Lecture Module no.

2
Structural forms and Nature of Loads
Sources:
Structural Analysis Fourth Edition – Kassimali
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Prepared By:

AdU Civil Engineering Faculty

 INTRODUCTION
The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to withstand
all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose throughout its
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intended life span. In designing a structure, an engineer must, therefore, consider all the
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loads that can realistically be expected to act on the structure during its planned life span.

The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be grouped according to
their nature and source into three classes:

(1) Dead loads due to the weight of the structural system itself and any other material
permanently attached to it;
(2) Live loads, which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure; and
(3) Environmental loads, which are caused by environmental effects, such as wind, snow,
and earthquakes.
 DEAD LOAD
Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act
permanently on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system
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itself and of all other material and equipment permanently attached to the structural
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system.
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DEAD LOAD

After the structure has been analyzed and the member

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sizes determined, the actual weight is computed by using the

member sizes and the unit weights of materials. The actual
weight is then compared to the assumed weight, and the
design is revised if necessary. The unit weights of some
common construction materials are given in Table. The
weights of permanent service equipment, such as heating and
air-conditioning systems, are usually obtained from the
manufacturer.
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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DEAD LOAD
DEAD LOAD SAMPLE COMPUTATION:
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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DEAD LOAD
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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DEAD LOAD
 LIVE LOADS

Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the
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structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on the structure that
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are not dead loads, including environmental loads, such as snow loads or wind loads.
However, since the probabilities of occurrence for environmental loads are different from
those due to the use of structures, the current codes use the term live loads to refer only to
those variable loads caused by the use of the structure.
 LIVE LOADS
Live Loads for Buildings
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Live loads for buildings are usually specified as uniformly

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distributed surface loads in kilopascals. Minimum floor live loads

for some common types of buildings are given in Table. For a
comprehensive list of live loads for various types of buildings and
for provisions regarding roof live loads, concentrated loads, and
reduction in live loads, the reader is referred to the ASCE 7
Standard.
 LIVE LOAD (IMPACT)
When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than those
that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually. The dynamic
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effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in the structure is referred to as
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impact. To account for the increase in stress due to impact, the live loads expected to cause
such a dynamic effect on structures are increased by certain impact percentages, or
impact factors. The impact percentages and factors, which are usually based on past
experience and/or experimental results, are specified in the building codes.
 ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD (WIND LOAD)
Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes of wind
loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,
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obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the
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vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.

 ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD (WIND LOAD)
Although the procedures described in the various codes for the estimation of wind loads
usually vary in detail, most of them are based on the same basic relationship between the
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wind speed V and the dynamic pressure q induced on a flat surface normal to the wind
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flow, which can be obtained by applying Bernoulli’s principle and is expressed as

(ρ) is the mass density of the air. Using the unit weight of air of
12.02 N/m3 and wind speed V in m/s, the dynamic pressure q in
N/m2 is given by
 ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD (EARTHQUAKE LOAD)
An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface. Although the
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ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions during an earthquake,
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the magnitude of the vertical component of ground motion is usually small and does not
have a significant effect on most structures. It is the horizontal component of ground
motion that causes structural damage and that must be considered in designs of
structures located in earthquake-prone areas.
 ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD (HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE)
Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as
well as coastal structures partially or fully submerged in
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water must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure.

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Hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the submerged surface

of the structure, with its magnitude varying linearly with
height, as shown in Figure. Thus, the pressure at a point
located at a distance h below the surface of the liquid can
be expressed as

in which “gamma” = unit weight of the liquid.

 ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD (SOIL PRESSURE)
Underground structures, basement walls and floors, and retaining
walls must be designed to resist soil pressure. The vertical soil
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pressure is given by
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with “gamma” now representing the unit weight of the soil. The
lateral soil pressure depends on the type of soil and is usually
considerably smaller than the vertical pressure. For the portions
of structures below the water table, the combined effect of
hydrostatic pressure and soil pressure due to the weight of the
soil, reduced for buoyancy, must be considered.
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT STRUCTURAL FORMS

Structures are assemblages of elements used to support a load or contain and protect
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things. In many cases, the structure supports only itself (i.e., the load is the weight of the
materials), and in other cases the structure supports itself and additional loads (e.g., a
crane). Whether creating a museum exhibit, large sculpture, 3-D billboard, or temporary
shelter, a basic understanding of structure is essential to successful design. There are three
basic forms of structures: mass structures, frame structures, and shell structures.
 MASS STRUCTURES
MASS STRUCTURE consist of materials that are put together to form a solid structure.
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Their strength is a function of the weight and hardness of the materials. Examples of
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mass structures include dams, adobe walls, and mountains. Mass structures are robust in
that small amounts of the structure can be lost with little effect on the strength of the
structure, but are limited in application to relatively simple designs. Consider mass
structures for barriers, walls, and small shelters— especially in primitive environments
where building skills and materials are limited.
 FRAME STRUCTURES
FRAME STRUCTURES consist of struts joined to form a framework. Their strength is a
function of the strength of the elements and joints, and their organization. Often a cladding
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or skin is added to the frame, but this rarely adds strength to the structure. Examples of
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frame structures include most modern homes, bicycles, and skeletons. Frame structures are
relatively light, flexible, and easy to construct. The most common frame configuration is the
assembly of struts into triangles, which are then assembled to form larger structures.
Consider frame structures for most large design applications.
 SHELL STRUCTURES
consist of a thin material that wraps around to contain a volume. They maintain their form and support loads
without a frame or solid mass inside. Their strength is a function of their ability to distribute loads throughout the
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whole structure. Examples of shell structures include bottles, airplane fuselages, and domes. Shell structures are
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effective at resisting static forces that are applied in specific ways, but are poor at resisting dynamic forces. For
example, an egg effectively resists loads that are applied to its top and bottom, but collapses quickly when the
loads are applied to its sides. Shell structures are lightweight and economical with regards to material, but are
complex to design and vulnerable to catastrophic failure if the structure has imperfections or is damaged. Consider
shell structures for containers, small cast structures, shelters, and designs requiring very large and lightweight
spans. Large shell structures should generally be reinforced by additional support elements to stabilize against
buckling.