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Instant Download Ebook PDF Advanced Pediatric Assessment Second Edition 2nd Edition PDF Scribd
Instant Download Ebook PDF Advanced Pediatric Assessment Second Edition 2nd Edition PDF Scribd
Instant Download Ebook PDF Advanced Pediatric Assessment Second Edition 2nd Edition PDF Scribd
N
Pediatric
Assessment
and their clinical significance at the end of each assessment chapter, updated clinical practice guidelines for common medical
conditions, updated screening and health promotion guidelines, and summaries in each chapter.
Based on a body-system framework, which highlights developmental and cultural considerations, the guide emphasizes the
physical and psychosocial principles of growth and development, with a focus on health promotion and wellness. Useful
features include a detailed chapter on appropriate communication techniques to be used when assessing children of different
ages and developmental levels and chapters on assessment of child abuse and neglect and cultural considerations during
assessment. The text presents nearly 300 photos and helpful tables and boxes depicting a variety of commonly encountered
pediatric physical findings, and sample medical record documentation in each chapter.
11 W. 42nd Street
New York, NY 10036-8002
www.springerpub.com 9 780826 161758
Second Edition
Contents
Pediatric health care experts agree that the health adolescents, and continues with a brief survey of
care needs of children are vastly different from growth and development, a discussion of the com-
those of adults. From infancy through adoles- munication skills required to work with children,
cence, a child experiences many dramatic physi- a focus on the parent–child relationship, and gen-
ologic, psychosocial, developmental, and cognitive eral strategies for obtaining the child health his-
changes. Thus, it is critical for the pediatric health tory and performing the physical examination.
care provider to possess specialized knowledge and Chapter 2 provides a detailed overview of the
skills to accurately assess children during health general principles of growth and development,
and illness. Concepts related to the health assess- including a discussion of selected developmental
ment and physical examination of adults cannot be theorists. Both physical and psychosocial growth
universally applied to the care of children; children and development are discussed, including gross
are not simply little adults. and fine motor, language, psychosocial, and cog-
The goal of the second edition of Advanced nitive development. Detailed tables list normal
Pediatric Assessment mirrors that of the first: to growth and developmental milestones from birth
emphasize the uniqueness of children when con- through adolescence, as well as developmental
ducting a health assessment and to show that, red flags and selected developmental screening
depending on the child’s age and developmental tools. Chapters 3, 4, and 5, which are devoted to
stage, the approach to obtaining the history and communication with children, family assessment,
physical assessment can vary dramatically. Because and cultural assessment of children and families,
this book focuses only on infants, children, and complete the unit.
adolescents, the physical, psychosocial, develop- Unit II, “The Pediatric History and Physical
mental, and cultural aspects of child assessment Examination,” focuses on obtaining subjective
can be addressed in greater detail than is possible and objective data specific to the child health
in across-the-life-span textbooks. Consequently, examination. Chapter 6 is devoted to the pedi-
this book has a dual focus: to serve not only as a atric health history and Chapter 7 to assessing
course textbook in advanced practice nursing pro- the safety of the child’s environment. Chapter
grams, but also as a reference for practicing pediat- 8 details the specifics of the pediatric physical
ric health care providers. examination, including assessment techniques;
The second edition of Advanced Pediatric developmental approaches to examining infants,
Assessment is divided into four units. Unit I, children, and adolescents; and sequencing of the
“The Foundations of Child Health Assessment,” physical examination according to age and devel-
comprises five chapters that provide readers with opmental level. Chapter 9 focuses on the well-
the foundational approach to health assessment child examination and Chapter 10 on assessment
of the pediatric patient. Chapter 1 begins with of nutritional status in the pediatric patient.
a general overview of the anatomic and physi- Chapter 11 is devoted to an in-depth discussion
ologic differences among infants, children, and of assessment of the neonate.
x Preface
The remaining 11 chapters in the unit focus on the knowledge gained from all previous chapters in
physical assessment by body system. Each chapter the text, and using this knowledge in an organized
is organized as follows: manner to conduct a full, age-appropriate, head-
QQ Anatomy and Physiology to-toe pediatric health examination.
QQ Developmental Considerations Other noteworthy features of the second e dition
QQ Cultural, Ethnic, and Racial Considerations include all-new illustrations and photos; summary
QQ Health History boxes listing notable clinical findings, which con-
QQ Physical Examination clude chapters in Units II and III; and updated clin-
QQ Common Diagnostic Studies ical practice guidelines reflecting the most recent
QQ Documentation of Findings recommendations. An added feature with this
It is hoped that this uniform presentation of edition is a separate Study Guide to Accompany
content will help the reader to think in a systematic Advanced Pediatric Assessment, Second Edition: A
and organized manner. Case Study and Critical Thinking Review, which
Unit III, “Assessment of Child Mental Health can be purchased separately or with this textbook
and Welfare,” includes two chapters focusing on as a two-book set.
psychosocial issues. Chapter 23 surveys mental Child health care is both complicated and chal-
disorders in children, including screening for addic- lenging, but every child deserves the safest, most
tion, depression, and suicidal ideation. Chapter 24 comprehensive, culturally sensitive health care pos-
specifically addresses various types of child abuse sible. It is my sincere hope that Advanced Pediatric
and neglect, and peer victimization. Assessment, Second Edition, will assist both stu-
Unit IV, “Synthesizing the Components of dents and practicing pediatric health care providers
the Pediatric Health Assessment,” is a new addi- to achieve this goal.
tion to the second edition of Advanced Pediatric
Assessment. Its sole chapter is devoted to integrating Ellen M. Chiocca
Acknowledgments
It was both an honor and privilege to write the I sincerely appreciate the work of my chapter
second edition of my book for Springer Publishing contributors for the first edition, and I thank them
Company. I am especially grateful to the wonder- for sharing their knowledge and expertise. Thank
ful Elizabeth Nieginski, Executive Editor, who never you Diane Boyer, Patricia Sullivan, Shirley Butler,
ceases to amaze me with her kindness, patience, sup- Pat Hummel, Gloria Jacobson, Lisa Kohr, and
portiveness, and diplomacy. I am especially thankful Joanne Kouba.
for her never-ending encouragement, and for work- Thank you so much to my intensely adored,
ing so hard to keep me moving across the finish line. beloved, and precious daughter Isabella, whom I love
An enormous thanks goes to my brilliant more each day. Thank you, Bella, for being so under-
photographer, Aris Michaels, who is endlessly standing, yet again, while I worked on this project.
calm and tolerant, kind, talented, and creative. A And last, but not least, I want to thank my won-
very special thank you is due to Christine Michaels, derful husband Ralph Zarumba, whom I love so
Paul Chiocca, Elizabeth Gariti, and Claudia Brown dearly, resolutely, and infinitely. Thank you from
for their hard work and patience during the photo the bottom of my heart for providing me with con-
shoot. And a special thank you to Lucas Michaels, tinuous encouragement, support, and love through-
who was especially patient, accommodating, and out this process, as well as doing far beyond your
such a good sport. fair share around the house while I wrote into the
Thank you to Claire Sorenson for her help with wee hours. I am eternally grateful to you not just
Chapter 7. for this, but for all that you are.
Share
Advanced Pediatric Assessment: Second Edition
U N I T
I
THE FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD
HEALTH ASSESSMENT
C H A P T E R
1
Child Health Assessment:
An Overview
Children experience dramatic changes in their bodies and mechanisms. This helps to explain both the varied physi-
minds, beginning at birth and continuing through adoles- ologic responses seen in infants and children, and why
cence. Because of these anatomic, physiologic, and devel- infants and young children absorb, distribute, metabolize,
opmental changes, it is crucial for the pediatric health and excrete drugs very differently than adults. These fac-
care provider to possess specialized knowledge and skills tors affect the frequency, timing, and length of pediatric
to accurately assess infants, children, and adolescents health care visits. Table 1.1 presents an overview of the
during health and illness. Concepts related to health major anatomic, physiologic, metabolic, and immuno-
assessment and physical examination of the adult patient logic differences among infants, children, and adults,
cannot be applied to children; they are not simply little and the corresponding clinical implications of these
adults. In order for the health care of children to be safe, differences.
thorough, and developmentally appropriate, the pedi-
atric health care provider must ensure that child health
assessment is based on a thorough knowledge of pediatric GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
anatomy and physiology, pathophysiology, pharmacol-
ogy, and child development. The child’s social situation, The physical, psychosocial, and cognitive aspects of
the community in which he or she lives, and the family’s child development are interrelated key indicators of
culture are other important components that should be the child’s overall health and must be assessed at every
included. In addition, when working with children of dif- health care visit. The assessment of a child’s growth
ferent ages and developmental levels, effective, develop- and development helps to evaluate the child’s physi-
mentally appropriate communication skills are essential. cal growth and progress toward maturity, can pro-
These skills are used to build rapport with children, their vide clues to health conditions that impeded physical
families, or caregivers, as well as to provide clear and growth, shows cognitive delays, and may point to abuse
objective documentation of assessment findings. or neglect. Normal growth and development occurs in
a predictable sequence but at a variable rate and pace.
Deviations from this pattern may signify an abnormal-
ANATOMIC AND PHYSIOLOGIC DIFFERENCES IN ity, making it essential for the provider to be familiar
INFANTS AND CHILDREN with normal developmental milestones and children’s
growth patterns, and to monitor these trends over time.
In order to recognize abnormalities found during the In this text, infants, children, and adolescents are
physical examination, the pediatric health care provider arranged into six age groups: neonates, infants, tod-
must have strong knowledge of the anatomic and physi- dlers, preschoolers, school-aged children, and adoles-
ologic differences between infants, children, and adults. cents. The corresponding ages are:
Because each body system is immature until at least age 2 QQ Neonates: birth to 28 days
years, the provider must adjust his or her expectations for QQ Infants: 1 month to 1 year
physical findings according to the child’s age. In addition, QQ Toddlers: 1 to 3 years
an infant or young child’s physical condition can go from QQ Preschoolers: 3 to 6 years
stable to life-threatening very quickly because of imma- QQ School-aged children: 6 to 12 years
ture body systems that lack fully developed feedback QQ Adolescents: 12 to 21 years
4 UNIT I • THE FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD HEALTH ASSESSMENT
TABLE 1.1 Anatomic and Physiologic Differences in Infants, Children, and Adolescents
Skin Thin stratum corneum Infants; Blood vessels are visible through newborn’s skin,
toddlers until causing ruddy appearance; increased absorption
approximately age of topical drugs; skin burns easily; prone to
2–3 years, when hypothermia and dehydration
skin becomes
thicker because of
daily friction and
pressure
Epidermis is more loosely bound Infants; children Skin layers separate readily, causing easy
to dermis (Ball, Bindler, & Cowen, through early blistering (e.g., adhesive tape removal);
2012) school age susceptible to superficial bacterial skin infections
and more likely to have associated systemic
symptoms with some skin infections; skin is a
poor barrier, contributing to fluid loss
Sebaceous glands are active in Neonates; Milia develop in neonates; acne develops in
neonate because of maternal adolescents adolescents
androgen levels (Hockenberry &
Wilson, 2011) and again at puberty
because of hormonal changes (Ball
et al., 2012)
Eccrine glands are functional at Infants; toddlers Palmar sweating occurs; helps to assess pain in
birth; full function does not occur until preschool neonate
until age 2–3 years (Vernon, Brady, age
Barber Starr, & Petersen-Smith,
2013)
Apocrine glands are nonfunctional Adolescents Function of apocrine glands at puberty causes
until puberty (Vernon et al., 2013) body odor
Production of melanin reaches adult Infants; children Affects assessment of skin color as child ages
levels by adolescence (Ball et al., until adolescence
2012)
Greater body surface area Infants; toddlers Increases exposure to topically applied drugs;
until age 2 years may result in toxicity in some instances
Head and neck Head is proportionately larger than Infants; toddlers Larger, heavier head increases potential for
other body structures because until age 2 years injury during falls or collisions when body is
of cephalocaudal development. thrown forward, resulting in a high incidence
Head circumference exceeds chest of head trauma in this age group
circumference from birth to age
2 years
Cranial sutures are not fully fused at Infants: Posterior Full anterior fontanelle can indicate increased
birth to accommodate brain growth fontanelle should intracranial pressure; sunken anterior fontanelle
be closed by can indicate dehydration
2 months; anterior
fontanelle should
be closed by
12–18 months
CHAPTER 1 • CHILD HEALTH ASSESSMENT: AN OVERVIEW 5
TABLE 1.1 Anatomic and Physiologic Differences in Infants, Children, and Adolescents (continued )
Short neck and prominent occiput Infants; children Increased potential for injury in infants and
(Bissonnette et al., 2011). Neck until age toddlers; airway structures are closer together;
lengthens at age 3–4 years 3–4 years affects intubation technique in children younger
(Hockenberry & Wilson, 2011) than preschool age
Eyes Eye structure and function are Neonates; infants Affects expected findings in physical
immature at birth; pupils are small examination
with poor reflexes until about 5
months of age; transient nystagmus
and esotropia are common in
neonates younger than 6 months of
age (Ball et al., 2012); irises have
little pigment until 6–12 months of
age (Hockenberry & Wilson, 2011)
Vision is undeveloped at birth; Infants; children Affects expected findings in and approach to
by age 4 months, infants can until school age physical examination and vision screening
fixate on an image with both eyes
simultaneously; ability to distinguish
color begins by age 8 months;
children are farsighted until about
age 6–7 years (Ball
et al., 2012)
Ears Newborns can hear loud sounds at Neonates Newborns react to loud sounds with startle
90 decibels (Hockenberry & Wilson, reflex; they react to low-frequency sounds
2011) by quieting; differences affect techniques for
hearing assessment
Short, wide eustachian tube, lying in Infants; Fluid in middle ear cannot easily drain into
horizontal plane toddlers until pharynx; prone to middle ear infections and
approximately age effusions
2 years
External auditory canal is short and Infants; toddlers Pinna should be pulled down and back to
straight with upward curve until age 3 years perform otoscopic examination
External auditory canal shortens and Preschoolers aged Pinna should be pulled up and back to perform
straightens as child grows 3 years and older otoscopic examination
Mouth, nose, throat, Saliva is minimal at birth; increases Infants Increased aspiration risk; presence of drooling
and sinuses by age 3 months; salivary secretions does not signify teething
increase after age 3 months
(Hockenberry & Wilson, 2011)
Deciduous teeth should erupt Infants; toddlers Delay may signify hypothyroidism or poor
between ages 6 and 24 months nutrition
Obligate nose breathers Neonates; infants Nasal passages are easily obstructed by
until age secretions; affects airway patency and ability
4–5 months to feed
(continued )
6 UNIT I • THE FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD HEALTH ASSESSMENT
TABLE 1.1 Anatomic and Physiologic Differences in Infants, Children, and Adolescents (continued )
Airway and nasal passages are small Infants; children Increased potential for airway obstruction and
and narrow; larynx is narrowest at through age infection; endotracheal intubation difficult,
level of cricoid cartilage (subglottis) 5 years and accidental extubation more likely with
(Bissonnette et al., 2011); 1 mm of (Bissonnette movement (Bissonnette et al., 2011)
edema can narrow an infant’s airway et al., 2011)
by 60% (Bissonnette et al., 2011)
Large tongue in proportion to mouth Infants; children Potential for airway obstruction is greater
size (Bissonnette et al., 2011) until age
8–12 years when
mandible has a
growth peak
Proportionately large soft palate and Infants; Any soft tissue swelling increases the risk for
large amount of soft tissue in the children until airway obstruction
airway approximately
age 11–12 years
(Bissonnette
et al., 2011)
Ability to coordinate swallowing and Neonates; infants Increased risk of aspiration and
breathing is immature (Bissonnette until age gastroesophageal reflux (GER) (Bissonnette
et al., 2011) 4–5 months et al., 2011)
Proportionately large, floppy, and Infants; children Increased potential for airway obstruction with
long epiglottis (Bissonnette through school swelling; endotracheal intubation difficult
et al., 2011) age
Maxillary and ethmoid sinuses are Infants; toddlers Often early sites of infection; can be visualized
small and undeveloped (Hockenberry until age 3 years on radiograph by age 1–2 years (John & Brady,
& Wilson, 2011) 2013)
Sphenoid and frontal sinuses become School-aged Sphenoid sinuses become sites of infection by
visible on radiograph at children; age 3–4 years; frontal sinuses by age 6–10 years
5–6 years of age (John & Brady, 2013) adolescents (John & Brady, 2013)
Thorax and lungs Hypoxic and hypercapnic drives are Neonates; infants Periodic breathing (i.e., apnea £ 10 seconds)
not fully developed (Bissonnette until age without cyanosis or bradycardia is within normal
et al., 2011) 3 months limits because of neurologic immaturity of
respiratory drive. Central apnea lasts longer than
20 seconds and is outside normal limits
Chest circumference should closely Infants; toddlers Assists provider in assessing normal growth
match head circumference from
age 6 months to 2 years; chest
circumference should exceed
head circumference at age 2 years
(Hockenberry & Wilson, 2011)
Easily compressible cartilage of Infants; toddlers Limits tidal volume; lowers functional residual
chest wall (Bissonnette et al., 2011) until age 2 years capacity; rib cage is flexible and provides
with very little musculature little support for lungs; negative intrathoracic
pressure is poorly maintained, causing increased
work of breathing (Bissonnette et al., 2011);
soft thoracic cage collapses more easily during
labored breathing
CHAPTER 1 • CHILD HEALTH ASSESSMENT: AN OVERVIEW 7
TABLE 1.1 Anatomic and Physiologic Differences in Infants, Children, and Adolescents (continued
(continued))
Rounded thorax in infancy; ribs lie in Infants; toddlers Limits tidal volume (Bissonnette et al., 2011);
horizontal plane; xiphoid process is until age 3 years ribs are flexible and provide very little support
moveable (Bissonnette et al., 2011) for lungs; negative intrathoracic pressure is
poorly maintained, causing increased work of
breathing
Alveoli are thick walled at birth; Infants; children Affects gas exchange; oxygen consumption
infants have only 10% of the total through age in neonates is almost twice that in adults
number of alveoli found in the adult 8 years (Bissonnette et al., 2011); accounts for increased
lung; over the child’s first 8 years of respiratory rate; children with pulmonary
life, alveoli increase in number and damage or disease at birth can regenerate
size (Bissonnette new pulmonary tissue and may have normal
et al., 2011) pulmonary function; contributes to high number
of respiratory diagnoses when infant or child
is acutely ill; respiratory failure is common
in premature infants because of surfactant
deficiency, causing alveolar collapse (Bissonnette
et al., 2011)
Smaller lung volume; tidal volume is Infants; children High respiratory rate, which decreases to adult
proportional to child’s weight (7–10 until age 10 years value by adolescence
mL/kg) (Ball
et al., 2012)
Mucous membranes lining the Infants; toddlers Potential for airway edema is greater, causing
respiratory tract are loosely attached potential airway obstruction; more respiratory
and very vascular secretions are produced, increasing the potential
for obstruction or aspiration
Proportionately small and Infants; children Great potential for airway obstruction, mucus,
narrow oropharynx; trachea is until adolescence and foreign body; resistance to airflow; air is
proportionately shorter and has a warmed and humidified much less effectively
small diameter (Ball
et al., 2012); tracheal cartilage
is elastic and collapses easily;
the trachea continues to grow in
diameter until age 5 years (Ball
et al., 2012) and triples in size
between birth and puberty
Right bronchus is significantly Children Breath sounds are loud and high in pitch; easily
shorter, wider, and more vertical beginning at age heard through thin chest wall; inhaled foreign
than left (John & Brady, 2013); 2 years bodies are easily aspirated into right bronchus
child’s trachea bifurcates at higher
level than adult’s (Ball
et al., 2012)
(continued )
8 UNIT I • THE FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD HEALTH ASSESSMENT
TABLE 1.1 Anatomic and Physiologic Differences in Infants, Children, and Adolescents (continued )
Tracheobronchial tree has large Infants; children Fast respiratory rate is needed to meet oxygen
amount of anatomic dead space through school requirements; child is at risk for respiratory
where gas exchange does not take age acidosis if lungs cannot remove carbon dioxide
place (Bissonnette et al., 2011) (CO2) quickly enough
Infants and children breathe using Infants; children Respirations may be inefficient when crying or
diaphragm and abdominal muscles until age 6 years with anything that restricts breathing, such as
(Ball et al., 2012) abdominal distention; child may retain CO2 as
a result, causing acidosis
Breathing becomes thoracic as in Children aged Respiratory rate decreases to near adult levels
the adult 8–10 years
Heart and With first breath at birth, pulmonary Neonates Increased pulmonary blood flow; low systemic
vasculature vascular resistance falls blood pressure (BP)
Left atrial pressure is greater than Neonates Foramen ovale closes within first hour of life
right atrial pressure
Increased arterial oxygen tension Neonates Ductus arteriosus closes about 10–15 hours
after birth; fibroses develop within 2–4 weeks of
age; systolic murmurs may be audible in the first
24–48 hours of life because of transition from
fetal circulation
Relatively horizontal position of Infants; children Heart sounds are easily audible because of
heart at birth becomes more vertical until age 7 years thin chest wall; apical pulse is heard at fourth
as child grows intercostal space to left of the midclavicular
line; apex reaches fifth intercostal space at the
midclavicular line by age 7 years; heart may
seem enlarged when percussed; displacement
of the apical pulse may indicate pneumothorax,
dextrocardia, or diaphragmatic hernia
Stroke volume is somewhat fixed Neonates; infants Poor compliance and reduced contractility
because of less muscular and poorly (Bissonnette et al., 2011)
developed left ventricle (Bissonnette
et al., 2011)
Resting cardiac output is high: Neonates; Cardiac output must be high in neonate and
300–400 mL/kg/min at birth and infants through infant to meet tissue oxygen demands; this is
200 mL/kg/min within a few months adolescents attained by increasing heart rate
(Bissonnette et al., 2011), decreasing
to 100 mL/kg/min by adolescence
(Bissonnette et al., 2011)
CHAPTER 1 • CHILD HEALTH ASSESSMENT: AN OVERVIEW 9
TABLE 1.1 Anatomic and Physiologic Differences in Infants, Children, and Adolescents (continued )
Cardiac output is heart-rate Neonates; children Heart rate is rapid in children; the younger the
dependent, not stroke-volume until late school child, the more rapid the heart rate because of
dependent (Bissonnette age; adolescents increased oxygen and energy needs for growth
et al., 2011) (Ball et al., 2012) and higher metabolism. The provider should
be familiar with age-specific norms for heart
rate; the pulse rises with fever and hypoxia;
tachycardia during sleep is abnormal
EKG readings differ from adult’s; Infants; young EKG changes reflect ongoing development of
heart rhythm varies more in children children myocardium (Bissonnette et al., 2011); sinus
than adults (Bissonnette et al., 2011) arrhythmia is within normal limits in children
and common in adolescence
Left ventricular muscle is Infants; children Radial pulse may not be palpable until age
undeveloped until age 6 years until school age 6 years; apical pulse should be taken until then;
the younger the child, the lower the BP; BP rises
as child matures in correlation with increased
blood volume and body weight, reaching adult
levels by adolescence
Innocent murmurs are common in Infants; Innocent murmurs are heard during systole;
children; may be present in up to preschool-aged they do not cause cyanosis, fatigue, shortness of
80% of children (Bissonnette children through breath, or failure to thrive
et al., 2011) adolescents
Abdomen Weak abdominal musculature; Infants; toddlers Liver and spleen are not well protected;
abdomen is protuberant in neonates contributes to “pot-bellied” appearance in
and is prominent in toddlers while infants and toddlers
standing but flat when supine
Abdomen is larger than chest in Infants; children Distended or scaphoid abdomen is indicative a
young children until age 4 years pathologic finding
Abdomen is cylindrical in shape Infants Peristalsis may be visible and may indicate a
pathologic finding such as pyloric stenosis
Abdominal contour changes to adult Preschool-aged Affects provider expectations during physical
shape by adolescence children to examination
adolescents
Stomach lies in a transverse plane Infants; toddlers Affects normal area for auscultation and
until age 2 years palpation during physical examination
Gastric pH is alkalotic at birth; Infants; toddlers Affects oral medication absorption; increases
gastric acid production slowly until age 2 years incidence of GER
increases to adult levels by age
2 years (Bissonnette et al., 2011)
(continued )
10 UNIT I • THE FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD HEALTH ASSESSMENT
TABLE 1.1 Anatomic and Physiologic Differences in Infants, Children, and Adolescents (continued )
Neonate has small stomach capacity Neonates; infants; Need for small feeding amounts at birth;
(approximately 60 mL); stomach toddlers increases incidence of GER
capacity reaches approximately 500
mL by toddler age (Ball et al., 2012)
Prolonged gastric emptying time Neonates; Affects absorption of nutrients and medications,
(6–8 hours) and transit time through infant: reaches increasing the chance of adverse side effects and
the small intestine (Guthrie, 2005) adult levels by toxicities
approximately
age 6–8 months
(Guthrie, 2005)
Length of small intestine is Infants; toddlers Child loses proportionately more water and
proportionately greater, with electrolytes in stool with diarrhea
greater surface area for absorption
relative to body size (Hockenberry &
Wilson, 2011)
Large intestine proportionately Infants Less water absorbed, explaining soft stools of
shorter with less epithelial lining infancy
(Ma & Dowell, 2012)
Pancreatic enzyme (e.g., amylase, Neonates; infants Varied bioavailability of drugs that may depend
lipase, trypsin) activity decreased at until age 4–6 on specific enzymes to aid in drug absorption;
birth (Ball et al., 2012) months (Ball enzymes not present in sufficient quantities to
et al., 2012) digest food fully
Liver and biliary Liver functionally immature at birth Neonates; infants Bilirubin is excreted in low concentrations in
glands (Bissonnette et al., 2011) (Ball et al., 2012) newborns; prothrombin levels in neonate are
only 20%–40% of adult levels, which affects
clotting; vitamin storage is inadequate, which
contributes to young children’s frequent
infectious illnesses; process of gluconeogenesis
is immature
Liver occupies more of abdominal Infants; children Affects normal area for palpation and
cavity than in adults; palpable at until adolescence percussion; organs are typically nonpalpable by
0.5–2.5 cm below the right costal school age; enlarged liver can indicate right-
margin in infants, 1–2 cm below sided heart failure
the right costal margin in toddlers
(Hockenberry & Wilson, 2011). Liver
reaches adult size and function by
adolescence
Decreased hepatic enzyme function Infants; children Enzyme systems for biotransformation of drugs
in young children (Bissonnette et al., until age are not fully developed, which affects drug
2011); drug enzyme systems mature 3–4 years dosing; infants and children metabolize drugs
at different rates more slowly than adults; can easily build up
toxic levels of drugs
Liver conjugation reactions are Neonates Jaundice; long drug half-lives (infants and children
impaired (Bissonnette et al., 2011) have short drug half-life) (Bissonnette et al., 2011)
CHAPTER 1 • CHILD HEALTH ASSESSMENT: AN OVERVIEW 11
TABLE 1.1 Anatomic and Physiologic Differences in Infants, Children, and Adolescents (continued )
Liver synthesizes and stores Neonates; infants May become hypoglycemic easily; hypoglycemia in
glycogen less effectively (Bissonnette until 1 year neonate can cause permanent neurologic damage;
et al., 2011) young children need to eat more frequently during
childhood (e.g., a.m. and p.m. snacks)
Maternal iron stores in liver are Neonates; infants Infant requires outside source of iron (e.g., iron
depleted by age 6 months until age drops, fortified cereal) beginning at age
6 months 6 months
Lower level of plasma albumin and Neonates; infants Protein binding of drugs is decreased in
globulin (Bissonnette et al., 2011); until age 1 year newborns; high levels of free drug remain in
endogenous compounds such as bloodstream, which can lead to toxic level of
bilirubin and free fatty acids are drug or neonatal coagulopathy; endogenous
already bound to albumin compounds (e.g., bilirubin) can also displace
a weakly bound drug; high loading doses of
protein-bound drugs may be needed in neonate.
Certain drugs (e.g., sulfonamides) can displace
bilirubin from albumin-binding sites, causing
kernicterus in the neonate
Lymphatics Lymph tissue is well-developed at Infants; children Potential for airway obstruction with upper
birth and reaches adult size by age through respiratory infections, chronic tonsillar or
6 years; it continues to grow until adolescence adenoidal swelling, or both; large tonsils and
age 10–12 years, when a maximum adenoids can make intubation difficult
size of approximately twice the
normal adult size is reached;
lymph tissue then rapidly declines
to normal adult size by end of
adolescence (Ball et al., 2012)
Spleen may be palpable 1–2 cm Infants; toddlers Affects approach to physical examination; spleen
below the left costal margin should be nonpalpable by preschool age
(Hockenberry & Wilson, 2011)
Blood Vitamin K–dependent clotting Neonates through Vitamin K is administered at birth to prevent
factors and platelet function are early infancy bleeding disorders in newborns
inefficient
Blood volume is weight dependent. Neonates Overhydration and dehydration occur more
Total circulating blood volume (mL quickly than in an adult; blood loss can cause
of blood per kg of body weight) is hypovolemic shock and anemia in infant or
greater than adult by 25%. Blood young child more quickly than in an adult
volume is highest in neonate
(80–90 mL/kg); in premature infants
approximately 105 mL/kg; normal
adult values are 70–80 mL/kg
(Bissonnette et al., 2011)
At birth, 70%–90% of hemoglobin is Neonates; infants HbF has higher affinity for oxygen than adult
fetal hemoglobin (HbF) (Bissonnette until age hemoglobin (HbA); protects red blood cells from
et al., 2011, 2005) 4 months sickling in those with sickle cell disease; oxygen
saturation curve is left-shifted for HbF; oxygen
is not delivered as readily to tissues; HbF is
replaced by HbA by age 4 months
(continued )
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VERRADERLIJKE ROOK!
„Z’n puist?” vraagt Piet nog, maar de trein is in aantocht en rolt met
donderend geweld de stationskap binnen.
„Laten we ons verdeelen ieder bij een uitgang,” stelt Karel voor. En
juist wil het troepje zich splitsen, als Puckie hard schreeuwt:
„Ik zie ’m, daar heb je ’m, daar heb je ’m!”
Ja, daar zijn ze, hij ziet ze staan z’n oude makkers, alle zes, wat een
verrassing! Hij had wel over de hoofden van de menschen heen
willen springen om maar vlug bij hen te zijn en hij geeft een mijnheer
voor hem hevige duwen in den rug om hem aan te sporen wat
vlugger op te schieten. [184]
Zijn ouders komen een heel eind achteraan, ze vinden echter best,
dat Wim vooruit holt, want ze hebben de bende herkend, die hun
zoon komt verwelkomen en kunnen zich nu zijn ongeduld best
voorstellen.
Eindelijk is hij bij hen en komt aan ’t handen schudden schier geen
einde.
„Adi Wim,” gilt er een. „Hallo jong!” en dit gepaard met een stevigen
slag op z’n schouder.
En Ambro, die oorspronkelijk van plan was geweest, uit naam van
de bende een korte welkomstrede uit te spreken, is deze geheel
vergeten en doet nu niets dan om Wim heen dansen als een hond
die na langen tijd zijn baas terugziet.
„Hè, wat fijn, om weer bij jullie te zijn,” zegt hij. „Wat heb ik naar
Rotterdam verlangd! Allemaal nog dezelfde snuiten …” en lachend
inspecteert hij de bende.
„Da’s niks,” stelt Ambro hem gerust. „We peesen [185]zoo hard we
kunnen allemaal het hek door, zóó hard, dat die kerel in z’n hok ons
niet eens kan onderscheiden.”
„Eerst m’n ouwetjes vertellen, dat ik met jullie meega,” en Wim holt
met de jongens naar z’n ouders om hun te zeggen, dat ze hem
vooreerst niet zullen zien, want dat hij eerst met de jongens gaat
spelen.
„Op een draffie, jongens,” schreeuwt Ambro. „Vlug, hij zit binnen.”
Die „hij” is de dikke roodharige portier die als een Cerberus den tuin
bewaakte en er voor zorgde, dat geen vreemdeling dit heiligdom kon
binnentreden.
In vollen ren draafde de bende het hek binnen, Wim tusschen hen in
en de portier, die wel eenige bekende gezichten zag bleef rustig in
zijn kantoortje, terwijl de jongens, uit vrees terug geroepen te
worden, niet rustten voor zij buiten het bereik van den portier waren.
„Het is hier nog niks veranderd,” zei Wim toen het troepje hijgend stil
stond.
„Nou, dat zal je zien,” zegt Ambro. „De kamer is net aan kant.”
Bij dit gezegde kijken de jongens elkaar met een blik van
verstandhouding aan.
Vlak over den stoel hangt aan een boom een blauw schild, waarop
met vergulde letters de woorden prijken:
Toch bleef er nog een verrassing. Toen Wim met vereende krachten
op z’n versierde zetel was geheschen, zóó hardhandig, dat de
sparrenaalden hem om de ooren vlogen, haalde Ambro met
gewichtig gebaar een rol papier uit z’n zak en verzocht stilte.
Hij begon:
(Dit bevel werd stipt opgevolgd en nog nooit was een jubilaris op
zulk een zonderlinge wijze verwelkomd. En Ambro vervolgde:)
Na dit schoone vers, dat ook een verrassing voor de andere jongens
was, wilde Puckie, alles vergetend, een luid hoera aanheffen, dat
direct [188]door de jongens gesmoord werd met uitroepen als: hou je
kop, enz.
Intusschen maakt het feestvarken, nog geheel onder den indruk van
de opeenvolgende verrassingen het pakje open en ziet tot z’n groote
vreugde een prachtig zakmes, wel zoo mooi als het veel-benijde van
Ambro.
„Da’s een idee,” zegt Wim, blij, dat ze weer in hun gewone doen
komen. „Maar ik heb me pijp niet bij me,” zegt hij.
„Da’s niks,” zegt Paul. „Neem de mijne maar, die heb ik toch maar
voor ’t mooi.”
„Hij durft wel, maar hij wordt er zeeziek van en hij is ook een jaar
jonger dan wij,” zegt Ambro.
Uit een gat in den grond wordt nu een groote blikken trommel te
voorschijn gehaald. Dit is de provisiekast van de bende; daar
bewaren ze hun detective-romans, hun rookgerei en zelfs kwam het
voor, dat bij feestelijke gelegenheden er versche [189]kadetjes en
chocoladereepen in opgeborgen zijn.
Ambro haalde een lucifersdoosje uit zijn zak, waarin nog slechts één
lucifer zat.
—————————————
„Kijk es,” zegt de eene. „’t Lijkt wel of daar wat smeult in dat
bosschie.”
Voor een volwassen mensch was het bereiken van het Hol een
heele toer, vooral, zonder bekend te zijn met het door de jongens
gemaakte paadje, dat steeds zorgvuldig bij den ingang werd
afgesloten door enkele takken.
„Hoe komen we d’r uit, ze willen ons omsingelen. Maar stil, ik weet
wat! Puckie, Chris en ik zijn de vlugsten, wij kunnen ’t hardst
loopen.”
„Wij drieën kruipen in verschillende richting naar den rand van het
boschje en houden ons zoo goed als het gaat, verscholen. Dan
kijken we uit naar een gaatje om ’m door te piepen, liefst alle drie
tegelijk en dan hollen we uit alle macht den [191]tuin uit, laten we
afspreken dat we elkaar dan weer zien bij den telefoonpaal op de
Diergaardelaan.”
„Dat zal ik je zeggen. Jullie gaan plat op je buik liggen, dáár, een
eindje verder en houdt je doodstil. Wij verbergen jullie onder de
afgevallen bladeren; als je je maar koest houdt als wij drieën ’m
smeren, dan zullen ze vast denken dat er geen meer in het boschje
zit. Als alles dan veilig is, kunnen jullie ’m ook piepen. Maar gauw
wat, want we hebben weinig tijd.”
Het is Ambro.
„Wel heb ik me nou!” raast een der tuinlieden. „We worden effetjes
genomen, Piet.”
„Nou oppasse,” zegt een ander. „D’r kenne d’r nog best meer zijn.”
En met beide handen dringt hij de takken weg en baant zich een
weg door het dichtbegroeide boschje.
„Neen maar, kom nou d’r es kijke! Je mot ’t zien! ’t Laikent wel
kerremis. De heeren hebben een best plekkie uitgezocht.”
De tuinman staat nu vlak bij Karel en de volgende stap die hij doet,
is bovenop Karel’s hand; maar de jongen weet zich goed te houden
en de tuinman merkt niets.
„Je lijkt wel die soldaat uit ’t turfschip van Breda,” lachte Piet.
„Nou, kijk me poot es,” zegt Karel. „De striemen staan er op!”
Daar komt het viertal hijgend aan en wordt er juichend begroet door
de rest van de bende.
„Noem jij dat maar goed afloopen,” antwoordt Ambro met een
bedrukt gezicht.
„Nou,” zegt Piet. „Ze hebben ons toch maar niet te grazen gehad.”
„Ons niet,” zegt Ambro. „Maar ’t Hol, dàt hebben ze te grazen, dat
zijn we voor goed kwijt.”
„Ja, da’s waar,” zegt Paul. „Ze hebben ’t Hol ontdekt. We kunnen er
vast niet meer in.”
„Ik geloof er niks van,” zegt Karel. „Je zult zien, ’t Hol is voor goed
naar de haaien,” en hij voegt er spijtig aan toe: „Hadden we maar
niet zoo zitten dampen.”
„’t Is wel sneu,” zegt Wim. „Net den eersten dag dat ik er ben
ontnemen ze ons onze vergaderzaal.”
„Ja, ik zal me daar ’t Hol laten afkapen,” zegt deze en z’n oogen
schieten vuur.
„We moeten beginnen,” zegt Ambro, „met een week buiten het Hol te
blijven, want ik beloof je, dat ze op zullen letten. Als ze dan niets
meer van ons merken, zullen ze misschien denken, dat het maar
een tijdelijke schuilplaats was en geen [195]haan zal er meer naar
kraaien. Die week, zullen we samen komen onder de Hooge Brug,
maar dat is erg gevaarlijk en we mogen ons dan wel heel stil
houden, want daar kunnen ze ons al gauw ontdekken.”
„Neen, antwoordt Wim. „Ik word twee maanden thuis bijgewerkt voor
de H.B.S.”
„Nou,” zegt Ambro. „’t Kon wel es gebeuren, dat ik morgen puzzerde
en dan vind ik je wel onder de brug.”
„Mij best,” zegt Piet. „Maar als er zes mankeeren en juist wij met z’n
zessen, dan begrijp je wel, dat we voor ’n paar vrije middagen zuur
zijn.”
Toen n.l. de jongens dien morgen in het eerste les-uur waren, ging
plotseling de deur open en trad het Hoofd der school binnen,
gevolgd door een Inspecteur van politie en een agent.
Het ongewone van dit verschijnen bracht even groote stilte als
verbazing.
„Ze komen Ambro toch niet halen?” Intusschen komt het Hoofd der
school voor de klasse staan, geflankeerd door den Inspecteur en
den ridder van den Heiligen Hermandad.
Hij verzoekt den onderwijzer even de les te staken en richt zich tot
de jongens.
„We hebben een dief op school. Ik zeg een, misschien zijn ’t er meer.
We weten niet, in welke klas de dief zit. Wie dus iets van de zaak
afweet, moet ons nu helpen. De diefstal moet aan ’t licht komen. Ik
schaam me, dat op mijn school zooiets gebeurd is.”
De Inspecteur fluistert het Hoofd der school iets in het oor, waarop
deze den jongens gebiedt één voor één voor de klasse te komen.
[197]
Plotseling weerklinkt een hevig gesnik, dat uit de achterste bank der
klasse komt en een angstig-bevende stem roept:
„Jij Koos,” zegt streng het Hoofd. „Van jou had ik zooiets het
allerminst verwacht. Kom hier, en breng alles mee.”
Drie paar oogen kijken vol gestrengheid op den knaap voor hen
neer, en die van den agent maken den meesten indruk op hem.
Dan diept de schuldige uit zijn zakken een klein appeltje op, waarin
reeds een hap is gegeven.
Hij legt het met bevende vingers op tafel voor hem neer en snikt:
Voor een scherp opmerker is op het gezicht van den Inspecteur een
glimlach te bespeuren.
„Ga maar weer zitten, Koos,” zegt het Hoofd der school. „Het is hier
blijkbaar niet om jou te [198]doen. Wat je deed, is heel verkeerd, maar
daar spreken we elkaar nog nader over.”
Koos stapt, zichtbaar opgelucht, doch nog nasnikkend naar zijn bank
terug.
Puckie kan niet nalaten hem toe te roepen: „Je vergeet je appel!”
Hij wordt door de drie paar voornoemde oogen tot stilte gedwongen.
„Als jij ’t niet zegt, zal ik ’t je zeggen,” en terwijl hij zich voorover
buigt, haalt hij vlug het kastje leeg.
Hij legt den inhoud van het kastje op de bank, bestaande uit 15
pijpen kaneel en 12 dropveters.
„Aan wie?”
„Zeg ik niet.”
„Hier is ’t andere,” klinkt plotseling een stem, niet ver van den dader
af en de rest, bestaande uit dezelfde artikelen, wordt op het kastje
voor hem neergelegd.
Dan richt de Inspecteur zich weer tot het Hoofd en verzoekt hem, nu
alles terecht is, met de twee jongens het lokaal te verlaten.