
ways. Hence our favorable term is C (n, k) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 and the binomial expansion would be

(x + y)𝑛 = C(n, 0) x n y 0 + C(n, 1) x n−1 y 1 + …+ C(n, n) x n−n y n

or
(x + y)𝑛 = ∑nk=0 C (n, k) x n−k y k

For example
(x + y)5 = C(5, 0) x 5 y 0 + C(5, 1) x 4 y 1 + …+ C(5, 5) x 0 y 5
= x 5 + 5 x 4 𝑦 + 10 x 3 y 2+ 10 x 2 y 3 +5 xy 4 + y 5

Question: Solve the equations.

a. C (n, 3) = 120 n=?
b. C (n, 2) = 28 n=?

Answer:
𝑛! (𝑛−3)!(𝑛−2)(𝑛−1)𝑛 (𝑛−2)(𝑛−1)𝑛
a. C (n, 3) = (𝑛−3)!3! = (𝑛−3)!3!
= = 120
6
n(n-1)(n-2)=120*6=720. Indeed n(n-1)(n-2)= 10*9*8, hence n=10.

𝑛! (𝑛−2)!(𝑛−1)𝑛 (𝑛−1)𝑛
b. C (n, 2) = (𝑛−2)!2! = (𝑛−2)!2
= = 28
2
2
n(n-1)= 56. Indeed n -n-56=0, (n-8)(n+7)= 0 therefore n=8 or n=-7<0. So, the
answer is n=8.

Question: How many three-topping pizzas can be made if there are twelve toppings to
choose from?
Answer: C(12, 3)
 Question: If a person has 10 different t-shirts, how many ways are there to choose 4 to
take on a trip?
Answer: C(10, 4)

Question: Fifteen boys and 12 girls are on a camping trip. How many ways can a group
of seven be selected to gather firewood:
a) with no conditions
b) the group contains four girls and three boys
c) the group contains at least four girls.
Answer:
a. There are totally 15(boys)+12(girls)=37 students. Answer is C(37, 7)
b. C(15, 3)*C(12, 4)
c. At least four girls means 4 girls(3 boys), 5 girls(2 boys), 6 girls( 1 boy) and 7 girls(0
boy). Hence the answer is C(12, 4)*C(15, 3)+ C(12, 5)*C(15, 2)+ C(12, 6)*C(15, 1)+
C(12, 7)*C(15, 0)

Question: A class of 25 students is comprised of 15 girls and 10 boys. In how many ways
can a committee of 8 students be selected if:
a) there are no restrictions
b) no males are included on the committee
c) no females are included on the committee
d) the committee must have 5 boys and 3 girls.

EXERCISES

1) How many strings of six lowercase letters from the English alphabet contain
a) the letter a ?
b) the letters a and b in consecutive positions with a preceding b, with all the letters distinct?
c) the letters a and b, where a is somewhere to the left of b in the string, with all the letters
distinct?

2) Seven women and nine men are on the faculty in the mathematics department at a school.
a) How many ways are there to select a committee of five members of the department if at
least one woman must be on the committee?
b) How many ways are there to select a committee of five members of the department if at
least one woman and at least one man must be on the committee?
3) Suppose that a department contains 10 men and 15 women. How many ways are there to
form a committee with 6 members if it must have the same number of men and women?

4) The English alphabet contains 21 consonants and 5 vowels. How many strings of 6 lower case
letters of the English alphabet contain:
a) exactly one vowel?
b) exactly 2 vowels?
c) at least 1 vowel?
d) at least 2 vowels?

5) How many ways are there to select 12 countries in the United Nations to serve on a council if
3 are selected from a block of 45, 4 are selected from a block of 57, and the others are selected
from the remaining 69 countries?

6) Suppose that a department contains 10 men and 15 women. How many ways are there to
form a committee with 6 members if it must have more women than men?

7) How many license plates consisting of three letters followed by three digits contain no letter
or digit twice?

8) A class has 20 students, of which 12 are female and 8 are male. In how many ways can a
committee of five students be picked from the class if:
a) No restrictions are placed on the choice of students
b) No males are included on the committee
c) The committee must have three female members and 2 male members.

9) A school dance committee is to be chosen from a group of students consisting of s ix

freshmen, eight sophomores, twelve juniors, and ten seniors. If the committee should consist of
two freshmen, three sophomores, four juniors, and five seniors, how many ways can this be
done?

10) A theater company consists of 22 actors, 10 men and 12 women. In the next play, the
director needs to cast a leading man, a leading lady, a supporting male role, a supporting
female role, and eight extras (three men and five women). In how many ways can this play be
cast?
11) A hockey coach has 20 players of which 12 play forward, six play defense and two are
goalies. In how many ways can the coach pick a lineup consisting of three forwards, two
defense players, and one goalie?

12) In how many ways can ten students be arranged in a row for a class picture if John and Jane
want to stand next to each other and Ed and Sally also want to stand next to each other?

13) In how many ways can the students in the previous problem be arranged if Ed and Sally
want to stand next to each other, but John and Jane refuse to stand next to each other?

14) In how many ways can four men and four women be seated in a row of eight seats if:
a) The first seat is occupied by a man
b) The first and last seats are occupied by women

15) The social security number of a person is a sequence of nine digits that are not necessarily
distinct. How many social security numbers are possible?

16) A variable name in the BASIC programming language is either a letter of the alphabet or a
letter followed by a digit. How many distinct variable names are there in the BASIC language?

17) a) How many even numbers are there between 0 and 100?
b) How many even numbers with distinct digits are there between 0 and
100?

18) There are six characters - three letters of the English alphabet followed by three digits -
which appear on the back panel of a particular brand of printer as an identification number.
Find the number of possible identification numbers if
a) characters can be repeated
b) digits cannot repeat
c) letters cannot repeat
d) characters cannot repeat.

19) Find the number of ways to form a four-letter sequence using the letters A,
B, C, D, and E if:
a) repetitions are permitted
b) repetitions are not permitted
c) the sequence contains the letter A but repetitions are not permitted
d) the sequence contains the letter A and repetitions are permitted

20) There are 10 members A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J in a fundraising committee. The first task
of the committee is to choose a chairperson, a secretary, and a treasurer from this group. No
individual can hold more than one office. How many ways can these three positions be filled if:
a) no one has any objection to holding any of these offices
b) C needs to be the chairperson
c) B does not want to be the chairperson
d) A is not willing to serve as chairperson or secretary
e) either I or J must be the treasurer
f) E, F or G must hold one of the three offices

21) Find the number of ways of picking each of the following from a standard deck of cards.
a) a king and a queen
b) a king or a queen
c) a king and a red card
d) a king or a red card

22) There are three bridges connecting two towns A and B. Between towns B and
C there are four bridges. A salesperson needs to travel from A to C via B. Find:
a) the number of possible choices of bridges from A to C
b) the number of choices for a round trip from A to C and back to A
c) the number of choices for a round trip if no bridge may be crossed twice.

23) A sequence of digits in which each digit is 0 or 1 is called a binary number. Eight-digit binary
numbers are often referred to as "bytes."
a) How many bytes are possible?
b) How many bytes begin with 10 and end with 01?
c) How many bytes begin with 10 but do not end with 01?
d) How many bytes begin with 10 or end with 01?

24) A group of 12 is to be seated in a row of chairs. How many ways can this be done if:
a) two people, A and B must be seated next to each other.
b) two people A and B must not be seated next to each other.