(eBook PDF) Marketing Management

14th Canadian Edition

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BRIEF CONTENTS
PART 1 UNDERSTANDING MARKETING MANAGEMENT 2
1 Defining Marketing for the 21st Century 2
2 Developing Marketing Strategies and Plans 30

PART 2 CAPTURING MARKETING INSIGHTS 62

3 Collecting Information and Forecasting Demand 62
4 Conducting Marketing Research 92

PART 3 CONNECTING WITH CUSTOMERS 116

5 Creating Long-Term Loyalty Relationships 116
6 Analyzing Consumer Markets 144
7 Analyzing Business Markets 174
8 Identifying Market Segments and Targets 200

PART 4 BUILDING STRONG BRANDS 228

9 Creating Brand Equity 228
10 Crafting the Brand Positioning 258
11 Competitive Dynamics 280

PART 5 SHAPING THE MARKET OFFERINGS 304

12 Setting Product Strategy 304
13 Designing and Managing Services 330
14 Developing Pricing Strategies and Programs 356

PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE 384

15 Designing and Managing Integrated
Marketing Channels 384
16 Managing Retailing, Wholesaling, and Logistics 412

PART 7 COMMUNICATING VALUE 438

17 Designing and Managing Integrated Marketing
Communications 438
18 Managing Mass Communications: Advertising, Sales
Promotions, Events and Experiences, and Public Relations 464
19 Managing Personal Communications: Direct and Interactive
Marketing, Word of Mouth, and Personal Selling 494

PART 8 CREATING SUCCESSFUL LONG-TERM GROWTH 524

20 Introducing New Market Offerings 524
21 Tapping into Global Markets 552
22 Managing a Holistic Marketing Organization for the
Long Run 578
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS
PREFACE xxv

PART 1 UNDERSTANDING MARKETING MANAGEMENT 2

CHAPTER 1 DEFINING MARKETING FOR THE 21ST

CENTURY 2
The Importance of Marketing 3
The Scope of Marketing 4
What Is Marketing? 4
What Is Marketed? 5
Who Markets? 7
Core Marketing Concepts 9
Needs, Wants, and Demands 9
Target Markets, Positioning, and Segmentation 9
Offerings and Brands 10
Value and Satisfaction 10
Marketing Channels 10
Supply Chain 10
Competition 11
Marketing Environment 11
The New Marketing Realities 11
Major Societal Forces 11
New Company Capabilities 13
Marketing in Practice 14
Marketing Insight
Marketing in an Age of Turbulence 15
Company Orientation toward the Marketplace 16
The Production Concept 16
The Product Concept 16
The Selling Concept 16
The Marketing Concept 16
The Holistic Marketing Concept 17
Relationship Marketing 17
Marketing Memo
Marketing Right and Wrong 18
Integrated Marketing 19
Internal Marketing 19
Performance Marketing 21
Marketing Insight
Measuring Internal Marketing Orientation 21

Updating the Four Ps 23

Marketing Management Tasks 24
Developing Marketing Strategies and Plans 24
Capturing Marketing Insights 24
Connecting with Customers 25
x CONTENTS

Building Strong Brands 25

Shaping the Market Offerings 25
Marketing Memo
Marketers’ Frequently Asked Questions 25
Delivering Value 26
Communicating Value 26
Creating Successful Long-Term Growth 26
Summary 27
Applications 27

CHAPTER 2 DEVELOPING MARKETING STRATEGIES AND PLANS 30

Marketing and Customer Value 32
The Value-Delivery Process 32
The Value Chain 32
Core Competencies 33
A Holistic Marketing Orientation and Customer Value 35
The Central Role of Strategic Planning 36
Corporate and Division Strategic Planning 36
Defining the Corporate Mission 37
Establishing Strategic Business Units 39
Assigning Resources to Each SBU 40
Assessing Growth Opportunities 40
Organization and Organizational Culture 42
Marketing Innovation 43
Marketing Insight
Different Approaches to Innovative Marketing 43
Business Unit Strategic Planning 45
The Business Mission 45
SWOT Analysis 45
Goal Formulation 47
Strategy Formulation 47
Marketing Memo
Checklist for Strengths/Weaknesses Analysis 48
Program Formulation and Implementation 50
Feedback and Control 51
Product Planning: The Nature and Contents of a Marketing Plan 51
Marketing Memo
Marketing Plan Criteria 52
The Role of Research 53
The Role of Relationships 53
From Marketing Plan to Marketing Action 53
SAMPLE MARKETING PLAN: PEGASUS SPORTS INTERNATIONAL 53

Summary 59
Applications 59
 C O NTE NTS xi

PART 2 CAPTURING MARKETING INSIGHTS 62

CHAPTER 3 COLLECTING INFORMATION AND FORECASTING DEMAND 62

Components of a Modern Marketing Information System 63
Internal Records 66
The Order-to-Payment Cycle 66
Sales Information Systems 66
Databases, Data Warehousing, and Data Mining 66
Marketing Insight
Getting the Most Out of Customer Databases with CRM 67
Marketing Intelligence 68
The Marketing Intelligence System 68
Collecting Marketing Intelligence on the Internet 69
Communicating and Acting on Marketing Intelligence 69
Analyzing the Macroenvironment 70
Needs and Trends 70
Identifying the Major Forces 70
The Demographic Environment 70
Marketing Insight
Finding Gold at the Bottom of the Pyramid 72
The Economic Environment 74
The Social-Cultural Environment 75
The Natural Environment 77
The Technological Environment 78
The Political-Legal Environment 79
Marketing Insight
The Green Marketing Revolution 80

Forecasting and Demand Measurement 81

The Measures of Market Demand 81
A Vocabulary for Demand Measurement 82
Estimating Current Demand 84
Estimating Future Demand 86
Marketing Memo
Fifteen Common Sales Forecasting Methods 88
Summary 89
Applications 89

CHAPTER 4 CONDUCTING MARKETING RESEARCH 92

The Marketing Research System 94
The Marketing Research Process 95
Step 1: Define the Problem, the Decision Alternatives, and the Research
Objectives 95
Step 2: Develop the Research Plan 96
Marketing Memo
Conducting Informative Focus Groups 98
xii CO N TE N T S

Marketing Memo
Questionnaire Dos and Don’ts 101
Marketing Insight
Getting into the Heads of Consumers 102
Marketing Insight
Understanding Brain Science 104
Step 3: Collect the Information 106
Step 4: Analyze the Information 106
Step 5: Present the Findings 106
Step 6: Make the Decision 106
Marketing Insight
Bringing Marketing Research to Life with Personas 108
Overcoming Barriers to the Use of Marketing Research 108
Measuring Marketing Productivity 109
Marketing Metrics 109
Marketing-Mix Modelling 110
Marketing Dashboards 111

Marketing Insight
Marketing Dashboards to Improve Effectiveness and Efficiency 112
Summary 114
Applications 114

PART 3 CONNECTING WITH CUSTOMERS 116

CHAPTER 5 CREATING LONG-TERM LOYALTY RELATIONSHIPS 116

Building Customer Value, Satisfaction, and Loyalty 118
Customer-Perceived Value 118
Total Customer Satisfaction 122
Monitoring Satisfaction 122

Marketing Insight
Net Promoter and Customer Satisfaction 124
Product and Service Quality 125

Marketing Memo
Marketing and Total Quality 126
Maximizing Customer Lifetime Value 126
Customer Profitability 126
Measuring Customer Lifetime Value 127

Marketing Memo
Calculating Customer Lifetime Value 128

Cultivating Customer Relationships 128

Customer Relationship Management 129
Attracting and Retaining Customers 132
Building Loyalty 134
Win-Backs 136
Customer Databases and Database Marketing 137
Customer Databases 137
Data Warehouses and Data Mining 137
 CONTE NTS xiii

The Downside of Database Marketing and CRM 138

Marketing Insight
The Behavioural Targeting Controversy 140
Summary 141
Applications 141

CHAPTER 6 ANALYZING CONSUMER MARKETS 144

What Influences Consumer Behaviour? 146
Cultural Factors 146
Marketing Insight
Facebook 147
Marketing Insight
Marketing to Quebec and French-Canadian Consumers 148
Social Factors 149
Personal Factors 151
Marketing Insight
InTouchLink 151
Key Psychological Processes 154
Motivation: Freud, Maslow, Herzberg 154
Perception 155
Learning 157
Emotions 157
Memory 158
The Buying-Decision Process: The Five-Stage Model 159
Marketing Insight
Made to Stick 160
Problem Recognition 161
Information Search 161
Evaluation of Alternatives 162
Purchase Decision 164
Post-purchase Behaviour 165
Moderating Effects on Consumer Decision Making 166
Behavioural Decision Theory and Behavioural Economics 167
Decision Heuristics 167
Marketing Insight
Predictably Irrational 169
Framing 169
Summary 171
Applications 171

CHAPTER 7 ANALYZING BUSINESS MARKETS 174

What Is Organizational Buying? 176
The Business Market versus the Consumer Market 176
Buying Situations 178
Systems Buying and Selling 179
Participants in the Business Buying Process 180
The Buying Centre 180
Buying Centre Influences 181
Targeting Firms and Buying Centres 182
The Purchasing/Procurement Process 183
xiv CO N TE N T S

Marketing Insight
Big Sales to Small Businesses 184
Stages in the Buying Process 186
Problem Recognition 186
General Need Description and Product Specification 186
Supplier Search 187
Proposal Solicitation 188
Supplier Selection 188
Marketing Memo
Developing Compelling Customer Value Propositions 190
Order-Routine Specification 191
Performance Review 191
Managing Business-to-Business Customer Relationships 191
The Benefits of Vertical Coordination 192
Marketing Insight
Establishing Corporate Trust, Credibility, and Reputation 193
Business Relationships: Risks and Opportunism 194
New Technology and Business Customers 194
Institutional and Government Markets 195
Summary 197
Applications 197

CHAPTER 8 IDENTIFYING MARKET SEGMENTS AND TARGETS 200

Bases for Segmenting Consumer Markets 202
Geographic Segmentation 202
Demographic Segmentation 205
Marketing Insight
Trading Up, Down, and Over 208
Marketing Insight
The Grandparent Market 210
Psychographic Segmentation 213
Behavioural Segmentation 214
Bases for Segmenting Business Markets 216
Market Targeting 218
Effective Segmentation Criteria 218
Evaluating and Selecting the Market Segments 220
Marketing Insight
Chasing the Long Tail 223
Summary 225
Applications 225

PART 4 BUILDING STRONG BRANDS 228

CHAPTER 9 CREATING BRAND EQUITY 228

What Is Brand Equity? 229
The Role of Brands 230
The Scope of Branding 230
Defining Brand Equity 231
Brand Equity Models 233
 CONTE NTS xv

Marketing Insight
Brand Bubble Trouble 235
Building Brand Equity 237
Choosing Brand Elements 237
Designing Holistic Marketing Activities 238
Leveraging Secondary Associations 239
Internal Branding 240
Brand Communities 241
Measuring Brand Equity 243
Managing Brand Equity 244
Brand Reinforcement 244
Marketing Insight
The Brand Value Chain 244
Marketing Insight
What Is a Brand Worth? 245
Brand Revitalization 247
Devising a Branding Strategy 248
Branding Decisions 248
Brand Portfolios 249
Brand Extensions 250
Customer Equity 253
Marketing Memo
Twenty-First-Century Branding 254
Summary 255
Applications 255

CHAPTER 10 CRAFTING THE BRAND POSITIONING 258

Developing and Establishing a Brand Positioning 260
Determining a Competitive Frame of Reference 261
Marketing Insight
High Growth through Value Innovation 263
Identifying Optimal Points-of-Difference and Points-of-Parity 264
Choosing POPs and PODs 268
Brand Mantras 269
Establishing Brand Positioning 270
Marketing Memo
Constructing a Brand Positioning Bull’s-Eye 271
Differentiation Strategies 272
Alternative Approaches to Positioning 274
Positioning and Branding a Small Business 275
Summary 278
Applications 278

CHAPTER 11 COMPETITIVE DYNAMICS 280

Competitive Strategies for Market Leaders 282
Expanding Total Market Demand 282
Marketing Insight
When Your Competitor Delivers More for Less 283
xvi CO N TE N T S

Protecting Market Share 284

Increasing Market Share 286
Other Competitive Strategies 287
Market-Challenger Strategies 287
Market-Follower Strategies 288
Market-Nicher Strategies 289
Product Life-Cycle Marketing Strategies 291
Marketing Memo
Niche Specialist Roles 291
Product Life Cycles 292
Style, Fashion, and Fad Life Cycles 293
Marketing Strategies: Introduction Stage and the Pioneer Advantage 294
Marketing Strategies: Growth Stage 295
Marketing Strategies: Maturity Stage 295
Marketing Strategies: Decline Stage 296
Marketing Insight
Managing a Brand Crisis 297
Evidence for the Product Life-Cycle Concept 298
Critique of the Product Life-Cycle Concept 298
Market Evolution 298
Marketing in an Economic Downturn 299
Explore the Upside of Increasing Investment 299
Get Closer to Customers 300
Review Budget Allocations 300
Put Forth the Most Compelling Value Proposition 301
Fine-Tune Brand and Product Offerings 301
Summary 302
Applications 302

PART 5 SHAPING THE MARKET OFFERINGS 304

CHAPTER 12 SETTING PRODUCT STRATEGY 304

Product Characteristics and Classifications 305
Product Levels: The Customer-Value Hierarchy 305
Product Classifications 306
Product and Service Differentiation 308
Product Differentiation 308
Services Differentiation 309
Design 311
Marketing Insight
Marketing Luxury Brands 313
Product and Brand Relationships 314
The Product Hierarchy 314
Product Systems and Mixes 315
Product Line Analysis 316
Product Line Length 316
Marketing Insight
When Less Is More 318
Product Mix Pricing 320
 CONTE NTS xvii

Marketing Memo
Product-Bundle Pricing Considerations 322
Co-Branding and Ingredient Branding 322
Packaging, Labelling, Warranties, and Guarantees 324
Packaging 324
Labelling 324
Warranties and Guarantees 327
Summary 328
Applications 328

CHAPTER 13 DESIGNING AND MANAGING SERVICES 330

The Nature of Services 331
Service Industries Are Everywhere 332
Categories of Service Mix 333
Distinctive Characteristics of Services 334
The New Service Realities 338
A Shifting Customer Relationship 338
Achieving Excellence in Services Marketing 340
Marketing Excellence 340
Best Practices of Top Service Companies 341
Differentiating Services 343
Managing Service Quality 345
Managing Customer Expectations 345
Marketing Memo
Recommendations for Improving Service Quality 346
Incorporating Self-Service Technologies (SSTs) 349
Managing Product Support Services 349
Identifying and Satisfying Customer Needs 349
Marketing Insight
Developing Customer-Interface Systems 350
Marketing Memo
Assessing E-Service Quality 351
Post-sale Service Strategy 352
Summary 353
Applications 353

CHAPTER 14 DEVELOPING PRICING STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS 356

Understanding Pricing 358
A Changing Pricing Environment 358
Marketing Insight
Giving It All Away 359
How Companies Price 360
Consumer Psychology and Pricing 360
Setting the Price 362
Step 1: Selecting the Pricing Objective 362
Step 2: Determining Demand 363
Marketing Insight
Parking: There’s More to It Than Meets the Eye 366
xviii CO N T E N T S

Step 3: Estimating Costs 367

Step 4: Analyzing Competitors’ Costs, Prices, and Offers 369
Step 5: Selecting a Pricing Method 370
Step 6: Selecting the Final Price 374
Adapting the Price 375
Geographical Pricing (Cash, Countertrade, Barter) 375
Price Discounts and Allowances 376
Promotional Pricing 377
Differentiated Pricing 377
Marketing Memo
Types of Illegal Pricing 378
Initiating and Responding to Price Changes 379
Initiating Price Cuts 379
Initiating Price Increases 380
Responding to Competitors’ Price Changes 381
Summary 382
Applications 382

PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE 384

CHAPTER 15 DESIGNING AND MANAGING INTEGRATED MARKETING

CHANNELS 384
Marketing Channels and Value Networks 386
The Importance of Channels 386
Hybrid Channels and Multichannel Marketing 386
Value Networks 388
The Role of Marketing Channels 388
Channel Functions and Flows 388
Channel Levels 390
Service Sector Channels 391
Channel-Design Decisions 392
Analyzing Customer Needs and Wants 392
Establishing Objectives and Constraints 392
Identifying Major Channel Alternatives 393
Evaluating Major Channel Alternatives 395
Global Channel Considerations 399
Channel Integration and Systems 400
Vertical Marketing Systems 400
Marketing Insight
Channel Stewards Take Charge 401
Horizontal Marketing Systems 402
Integrating Multichannel Marketing Systems 402
Conflict, Co-operation, and Competition 403
Types of Conflict and Competition 404
Causes of Channel Conflict 404
Managing Channel Conflict 404
Dilution and Cannibalization 405
Legal and Ethical Issues in Channel Relations 406
E-Commerce Marketing Practices 406
 CONTE NTS xix

Pure E-Businesses 406

Traditional Firms with E-Commerce Operations 408
M-Commerce Marketing Practices 408
Summary 410
Applications 410

CHAPTER 16 MANAGING RETAILING, WHOLESALING, AND

LOGISTICS 412
Retailing 414
Types of Retailers 415
The New Retail Environment 417
Marketing Decisions 419
Marketing Memo
Helping Stores to Sell 424
Private Labels 425
Role of Private Labels 426
Private-Label Success Factors 426
Marketing Insight
Manufacturers’ Response to the Private-Label Threat 427
Wholesaling 428
Trends in Wholesaling 429
Market Logistics 430
Integrated Logistics Systems 431
Market-Logistics Objectives 432
Market-Logistics Decisions 433
Organizational Lessons 435
Summary 436
Applications 436

PART 7 COMMUNICATING VALUE 438

CHAPTER 17 DESIGNING AND MANAGING INTEGRATED MARKETING

COMMUNICATIONS 438
The Role of Marketing Communications 440
The Changing Marketing Communications Environment 440
Marketing Insight
Don’t Touch That Remote 440
Marketing Communications, Brand Equity, and Sales 441
The Communications Process Models 443
Developing Effective Communications 445
Identify the Target Audience 445
Determine the Communications Objectives 445
Design the Communications 446
Marketing Insight
Celebrity Endorsements as a Strategy 448
Select the Communications Channels 449
xx CO NT E N T S

Establish the Total Marketing Communications Budget 452

Deciding on the Marketing Communications Mix 453
Measuring Communications Results 457
Managing the Integrated Marketing Communications Process 458
Coordinating Media 458
Implementing IMC 458
Marketing Memo
How Integrated Is Your IMC Program? 460
Summary 461
Applications 461

CHAPTER 18 MANAGING MASS COMMUNICATIONS: ADVERTISING, SALES

PROMOTIONS, EVENTS AND EXPERIENCES, AND PUBLIC
RELATIONS 464
Developing and Managing an Advertising Program 466
Setting the Objectives 466
Deciding on the Advertising Budget 467
Developing the Advertising Campaign 468
Marketing Memo
Print Ad Evaluation Criteria 470
Deciding on Media and Measuring Effectiveness 472
Deciding on Reach, Frequency, and Impact 472
Choosing Among Major Media Types 473
Alternative Advertising Options 473
Marketing Insight
Product Placement in Children’s Entertainment 476
Selecting Specific Media Vehicles 477
Deciding on Media Timing and Allocation 478
Evaluating Advertising Effectiveness 479
Sales Promotion 480
Objectives 480
Advertising versus Promotion 480
Major Decisions 481
Events and Experiences 485
Events Objectives 485
Major Sponsorship Decisions 486
Creating Experiences 487
Marketing Memo
Measuring High Performance Sponsorship Programs 487
Public Relations 488
Marketing Public Relations 488
Major Decisions in Marketing PR 489
Summary 491
Applications 491

CHAPTER 19 MANAGING PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS: DIRECT

AND INTERACTIVE MARKETING, WORD OF MOUTH, AND
PERSONAL SELLING 494
Direct Marketing 496
 CONTE NTS xxi

The Benefits of Direct Marketing 496

Direct Mail 496
Catalogue Marketing 498
Telemarketing 498
Other Media for Direct-Response Marketing 499
Public and Ethical Issues in Direct Marketing 499
Interactive Marketing 499
Advantages and Disadvantages of Interactive Marketing 500
Interactive Marketing Communication Options 500
Marketing Memo
How to Maximize the Marketing Value of Emails 503
Word of Mouth 504
Marketing Memo
Segmenting Tech Users 504
Social Media 506
Buzz and Viral Marketing 508
Opinion Leaders 509
Marketing Memo
How to Start a Buzz Fire 510
Measuring the Effects of Word of Mouth 511
Designing the Sales Force 511
Sales Force Objectives and Strategy 512
Sales Force Structure 512
Marketing Insight
Major Account Management 513
Sales Force Size 514
Sales Force Compensation 514
Managing the Sales Force 514
Recruiting and Selecting Representatives 514
Training and Supervising Sales Representatives 515
Sales Rep Productivity 515
Motivating Sales Representatives 516
Evaluating Sales Representatives 517
Principles of Personal Selling 518
The Six Steps 519
Relationship Marketing 520
Summary 521
Applications 521

PART 8 C CREATING SUCCESSFUL LONG-TERM GROWTH 524

CHAPTER 20 INTRODUCING NEW MARKET OFFERINGS 524

New-Product Options 525
Make or Buy 525
Types of New Products 526
Challenges in New-Product Development 526
The Innovation Imperative 526
New-Product Success 527
xxii CON T E N T S

New-Product Failure 528

Organizational Arrangements 529
Budgeting for New-Product Development 529
Organizing New-Product Development 530
Managing the Development Process: Ideas 532
Generating Ideas 532

Marketing Memo
Ten Ways to Find Great New-Product Ideas 532

Marketing Insight
P&G’s New Connect + Develop Approach to Innovation 533

Marketing Memo
Seven Ways to Draw New Ideas from Your Customers 534
Marketing Memo
How to Run a Successful Brainstorming Session 536
Using Idea Screening 536
Managing the Development Process: Concept to Strategy 538
Concept Development and Testing 538
Marketing Strategy Development 541
Business Analysis 541
Managing the Development Process: Development to
Commercialization 543
Product Development 543
Market Testing 543
Commercialization 545
The Consumer Adoption Process 546
Stages in the Adoption Process 546
Factors Influencing the Adoption Process 547
Summary 549
Applications 549

CHAPTER 21 TAPPING INTO GLOBAL MARKETS 552

Competing on a Global Basis 553
Deciding Whether to Go Abroad 554
Deciding Which Markets to Enter 555
How Many Markets to Enter 555
Developed versus Developing Markets 556
Evaluating Potential Markets 557

Marketing Insight
Spotlight on Key Developing Markets 558

Deciding How to Enter the Market 561

Indirect and Direct Export 561
Licensing 562
Joint Ventures 562
Direct Investment 563
Deciding on the Marketing Program 563
Global Similarities and Differences 563
Marketing Adaptation 564
 CONTE NTS xxiii

Marketing Memo
The Ten Commandments of Global Branding 565
Global Product Strategies 566
Global Communications Strategies 567
Global Pricing Strategies 569
Global Distribution Strategies 570
Country-of-Origin Effects 571
Building Country Images 571
Consumer Perceptions of Country of Origin 572
Deciding on the Marketing Organization 573
Export Department 573
International Division 574
Global Organization 574
Summary 575
Applications 575

CHAPTER 22 MANAGING A HOLISTIC MARKETING ORGANIZATION FOR

THE LONG RUN 578
Trends in Marketing Practices 580
Internal Marketing 581
Organizing the Marketing Department 581
Marketing Memo
Characteristics of Company Departments That
Are Truly Customer Driven 582
Relationships with Other Departments 585
Building a Creative Marketing Organization 586
Marketing Insight
The Marketing CEO 586
Socially Responsible Marketing 587
Corporate Social Responsibility 588
Socially Responsible Business Models 591
Marketing Insight
The Rise of Organic 591
Cause-Related Marketing 592
Marketing Memo
Making a Difference: Top 10 Tips for Cause Branding 595
Social Marketing 596
Marketing Implementation and Control 598
Marketing Implementation 598
Marketing Control 598
Annual-Plan Control 598
Profitability Control 599
Efficiency Control 599
Strategic Control 599
The Future of Marketing 604
Marketing Memo
Major Marketing Weaknesses 604
xxiv CO N T E N T S

Summary 606
Applications 606
APPENDIX: TOOLS FOR MARKETING CONTROL 608

APPENDIX: SONIC MARKETING PLAN AND EXERCISES 614

ENDNOTES 627

GLOSSARY 679

NAME INDEX 686

COMPANY, BRAND, AND ORGANIZATION INDEX 690

SUBJECT INDEX 700

PHOTO CREDITS 716

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work, the causes contributing to this reduction in efficiency may be
grouped about the following main factors:
(1) The physical discomfort of the mask arising from causes such
as pressure on the head and face, due to improperly fitting
facepieces and harness, the noseclip, and the mouthpiece.
(2) Abnormal conditions of vision, due to poor optical qualities in
eye pieces and restrictions of vision, both as to total field and
binocular field.
(3) Abnormal conditions of respiration, among them being (a) the
unnatural channels of respiration caused by wearing the box
respirator, (b) increase in dead air space in respiratory circuit, and (c)
the increase in resistance to both inhalation and exhalation, the last
two mentioned being present to a greater or less degree in all types
of mask.
Of these general subdivisions the various phases of the first two
are so evident that no further discussion will be given. The effects of
the changed conditions of respiration are, however, less obvious,
and it may be of interest to present in a general way the results of
the research along this line, particularly as regards the harmful
effects of increasing the resistance and dead air space in the
respiratory tract above the normal.
The function of respiration is to supply oxygen to and remove
carbon dioxide from the blood as it passes through the lungs. This
interchange of gases takes place in the alveoli, a myriad of thin-
walled air sacs at the end of the respiratory tract where the air is
separated by a very thin membrane through which the gases readily
pass. The volume and rate, or in other words, the minute-volume, of
respiration is automatically controlled by the nerve centers in such a
way that a sufficient amount of air is supplied to the lungs to maintain
by means of this interchange a uniform percentage of its various
constituents as it leaves the lungs. It will be readily seen therefore,
that anything which causes a change in the composition of the air
presented to the blood in the alveoli will bring about abnormal
conditions of respiration.
 Inasmuch as the gaseous interchange between the lungs and the
blood takes place only in the terminal air sacs it follows that, at the
end of each respiration, the rest of the respiratory tract is filled with
air low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide, which on inspiration is
drawn back into the lungs, diluting the fresh air. The volume of these
passages holding air which must be re-breathed is known as the
anatomical dead air space.
Similarly, when a mask is worn the facepiece chamber and any
other parts of the air passage common to inspiration and expiration
become additional dead air space contributing a further dilution of
oxygen content and contamination by carbon dioxide of the inspired
air in addition to that occasioned by the anatomical dead space,
which of course, is always present and is taken care of by the
functions normally controlling respiration.
Major R. G. Pearce who directed a large amount of the research
along this line, sums up the harmful effects of thus increasing the
dead air space as follows:
1. Interpretation from the physiological standpoint:
(a) A larger minute-volume of air is required when breathing
through dead air space. This, interpreted on physiological grounds,
means that the carbon dioxide content of the arterial blood is higher
than normal. The level to which the content of carbon dioxide in the
arterial blood may rise is limited. Anything which wastefully increases
the carbon dioxide level of the blood decreases the reserve so
necessary to a soldier when he is asked to respond to the demand
for exercise which is a part of his daily life.
(b) A larger minute-volume of air must be pulled through the
canister, which offers resistance proportional to the volume of air
passing through it. If resistance is a factor of harm, dead air space
increases that harm, since dead air space increases the volume of
air passing through the canister.
(c) As will be noted below, the effect of resistance is a tendency
to decrease the minute-volume of air breathed. Dead air space
increases the minute-volume. Accordingly, if breathing is
accomplished against resistance and through a large volume of dead
air space, the volume of air breathed is reduced more in proportion
to the actual needs of the body than when breathing against
resistance without the additional factor of dead space; this, again,
causes the level of carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues to be
raised to a higher level than normal, and thus again there is some
reserve power wasted.
2. Interpretation from the standpoint of the canister.
The life of the canister depends on the volume of the gas-laden
air passed through it. The dead space increases the minute-volume
of air passed through the canister and, therefore, shortens its life.
Physiologically, the reason for the harmful effects of breathing
resistance is more involved:
“The importance of resistance to breathing lies
in: (1) the effect on the circulation of the blood, and
(2) the changes in the lung tissue, which seriously
interfere with the gas exchange between the outside
air and the blood. Data have been presented to
draw attention to the seriousness of resistance to
inspiration. In these reports, it was suggested that
the deleterious effects on the body consist in
changes in the blood pressure, increased work of
the right side of the heart, and an increase in the
blood and lymph content of the lungs. Resistance
also decreases the minute-volume of air breathed
and thereby increases the percentage of carbon
dioxide in the expired air. The foregoing changes
are all deleterious.
“Although the chief problem of resistance in gas
mask design concerns inspiration, nevertheless
resistance to expiration is an important factor. The
expired air of the lungs contains carbon dioxide for
which means of escape must be provided. The
expiratory act is more passive than the inspiratory
act, and resistance to expiration is, therefore, more
keenly felt than resistance to inspiration. It is then
imperative that the exhale valve be so arranged as
to allow for the escape of the entire amount of air
during the time of expiration with the least possible
resistance. The data of the laboratory indicate that
seldom, if ever, do expiratory rates rise above a
velocity of 150 to 175 per minute. The effect of
resistance to exhalation upon the vital organs of the
body is not dissimilar to that of inspiration.”
 CHAPTER XIII
ABSORBENTS[27]

The absorbents used in both the British and American gas mask canister, which
afforded a degree of protection far superior to that of any other allied or enemy nation
except Germany, consisted of a mixture of charcoal and soda-lime, as described in the
preceding chapter. In general, a gas mask absorbent must have certain requirements.
These are: absorptive activity, absorptive capacity, versatility, mechanical strength,
chemical stability, low breathing resistance, ease of manufacture and availability of raw
materials.
Absorptive activity, or a very high rate of absorption, is one of the more important
properties of a satisfactory absorbent. A normal man when exercising violently
breathes about 60 liters of air per minute, and since inhalation occupies but slightly
more than half of the breathing cycle, the actual rate at which gas passes through the
canister during inhalation is about 100 liters per minute. Calculated on the basis of the
regular army canister, this corresponds to an average linear air velocity of about 80 cm.
per second. On the average, therefore, a given small portion of the air remains in
contact with the gas absorbent for only about 0.1 second. Besides this, the removal of
the toxic material must be surprisingly complete. Though the concentration entering the
canister may occasionally be as high as one half per cent, even the momentary
leakage of 0.001 per cent (ten parts per million) would cause serious discomfort and
the prolonged leakage of smaller amounts would have serious results in the case of
some gases. The activity of the present gas mask charcoal is shown by the fact that it
will reduce a concentration of 7000 parts per million of chloropicrin to less than 0.5 part
per million in less than 0.03 second.
Of equal importance is the absorptive capacity. That is, the absorbent must be able
to absorb and hold large amounts of gas per unit weight of absorbent. Its life must be
measured in days against ordinary concentrations of gas. It is further necessary that
the gas be held firmly and not in any loose combination which might give up minute
traces of gas when air is, for long periods of time, breathed in through a canister which
has previously been exposed to gas.
The absorbents used must be of a type which can be relied upon to give adequate
protection against practically any kind of toxic gas (versatility). The need of this is
apparent when the difficulty of having separate canisters for various gases is
considered, as well as the difficulty in rapidly and accurately identifying the gases and
the possible introduction of new and unknown gases. Fortunately, practically all of the
toxic gases are very reactive chemically or have relatively high boiling points and can
therefore be absorbed in large amounts by charcoal.
Absorbents must be mechanically strong in order to retain their structure and
porosity under conditions of transport and field use. Further, they must not be subject
to abrasion for the production of a relatively small amount of fines would tend to plug
the canister or to cause channels through which the gas would pass without being
absorbed.
Since the canister is filled several months before it is first used in the trenches, and
since the canister may be used over a period of months before it is discarded, it is
obviously the ultimate activity and capacity (not the initial efficiency) which determines
the value of an absorbent. It must therefore have a very considerable degree of
chemical stability. By this is meant that the absorbent itself is not subject to chemical
deterioration, that it does not react with carbon dioxide, that it does not disintegrate or
become deliquescent even after being used and that it has no corrosive action on the
metal container.
In a good general absorbent there must be a proper balance between its various
essential qualities, and hence the most suitable mixture will probably always be a
compromise.

Charcoal
The fact that charcoal would condense in its pores or adsorb certain gases, holding
them firmly, had been known for a long time.[28] In general, it was known that so-called
animal charcoal was the best for decolorizing sugar solutions, that wood charcoal was
the best for adsorbing gases and that coke had very little adsorbing or decolorizing
power. No one knew the reason for these facts and no one could write a specification
for charcoal. The ordinary charcoal used in the scientific laboratory was cocoanut
charcoal, since Hunter had discovered more than fifty years ago that this was the best
charcoal for adsorbing gases.

Raw Materials[29]
The first charcoal designed to offer protection against chlorine and phosgene was
made by carbonizing red cedar. Since this had little value against chloropicrin, attention
was turned to cocoanut shell as the source of raw material. This charcoal fulfilled the
above conditions for a satisfactory absorbent better than any other form tested. It must
not be supposed, however, that investigation of carbon stopped with these
experiments. In the search for the ideal carbon, practically almost every hard vegetable
substance known was tested. Next to cocoanut shells, the fruit pits, several common
varieties of nuts abundant in the United States, and several tropical nuts (especially
cohune nuts), were found to make the best carbon. Pecan nuts, and all woods ranging
in hardness from iron wood down to ordinary pine and fir, were found to be in the
second class of efficiency. Among other substances tested were almonds, Arabian
acorns, grape seeds, Brazil nut husks, balsa, osage orange, Chinese velvet bean,
synthetic carbons (from coal, lamp-black, etc.), cocoa bean shell, coffee grounds, flint
corn, corn cobs, cotton seed husks, peanut shells and oil shale. While many of these
substances might have been used in an emergency, none of them would produce
carbon as efficient, volume for volume, as that of the cocoanut shell and other hard
nuts.
Some idea of the scale of charcoal production may be seen from the requirement
for cocoanut shells. When we first began to build masks our demands for
carboniferous materials ranged from 40 to 50 tons a day of raw material; by the end of
the war, we were in need of a supply of 400 tons of cocoanut shells per day. This
demand would absorb the entire cocoanut production of tropical America five times
over. (The total production of cocoanuts in Central America, the West Indies and the
Caribbean Coast of South America amounted to 131,000,000 nuts annually, equal to a
supply of 75 tons of shells daily.) It was equal to one-tenth of the total production of the
Orient, which amounted to 7,450,200,000 nuts annually. This large demand always
made a reserve supply of charcoal material practically impossible. The “Eat More
Cocoanut” campaign started by the Gas Defense more than doubled the American
consumption of cocoanut in a brief space of time and in October, 1918, with the help of
importation of shell, we averaged about 150 tons of shells per day, exclusive of the
Orient.
The first heating of cocoanut shells to make charcoal reduces their weight 75 per
cent. It was evident, therefore, that we could more economically ship our oriental
supply in the form of charcoal produced on the other side of the Pacific Ocean. A
charcoal plant was established in the Philippine Islands and agents were sent to all
parts of the Oriental countries to purchase enormous supplies of shells. While the work
was only gaining momentum when the Armistice was signed, the plant actually shipped
300 tons of cocoanut shell carbon to the United States and had over 1000 tons on
hand November 11, 1918.
In the search for other tropical nuts, it was found that the cohune or corozo nut was
the best. These nuts are the fruit of the manaca palm tree. They grow in clusters, like
bananas or dates, one to four clusters to a tree, each cluster yielding from 60 to 75
pounds of nuts. They grow principally on the west coast of Central America in low,
swampy regions from Mexico to Panama but are also found along the Caribbean
coast. The chief virtue of the cohune nut from the charcoal point of view was its
extreme thickness of shell; this nut is 3 inches or more in length and nearly 2 inches in
diameter but the kernel is very small. Four thousand tons per month were being
imported at the time of the Armistice. A disadvantage in the use of cohune nuts was
that their husks contained a considerable amount of acid which rotted the jute bags
and also caused the heaps of nuts to heat in storage.
A third source of tropical material was in the ivory nuts used in considerable
quantities in this country by the makers of buttons. There is a waste of 400-500 tons
per month of this material, which was used after screening out the dust. This material
is rather expensive, because it is normally used in the manufacture of lactic acid.
Another great branch of activity in securing carbon supplies was concerned with the
apricot, peach and cherry pits and walnut shells of the Pacific Coast. A nation-wide
campaign on the part of the American Red Cross was started on September 13, 1918.
Between this time and the Armistice some 4,000 tons of material were collected. Thus
the slogan “Help us to give him the best gas mask” made its appeal to every person in
the United States.

A Theory of Charcoal Action

It has been pointed out that the first charcoal was made from red cedar. While this
was very satisfactory when tested against chlorine, it was of no value against
chloropicrin. In order to improve the charcoal still further it was desirable to have some
theory as to the way charcoal acted. It was generally agreed that fine pores were
essential. The functioning of charcoal depends upon its adsorptive power and this in
turn upon its porosity. The greater the ratio of its surface to its mass, that is, the more
highly developed and fine grained its porosity, the greater its value. Another factor,
however, seemed to play a rôle. As a pure hypothesis, at first, Chaney assumed that
an active charcoal could only be secured by removing the hydrocarbon which he
assumed to be present after carbonization. Being difficultly volatile, these
hydrocarbons prevent the adsorption of other gases or vapors on the active material.
To prove this, red cedar charcoal was heated in a bomb connected with a pump which
drew air through the bomb. Although the charcoal had been carbonized at 800°,
various gases and vapor began to come off at 300°, and when cooled, condensed to
crystalline plates.
This experiment not only proved the existence of components containing hydrogen
in the charcoal, but also showed that one way of removing the hydrocarbon film on the
active carbon was to treat with an oxidizing agent.
In the light of the later experimental work Chaney feels that there are two forms of
elementary carbon—“active” and “inactive”; the active form is characterized by a high
specific adsorptive capacity for gas while the inactive form lacks this property. In
general the temperature of formation of the active form is below 500-600° C. The form
is easily attacked by oxidizing agents—while the latter is relatively stable. The
combination of active carbon with an adsorbed layer or layers of hydrocarbon is known
as “primary” carbon. Anthracite and bituminous coal are native primary carbons, while
coke contains a considerable amount of inactive carbon, resulting from the
decomposition of hydrocarbon during its preparation.

Preparation of Active Charcoal

“On the basis of the above discussion, the preparation of active charcoal will
evidently involve two steps:
“First.—The formation of a porous, amorphous base carbon at a relatively low
temperature.
“Second.—The removal of the adsorbed hydrocarbons from the primary carbon,
and the increase of its porosity.
“The first step presents no very serious difficulties. It involves, in the case of woods
and similar materials, a process of destructive distillation at relatively low temperatures.
The deposition of inactive carbon, resulting from the cracking of hydrocarbons at high
temperatures, must be avoided. The material is therefore charged into the retorts in
thin layers, so that the contact of the hydrocarbon vapors with hot charcoal is avoided
as much as possible. Furthermore, most of the hydrocarbon is removed before
dangerous temperatures are reached. A slight suction is maintained to prevent outward
leaks, but no activation by oxidation is attempted, as this can be carried on under
better control and with less loss of material in a separate treatment.

Fig. 67. Dorsey Reactor

for Activating Cocoanut Charcoal with Steam.

“The second step, that is, the removal of the absorbed hydrocarbons from the
primary carbon, is a much more difficult matter. Prolonged heating, at sufficiently high
temperatures, is required to remove or break up the hydrocarbon residues. On the
other hand, volatilization and cracking of the hydrocarbons at high temperatures is
certain to produce an inactive form of carbon more or less like graphite in its visible
characteristics, which is not only inert and non-adsorbent, but is also highly resistant to
oxidation. The general method of procedure which has yielded the best results, is to
remove the adsorbed hydrocarbons by various processes of combined oxidation and
distillation, whereby the hydrocarbons of high boiling points are broken down into more
volatile substances and removed at lower temperatures, or under conditions less likely
to result in subsequent deposition of inactive carbon. Thin layers of charcoal and rapid
gas currents are used so that contact between the volatilized hydrocarbons and the hot
active charcoal may be as brief as possible. In this way cracking of the hydrocarbons
at high temperature, with consequent deposition of inactive carbon, is largely avoided.
“While the removal of the hydrocarbons by oxidation and distillation is the main
object of the activation process, another important action goes on at the same time,
namely, the oxidation of the primary carbon itself. This oxidation is doubtless
advantageous, up to a certain point, for it probably at first enlarges, at the expense of
the walls of solid carbon, cavities already present in the charcoal, thus increasing the
total surface exposed. Moreover, the outer ends of the capillary pores and fissures
must be somewhat enlarged by this action and a readier access thus provided to the
inner portions of the charcoal. However, as soon as the eating away of the carbon wall
begins to unite cavities, it decreases, rather than increases, the surface of the
charcoal, and a consequent drop in volume activity, that is in the service time, of the
charcoal, is found to result.
“It is obvious, therefore, that conditions of activation must be so chosen and
regulated as to oxidize the hydrocarbons rapidly and the primary carbon slowly. Such a
differential oxidation is not easy to secure since the hydrocarbons involved have a very
low hydrogen content, and are not much more easily oxidized than the primary carbon
itself. Furthermore, most of the hydrocarbons to be removed are shut up in the interior
of the granule. On the one hand, a high enough temperature must be maintained to
oxidize the hydrocarbons with reasonable speed; on the other hand, too high a
temperature must not be employed, else the primary carbon will be unduly consumed.
The permissible range is a relatively narrow one, only about 50 to 75°. The location of
the optimum activating temperature depends upon the oxidizing agent employed and
upon other variables as well; for air, it has been found to lie somewhere between 350
and 450°, and for steam between 800 and 1000°.
“The air activation process has the advantage of operating at a conveniently low
temperature. It has the disadvantage, that local heating and an excessive consumption
of primary carbon occur, so that a drop in volume activity results from that cause before
the hydrocarbons have been completely eliminated. As a consequence, charcoal of the
highest activity cannot be obtained by the air activation process.”
The steam activation process has the disadvantage that it operates at so high a
temperature that the regulation of temperature becomes difficult and other technical
difficulties are introduced. It has the advantage that local heating is eliminated. The
hydrocarbons can, therefore, be largely removed without a disproportionate
consumption of primary carbon. This permits the production of a very active charcoal.
It has the further advantage that it worked well with all kinds of charcoal. Inferior
material, when treated with steam, gave charcoal nearly as good as the best steam-
treated cocoanut charcoal. Because of the shortage of cocoanut, this was a very
important consideration.
 Fig. 68.—Section of Raw Cocoanut Shell.
Magnified 146½ diameters.

The air, steam and also carbon dioxide-steam activation processes have all been
employed on a large scale by the Chemical Warfare Service for the manufacture of gas
mask carbon.
Fig. 69.—Section of Carbonized Cocoanut Charcoal.
Magnified 146½ Diameters.

Fig. 70.—Two-Minute Charcoal not Activated.

Magnified 732 Diameters.

“The above considerations are illustrated fairly well by the

photo-micrographs shown in Figs. 68 to 71. Fig. 68 shows a
 section of the original untreated cocoanut shell crosswise to the
long axis of the shell. In it can be seen the closely packed, thick-
walled so-called ‘stone-cells’ characteristic of all hard and dense
nut shells. Fig. 69 is a photograph of a similar section through the
same cocoanut shell after it has been carbonized. As these
photographs are all taken with vertical illumination against a dark
background, the cavities, or voids, and depressions all appear
black, while the charcoal itself appears white. It is clear from this
photograph that much of the original grosser structure of the shell
persists in the carbonized products. Figs. 70 and 71 are more
highly magnified photographs of a carbonized charcoal before
and after activation, respectively. As before, all the dark areas
represent voids of little or no importance in the adsorptive activity
of the charcoal, while the white areas represent the charcoal
itself. In Fig. 70 (unactivated) the charcoal itself between the voids
it seen to be relatively compact, while in Fig. 71 (activated) it is
decidedly granular. This granular structure, just visible at this high
magnification (1000 diameters), probably represents the grosser
porous structure on which the adsorption really depends. These
photographs, therefore, show how the porosity is increased by
activation.”

Fig. 71.—31-Minute Steam Activated Charcoal.

Magnified 732 Diameters.

The great demand for charcoal, and the need for activating other than cocoanut
charcoal led to the development of the Dressler tunnel kiln, which seemed to offer
many advantages over the Dorsey type of treater.

Fig. 72.—Sectional View of Dressler Tunnel Kiln,

Adapted to Activation of Charcoal.

“The Dressler tunnel kiln is a type used in general ceramic

work. The furnace consists essentially of a brick kiln about 190 ft.
long, 12 ft. broad, and 9 ft. high, lined with fire brick. Charcoal is
loaded in shallow, refractory trays in small tram cars, about 120
trays to the car. The cars enter the kiln through a double door and
the charcoal remains in the hot zone at a temperature of about
850° C. for about 4 hrs., depending upon the nature of the
material charged. Water is atomized into this kiln, and a positive
pressure maintained in order to exclude entrance of air. The kiln is
gas-fired and the charcoal is activated by the steam in the
presence of the combustion gases.
“Under such treatment the charcoal is given a high degree of
activation without the usual accompanying high losses. Seemingly
the oxidizing medium used, together with the operating
conditions, produce a deep penetration of the charcoal particles
without increasing the extensive surface combustion experienced
 in the steam activators. The capacity of such a type furnace is
limited only by the size of the installation.
“The advantages of this type furnace may be tabulated as follows:

1—High quality of product.

2—Small weight and volume losses.
3—Large capacity per unit.
4—Minimum initial cost and maintenance of installation.
5—Simplicity and cheapness of operation.
6—Adaptability to activation of all carbon materials.
7—Availability of furnaces of this general type already constructed.”

Substitutes for Nut Charcoal

The first experiments were made with a special anthracite coal (non-laminated and
having conchoidal fracture). This had a life of 560 minutes as against 360 minutes for
air treated cocoanut charcoal and 800-900 minutes for steam-treated charcoal.
When the Gas Defense Service tried to activate anthracite on a large scale in
vertical gas retorts at Derby, Connecticut, the attempt was a failure. They carbonized at
900° and then turned on the steam with the result that the steam-treated coal had a
slightly greater density than the untreated, which was wrong, and had a shiny
appearance in parts with roughened deposits in other parts. When the hydrocarbons
are decomposed at high temperatures, the resulting carbon is somewhat graphitic, is
itself inactive, is not readily oxidized, and impairs or prevents the activation of the
normal carbon upon which it is deposited. This discovery made it possible to treat
anthracite successfully. The conditions must be such as to minimize high temperature
cracking, to carry off or oxidize the hydrocarbons as fast as formed, and especially to
prevent the gases from cooler portions of the treater coming in contact with carbon at a
much higher temperature. With these facts in mind, a plant was built at Springfield
which produced 10 tons a day of 150-300 minute charcoal from raw anthracite. This
was one-third of the total production at that time and was mixed with the nut charcoal
made at Astoria, thereby preventing an absolute shortage of canister-filling material in
October, 1918.
It was next shown that the cocoanut charcoal fines resulting from grinding and
screening losses and amounting to 50 per cent of the product, could be very finely
ground, mixed with a binder, and baked like ordinary carbon products. By avoiding gas-
treating in the bake, the resulting charcoal is nearly as good as that from the original
shell. A recovery plant for treating the cocoanut fines was built at Astoria. The product
was called “Coalite.”
The great advantage of cocoanut shell as a source of charcoal is that it is very
dense and consequently it is possible to convert it into a mass having a large number
of fine pores, whereas a less dense wood, like cedar, will necessarily give more larger
pores, which are of relatively little value. The cocoanut charcoal is also pretty resistant
to oxidation which seems to make selective oxidation a more simple matter. By
briquetting different woods, it is possible to make charcoal from them which is nearly
equal to that from cocoanut shell.
By heating lamp-black with sulfur and briquetting, it was possible to make a
charcoal having approximately the same service time as cocoanut charcoal. A charcoal
was made by emulsifying carbon black with soft pitch, which gave the equivalent of
400 minutes against chloropicrin before it had been steam-treated. This looked so
good that the plans were drawn for making a thousand pounds or more of this product
at Washington to give it a thorough test. This was not done on account of the cessation
of all research work. The possible advantage of this product was the more uniform
distribution of binder.
Instead of steam-treating anthracite coal direct, it was also pulverized, mixed with a
binder, and baked into rods which were then ground and activated with steam. The
resulting material, which was known as Carbonite, had somewhat less activity than the
lamp-black mixes but was very much cheaper. A plant was built to bake 40 tons a day
of this material, which would yield 10 tons a day of active carbon after allowing for
grinding losses and steam treatment. The plant was guaranteed to furnish an
absorbent having a life of 600 minutes against chloropicrin.

German Charcoal
After the Armistice was signed, Chaney took up the question of how the Germans
made their charcoal. The German charcoal was made from coniferous wood and was
reported to be as good as ours, in spite of the fact that they were using inferior
materials. Inside of a month Chaney had found out how the German charcoal was
made, had duplicated their material, and had shown that it was nothing like as good as
our charcoal. The Germans impregnated the wood with zinc chloride, carbonized at red
heat, and washed out most of the zinc chloride. When this zinc chloride was found in
the German charcoal, it was assumed that it had been added after the charcoal had
been made. It was therefore dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, thereby improving
the charcoal against chloropicrin. The German charcoal was then tested as it stood,
including the fines, against American charcoal, 8 to 14 mesh. The most serious error,
however, was in testing only against a high concentration of chloropicrin. The German
charcoal contains relatively coarse pores which condense gases at high concentrations
very well but which do not absorb gases strongly at low concentrations. The result was
that the German charcoal was rated as being four or five times as good as it really
was.
 German Charcoal. ×200.

Fig. 73.—Charcoal from Spruce Wood.

Comparison of Charcoal
The following table shows a comparison of charcoals from different sources. The
method of activation was identical and the times of treatment were those approximately
giving the highest service time. The results against chloropicrin, therefore, represent
roughly the relative excellence of the charcoal obtainable from various raw materials,
using this method of activation:

Comparison of Various Active Charcoals Activated in

Laboratory
Steam Accelerated
Apparent
Treatment Chloropicrin
Density
at 900° Test Results
Base
Weight
Material Weight Service
Primary Activated Time Loss
Absorbed Time
Carbon Carbon Min. Per
Per Cent Min.
Cent
Sycamore 0.158 0.080 18 53 41 7.3
Cedar 0.223 0.097 60 88 78 16.0
Mountain 0.420 0.236
mahogany 60 44 32 16.3

Ironwood 0.465 0.331 60 44 31 20.8

Brazil nut 0.520 0.316 120 71 46 32.2
Ivory nut 0.700 0.460 120 70 48 47.0
Cohune nut 0.659 0.502 120 48 51 53.4
Babassu 0.540 0.322
210 68 85 58.7
nut
Cocoanut 0.710 0.445 120 60 61 58.4
Cocoanut 0.710 0.417 180 75 72 64.4

Briquetted Materials
Sawdust 0.542 0.365 120 66 53 40.0
Carbon 0.769 0.444
240 64.3 53 50.5
black
Bituminous 0.789 0.430
165 61 58.3 46.8
coal
Anthracite 0.830 0.371
480 81 53 40.7
coal
 “In conclusion, it will be of interest to compare the charcoals
manufactured and used by the principal belligerent nations, both
with one another and with the above mentioned laboratory
preparations. Data on these charcoals are given in the following
table:

Comparison of Typical Production Charcoals

of the Principal Belligerent Nations
Service
Time
Country Apparent Corr.
Date Raw Material Remarks
Density to 8-
14
Mesh
Nov. Cocoanut Air
U. S. A. 0.60 10
1917 activated
June, Mixed nuts, Steam
U. S. A. 0.58 18
1918 etc. activated
Nov. Cocoanut Steam
U. S. A. 0.51 34
1918 activated
Wood Long
England 1917 0.27 6
distillation
England Aug. Peach 0.54 16
1918 stones,
etc.
France 1917-18 Wood 0.23 2
Wood Chemical
and
Germany Early ? 3
steam
treatment
Wood Chemical
June, and
Germany 0.25 33
1917 steam
treatment
 Service
Time
Country Apparent Corr.
Date Raw Material Remarks
Density to 8-
14
Mesh
Wood Chemical
June, and
Germany 0.24 42
1918 steam
treatment
“It is at once evident that the service time of most of these
charcoals is very much less than was obtained with the laboratory
samples. However, in the emergency production of this material
on a large scale, quantity and speed were far more important than
the absolute excellence of the product. It will be noted, for
instance, that the cocoanut charcoal manufactured by the United
States, even in November, 1918, was still very much inferior to
the laboratory samples made from the same raw material. This
was not because a very active charcoal could not be produced on
a large scale, for even in May, 1918, the possibility of
manufacturing a 50-min. charcoal on a large scale had been
conclusively demonstrated, but this activation would have
required two or three times as much raw material and five times
as much apparatus as was then available, due to the much longer
time of heating, and the greater losses of carbon occasioned
thereby.
“It should furthermore be pointed out that the increase in the
chloropicrin service time of charcoal from 18 to 50 min. does not
represent anything like a proportionate increase in its value under
field service conditions. This is partly due to the fact that the
increased absorption on the high concentration tests is in reality
due to condensation in the capillaries, which, as has been pointed
out, is not of much real value. More important than this, however,
is the fact that most of the important gases used in warfare are
not held by adsorption only, but by combined adsorption and
chemical reaction, for which purpose an 18-min. charcoal is, in
general, almost as good as a 50-min. charcoal.”

Typical Absorptive Values of Different Charcoals

Against Various Gases