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 Tom Garrison | Robert Ellis

ESSENTIALS OF

Oceanography
EIGHTH EDITION
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 About the Authors

Tom Garrison (PhD, Univer- granddaughters and a grandson, and a son who, along with his
sity of Southern California) fashionista wife, works in international trade. He and his fam-
was an inspiring professor ily lived in and around Newport Beach, California. To most,
of Marine Science for over he was known as Dr. Garrison, the inspiring and enthusiastic
47 years at Orange Coast Col- professor of marine science, but to a select few he was known
lege (OCC) in Costa Mesa, as Papa and will forever be remembered as a loving friend,
California, one of the largest grandpa, dad, and husband.
undergraduate marine science

Hank Schellengerhaut, Orange Coast College PR department

departments in the United
States. Dr. Garrison also held Robert Ellis (M.E.S.M., Uni-
an adjunct professorship at versity of California, Santa
the University of Southern Barbara) has been teaching
California. He was named the marine, earth, and environ-
country’s Outstanding Ma- mental science courses in
rine Educator by the National both the classroom and the
Marine Technology Society, field since 2000. He currently
was a founding member of serves as Assistant Professor
COSEE, wrote a regular col- in the Marine Science De-
umn for the journal Oceanog- partment at Orange Coast
raphy, and enjoyed writing for College in southern Califor-
National Geographic magazine. He was a winner of the presti- nia. When not on campus,
gious Salgo-Noren Foundation Award for Excellence in Col- Robert often helps to develop
lege Teaching, and in 1992, 1993, and 1997 was a recipient of and teach international field
the University of Texas NISOD award in recognition of his courses in marine science and
outstanding contributions in teaching and learning. In 1997, management in various parts
students and faculty at Orange Coast College elected him of the Caribbean, Central
Faculty Member of the Year. He served as a grants judge for the America, and South Pacific.
National Science Foundation in Washington, DC. Dr. Garrison His graduate work focused on
was an Emmy Award team participant as writer and science Marine Resource Manage-
advisor for the PBS syndicated Oceanus television series, and was ment at UC Santa Barbara,
writer and science advisor for The Endless Voyage, a set of televi- and he has participated in and
sion programs in oceanography completed in 2003. His widely managed research projects
used textbooks in oceanography and marine science are the col- and educational programs in
lege market’s best sellers. In 2009, the faculty of OCC selected many parts of the world. He
Dr. Garrison as the institution’s first Distinguished Professor, hopes to have the good for-
and in 2010, he was honored by the Association of Commu- tune to continue to travel and
nity College Trustees as the outstanding community college explore the world with his

©Robert Ellis
professor in western North America. wife, Katie, son, Kalen, and
His interest in the ocean dates from his earliest memories. daughter, Abigail.
As he grew up with a U.S. Navy admiral as a dad, the sub-
ject was hard to avoid! He had the good fortune to meet great
teachers who supported and encouraged this interest. Years as
a midshipman and commissioned naval officer continued the
marine emphasis; graduate school and 42 years of teaching
allowed him to pass his oceanic enthusiasm to more than
65,000 students in his career. He retired from full-time profes-
soring in 2011; however, he bothered OCC staff and students
on a regular basis right up until his final days.
Dr. Garrison traveled extensively and served as a guest
lecturer at the University of Hong Kong, the University
of Tasmania (Australia), and the National University of
Singapore. He was married to an astonishingly patient lady
for nearly 50 years, and had a daughter who teaches in a local
public school, a diligent son-in-law, three astonishingly cute

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
vi
 Brief Contents

1 An Ocean World 1

2 Plate Tectonics 17

3 The Ocean Floor 39

4 Water and Ocean Structure 65

5 Atmospheric Circulation 85

6 Ocean Circulation 103

7 Waves and Tides 125

8 Coasts 153

9 Life in the Ocean 177

10 Marine Communities 193

11 Uses and Abuses of the Ocean 223

Afterword 255

Appendix 1 Measurements and Conversions 256

Appendix 2 Geologic Time 260

Appendix 3 Absolute and Relative Dating 261

Appendix 4 Maps and Charts 262

Appendix 5 Latitude and Longitude, Time, and Navigation 266

Appendix 6 Working in Marine Science 269

Glossary 273

Index 290
Art2ur/Shutterstock.com

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vii
Contents

Sediment Age and Distribution, Oceanic Ridges, and

Terranes Are Explained by Plate Tectonics 34
1 An Ocean World 1 Chapter in Perspective 36
1.1 Earth Is an Ocean World 2 Terms and Concepts to Remember 37
1.2 Marine Scientists Use the Logic of Science to Study Questions 37
Study the Ocean 2
1.3 Stars Form Seas 4
1.4 Earth, Ocean, and Atmosphere Accumulated in 3 The Ocean Floor 39
Layers Sorted by Density 5
3.1 The Ocean Floor Is Mapped by Bathymetry 40
1.5 Understanding the Ocean: A Short History of
Echo Sounders Bounce Sound off the Seabed 40
Oceanography 5
Multibeam Systems Combine Many Echo Sounders 40
The Alexandrian Library 7
Satellites Can Be Used to Map Seabed Topography 40
Captain James Cook Was the First Marine Scientist 9
3.2 Ocean-Floor Topography Varies with Location 41
Matthew Maury Discovered Worldwide Patterns of Winds
and Ocean Currents 9 3.3 Continental Margins 42
The Challenger Expedition Was Organized from the First as Continental Shelves Are Seaward Extensions of
a Scientific Expedition 10 the Continents 43
1.6 Contemporary Oceanography Makes Use of Continental Slopes Connect Continental Shelves to the
Modern Technology 12 Deep-Ocean Floor 44
Submarine Canyons Form at the Junction between
New Ships for New Tasks 12
Continental Shelf and Continental Slope 45
Satellites Have Become Important Tools in Ocean
Continental Rises Form as Sediments Accumulate at the
Exploration 12
Base of the Continental Slope 47
Oceanographic Institutions Arose to Oversee Complex
Research Projects 13 3.4 The Topology of Deep-Ocean Basins Differs
from That of the Continental Margin 47
Chapter in Perspective 14
Oceanic Ridges Circle the World 48
Terms and Concepts to Remember 15
Hydrothermal Vents Are Hot Springs on Active
Study Questions 15 Oceanic Ridges 48
Abyssal Plains and Abyssal Hills Cover Most of
Earth’s Surface 51
Volcanic Seamounts and Guyots Project above the Seabed 52
2 Plate Tectonics 17 Trenches and Island Arcs Form in Subduction Zones 52
2.1 Earth’s Interior Is Layered 18 3.5 Most of the Ocean Floor Is Covered by
Each of Earth’s Inner Layers Has Unique Characteristics 18 Sediment 54
Radioactive Elements Generate Heat Inside Earth 19 3.6 Sediments Are Classified by Source 54
Continents Rise above the Ocean Because of Isostatic Terrigenous Sediments Come from Land 54
Equilibrium 19
Biogenous Sediments Form from the Remains of
2.2 Pieces of Earth’s Surface Look Like They Once Marine Organisms 56
Fit Together 20 Hydrogenous Sediments Form Directly from Seawater 57
2.3 The Breakthrough: Plate Tectonics 22 Cosmogenous Sediments Come from Space 57
Plates Interact at Plate Boundaries 22 3.7 Marine Sediments Are Usually Combinations of
Ocean Basins Form at Divergent Plate Boundaries 25 Terrigenous and Biogenous Deposits 58
Island Arcs Form, Continents Collide, and Crust Recycles Neritic Sediments Overlie Continental Margins 58
at Convergent Plate Boundaries 26 Pelagic Sediments Vary in Composition and Thickness 58
Ocean–Ocean Convergence 29 Oozes Form from the Rigid Remains of Living Creatures 59
Crust Fractures and Slides at Transform Plate
3.8 Sediments Are Historical Records of
Boundaries 30
Ocean Processes 62
2.4 The Confirmation of Plate Tectonics 30
Chapter in Perspective 63
History of Plate Movement Has Been Captured in Residual
Magnetic Fields 30 Terms and Concepts to Remember 63
Plate Movement above Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots Study Questions 63
Provides Evidence of Plate Tectonics 34

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viii
4 Water and Ocean Structure 65
4.1 Familiar, Abundant, and Odd 66
4.2 The Water Molecule 66
4.3 Water Has Unusual Thermal Characteristics 67
Heat and Temperature Are Not the Same Thing 67
Not All Substances Have the Same Heat Capacity 67
Water’s Response to an Input or Removal of Heat 68
Water Becomes Less Dense When It Freezes 69
4.4 The Properties of Water Moderate Global
Temperature 69
Movement of Water Vapor from Tropics to Poles Also
Moderates Earth’s Temperature 70
4.5 Water Is a Powerful Solvent 71
Salinity Is a Measure of Seawater’s Total Dissolved
Organic Solids 72
The Components of Ocean Salinity Came from, and Have
Been Modified by, Earth’s Crust 72
The Ocean Is in Chemical Equilibrium 73
Salinity Is Calculated by Measuring Seawater’s
Conductivity 73
4.6 Gases Dissolve in Seawater 74
Nitrogen 75
Oxygen 75
Carbon Dioxide 75
Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Concentrations Vary
with Depth 75
4.7 Acid-Base Balance 75
4.8 The Ocean Is Stratified by Density 76
The Ocean Is Stratified into Three Density Zones by
Temperature and Salinity 76
Water Masses Have Characteristic Temperature, Salinity,
and Density 79
4.9 Light Does Not Travel Far through the Ocean 79
The Photic Zone Is the Sunlit Surface of the Ocean 79
Water Transmits Blue Light More Efficiently than Red 79
4.10 Sound Travels Much Farther than Light in the
Ocean 79
Refraction Can Bend the Paths of Light and Sound
through Water 80
Sonar Systems Use Sound to Detect Underwater Objects 81
Chapter in Perspective 82
Terms and Concepts to Remember 82
Study Questions 83

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CONTENTS ix
 5 Atmospheric Circulation 85
5.1 The Atmosphere and Ocean Interact with
Each Other 86
5.2 The Atmosphere Is Composed Mainly of
Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Water Vapor 86
5.3 The Atmosphere Moves in Response to Uneven
Solar Heating and Earth’s Rotation 87
The Solar Heating of Earth Varies with Latitude 87
The Solar Heating of Earth Also Varies with the Seasons 89
Earth’s Uneven Solar Heating Results in Large-Scale
Atmospheric Circulation 89
5.4 The Coriolis Effect Deflects the Path of
Moving Objects 90
The Coriolis Effect Influences the Movement of Air in
Atmospheric Circulation Cells 91
Three Atmospheric Circulation Cells Circulate in
Each Hemisphere 91
5.5 Atmospheric Circulation Generates Large-Scale
Surface Wind Patterns 92
Cell Circulation Centers on the Meteorological (Not
Geographical) Equator 93
Sea Breezes and Land Breezes Arise from Uneven Surface
Heating 93
El Niño and La Niña 93
5.6 Storms Are Variations in Large-Scale
Atmospheric Circulation 94
Storms Form within or between Air Masses 94
Extratropical Cyclones Form between Two Air Masses 96
Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air Mass 96
Chapter in Perspective 100
Terms and Concepts to Remember 100
Study Questions 101

6 Ocean Circulation 103

6.1 Mass Flow of Ocean Water Is Driven by Wind
and Gravity 104
6.2 Surface Currents Are Driven by the Winds 104
Surface Currents Flow around the Periphery of
Ocean Basins 104
Seawater Flows in Six Great Surface Circuits 107
Boundary Currents Have Different Characteristics 108
A Final Word on Gyres 111
6.3 Surface Currents Affect Weather and Climate 111
6.4 Wind Can Cause Vertical Movement of
Ocean Water 111
Nutrient-Rich Water Rises near the Equator 111
Wind Can Induce Upwelling near Coasts 112
Wind Can Also Induce Coastal Downwelling 112

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x CONTENTS
 6.5 El Niño and La Niña Are Exceptions to Normal Tidal Patterns Center on Amphidromic Points 146
Wind and Current Flow 113 Tidal Patterns Vary with Ocean Basin Shape and Size 147
6.6 Thermohaline Circulation Affects All the Tide Waves Generate Tidal Currents 150
Ocean’s Water 115 7.12 Most Tides Can Be Accurately Predicted 150
Water Masses Have Distinct, Often Unique The Tidal Reference Level Is Called the Tidal Datum 150
Characteristics 115 Chapter in Perspective 151
Thermohaline Flow and Surface Flow: The Global
Terms and Concepts to Remember 151
Heat Connection 116
The Formation and Downwelling of Deep Water Occurs in Study Questions 151
Polar Regions 117
Water Masses May Converge, Fall, Travel across the
Seabed, and Slowly Rise 117 8 Coasts 153
6.7 Studying Currents 120 8.1 Coasts Are Shaped by Marine and Terrestrial
Processes 154
Chapter in Perspective 123
8.2 Erosional Processes Dominate Rocky Coasts 156
Terms and Concepts to Remember 123
Erosional Coasts Often Have Complex Features 156
Study Questions 123 Shorelines Can Be Straightened by Selective Erosion 157
Coasts Are Also Shaped by Land Erosion, Sea-Level
Change, Earth Movement, and Volcanism 157
7 Waves and Tides 125
8.3 Beaches Dominate Depositional Coasts 158
7.1 Ocean Waves Move Energy across the Sea
Beaches Consist of Loose Particles 159
Surface 126
Wave Action, Particle Size, and Beach Permeability
Waves Are Classified by Their Physical Characteristics 127 Combine to Build Beaches 159
Wavelength Is an Important Measure of Wave Size 127 Beaches Often Have a Distinct Profile 160
7.2 The Behavior of Waves Is Influenced by the Waves Transport Sediment on Beaches 161
Depth of Water through Which They Are Sand Input and Outflow Are Balanced in Coastal Cells 162
Moving 127 8.4 Larger-Scale Features Accumulate on
7.3 Wind Blowing over the Ocean Generates Depositional Coasts 163
Waves 129 Sand Spits and Bay Mouth Bars Form When the Longshore
Larger Swell Move Faster than Small Swell 129 Current Slows 163
Many Factors Influence Wind Wave Development 131 Barrier Islands and Sea Islands Are Separated from Land 164
Deltas Can Form at River Mouths 165
7.4 Interference Produces Irregular Wave Motions 131
8.5 Freshwater Meets the Ocean in Estuaries 166
7.5 Deep-Water Waves Change to Shallow-Water
Estuaries Are Classified by Their Origins 166
Waves as They Approach Shore 131
Estuary Characteristics Are Influenced by Water Density
Waves Refract When They Approach a Shore at an Angle 132
and Flow 167
7.6 Internal Waves Can Form between Ocean Estuaries Support Complex Marine Communities 167
Layers of Differing Densities 132 8.6 Coasts Are Formed and Modified by Biological
7.7 Storm Surges Form beneath Strong Cyclonic Activity 168
Storms 134 8.7 The Characteristics of U.S. Coasts 169
7.8 Tsunami and Seismic Sea Waves Are Caused by 8.8 Humans Have Interfered in Coastal Processes 170
Water Displacement 135
Chapter in Perspective 174
Seismic Sea Waves Are Often Shallow-Water Waves 137
What’s It Like to Encounter a Tsunami? 137 Terms and Concepts to Remember 174
7.9 Tides Are the Longest of All Ocean Waves 140 Study Questions 175
7.10 Tides Are Forced Waves Formed by Gravity
and Inertia 141 9 Life in the Ocean 177
The Movement of the Moon Generates Strong Tractive
9.1 Life Is Tied to the Ocean 178
Forces 141
Life on Earth Is Notable for Unity and Diversity 178
The Sun Also Generates Tractive Forces 144
9.2 The Concept of Evolution Helps Explain the
7.11 The Dynamic Theory of Tides Adds Fluid Motion
Nature of Life in the Ocean 178
Dynamics to the Equilibrium Theory 145
Evolution Appears to Operate by Natural Selection 178

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CONTENTS xi
 Evolution “Fine-Tunes” Organisms to Their Environment 180
9.3 Rapid, Violent Change Can Lead to Mass
Extinctions 181
9.4 Life Is Classified by Evolutionary Heritage 181
Scientific Names Describe Organisms 181
9.5 The Flow of Energy Allows Living Things to
Maintain Complex Organization 181
Energy Can Be Stored through Photosynthesis or
Chemosynthesis 184
9.6 Primary Producers Synthesize Organic
Material 185
Food Webs Disperse Energy through Communities 185
9.7 Environmental Factors Influence the Success of
Marine Organisms 185
Photosynthesis Depends on Light 187
Temperature Influences Metabolic Rate 187
Dissolved Nutrients Are Required for the Production of
Organic Matter 188
Salinity Influences the Function of Cell Membranes 188
Dissolved Gas Concentrations Vary with Photosynthesis,
Respiration, and Temperature 188
Hydrostatic Pressure Is Rarely Limiting 189
Substances Move through Cells by Diffusion, Osmosis, and
Active Transport 189
Chapter in Perspective 191
Terms and Concepts to Remember 191
Study Questions 191
10 Marine Communities 193
10.1 Marine Organisms Live in Communities 194
Communities Consist of Interacting Producers, Consumers,
and Decomposers 194
10.2 Marine Communities Exhibit Remarkable
Diversity in Their Composition and Location 195
Community Location Is Determined by Variations in the
Marine Environment 195
10.3 Pelagic Communities Occupy the Open Ocean 195
Most Phytoplankton Are Photosynthetic Autotrophs 197
Phytoplankton Productivity Varies with Local
Conditions 201
Zooplankton Consume Primary Producers 201
Nekton Dominate Open Ocean Communities 202
10.4 Benthic Organisms Live on or in the Seafloor 205
10.5 Examples of Shoreline Marine Communities 205
Rocky Intertidal Communities Are Densely Populated
Despite Environmental Rigors 205
Sand and Cobble Beach Communities Exist in One of
Earth’s Most Rigorous Habitats 208
Salt Marshes and Estuaries Often Act as Marine Nurseries 208
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xii CONTENTS
10.6 Examples of Shallow Benthic Marine
Communities 209
Coral Reef Are Earth’s Most Densely Populated and Diverse
Communities 209
Seaweed and Marine Plant Communities Shelter
Organisms 211
Sea Turtles and Seabirds Are Well Adapted for Coastal
Environments 211
Marine Mammals Are Prominent Members of Many
Coastal Communities 211
10.7 Examples of Deep-Sea Marine Communities 216
The Deep Seafloor Is Earth’s Most Uniform
Community 216
Vent and Seep Communities Depend on Chemosynthetic
Producers 218
Specialized Communities Form around Whale Falls 219
Chapter in Perspective 220
Terms and Concepts to Remember 220
Study Questions 221
11 Uses and Abuses of the Ocean 223
11.1 Things Are Changing 224
Supply, Demand, Growth, and Stress 224
Marine Resources 224
11.2 Physical Resources 225
Petroleum and Natural Gas Are the Ocean’s Most Valuable
Resources 225
Large Methane Hydrate Deposits Exist in Shallow
Sediments 226
Marine Sand and Gravel Are Used in Construction 227
Salts Are Gathered from Evaporation Basins 228
Freshwater Is Obtained by Desalination 228
11.3 Renewable Sources of Marine Energy 228
Windmills Are Effective Energy Producers 229
Waves, Currents, and Tides Can Be Harnessed to
Generate Power 229
11.4 Biological Resources 229
Fish, Crustaceans, and Molluscs Are the Ocean’s Most
Valuable Biological Resources 230
Many of Today’s Fisheries Are Not Sustainable 231
Much of the Commercial Catch Is Discarded as
“Bycatch” 231
Marine Botanical Resources Have Many Uses 231
Organisms Can Be Grown in Controlled Environments 232
New Drugs and Bioproducts of Oceanic Origin Are Being
Discovered 234
11.5 Nonextractive Resources Use the Ocean
in Place 235
11.6 An Introduction to Marine Environmental
Issues 235
 11.7 Pollutants Interfere with an Organism’s
Biochemical Processes 235
Oil Enters the Ocean from Many Sources 238
Cleaning a Spill Always Involves Trade-offs 240
Toxic Synthetic Organic Chemicals May Be Biologically
Amplified 240
Heavy Metals Can Be Toxic in Very Small Quantities 241
Eutrophication Stimulates the Growth of Some Species to
the Detriment of Others 242
Plastic and Other Forms of Solid Waste Can Be Especially
Hazardous to Marine Life 243
Pollution Is Costly 245
11.8 Organisms Cannot Prosper if Their Habitats Are
Disturbed 245
Bays and Estuaries Are Especially Sensitive to the Effects
of Pollution 245
Rising Ocean Acidity Is Jeopardizing Habitats and Food
Webs 245
Introduced Species Can Disrupt Established Ecosystems 245
11.9 Marine Protected Areas Offer a Glimmer of
Hope 245
11.10 Earth’s Climate Is Changing 247
Earth’s Surface Temperature Is Rising 247
Can Global Warming Be Curtailed? 251
11.11 What Can Be Done? 251
Chapter in Perspective 254
Terms and Concepts to Remember 254
Study Questions 254

Afterword 255

APPENDIX 1
Measurements and Conversions 256

APPENDIX 2
Geologic Time 260

APPENDIX 3
Absolute and Relative Dating 261

APPENDIX 4
Maps and Charts 262

APPENDIX 5
Latitude and Longitude, Time, and Navigation 266

APPENDIX 6
Working in Marine Science 269

Glossary 273

Index 290

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CONTENTS xiii
 Preface
The Eighth Edition
Our aim in writing this book was to produce a text that would
enhance students’ interest in the ocean. Students bring a nat-
ural enthusiasm to their study of this subject, an enthusiasm
that is greatly enhanced by our partnership with the National
Geographic Society. Access to 125 years of archival resources
make this National Geographic Learning text uniquely appeal-
ing. The most indifferent lecture hall occupant will perk up
when presented with stories of encounters with huge waves,
photos of giant squid, tales of exploration under the best and
worst of circumstances, evidence that vast chunks of Earth’s
surface slowly move, news of Earth’s past battering by aster-
oids, micrographs of glistening diatoms, and data showing the
growing economic importance of seafood and marine materi-
als. If pure spectacle is required to generate an initial interest in
the study of science, oceanography wins hands down!
In the end, however, it is subtlety that triumphs. Study-
ing the ocean reinstills in us the sense of wonder we all felt as
children when we first encountered the natural world. There
is much to tell. The story of the ocean is a story of change and
chance—its history is written in the rocks, the water, and the
genes of the millions of organisms that have evolved here.
Our students have been involved in this book from the
very beginning—indeed, it was their request for a readable,
engaging, and thorough text that initiated the project a long
time ago. Through the years we have been writing textbooks,
our enthusiasm for oceanic knowledge has increased (if that is
possible), forcing our patient reviewers and editors to weed out
an excessive number of exclamation points. But that enthusi-
asm does shine through. One student reading the final manu-
script of an earlier edition commented, “At last, a textbook that
does not read like stereo instructions.” Good!
As were its predecessors, this new edition is designed for
students who are curious about Earth’s largest feature, but who
may have little formal background in science. Our goal is to
use unintimidating, yet accurate language to create a narra-
tive that showcases many of the wonders of the ocean and use
these examples to explain how they relate to important scien-
tific concepts.
The Plan of This Book
This new edition builds on the established successes of
past editions. National Geographic resources have been
instrumental in the book’s focus on the processes of science
and exploration. Decades of original art, charts and maps,
explorers’ diaries, data compilations, artifact collections,
and historic photographs have been winnowed and included
when appropriate.
Oceanography (also called marine science) is broadly
interdisciplinary. As always in our books, connections between
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
xiv
disciplines are emphasized throughout. Marine science draws
on several fields of study, integrating the work of specialists into
a unified whole. For example, a geologist studying the compo-
sition of marine sediments on the deep seabed must be aware
of the biology and life histories of the organisms in the water
above, the chemistry that affects the shells and skeletons of the
creatures as they fall to the ocean floor, the physics of particle
settling and water density and ocean currents, and the age and
underlying geology of the study area. This book is organized
to make those connections from the first. Readers are invited
to see the connections between astronomy, economics, physics,
chemistry, history, meteorology, geology, and ecology—areas
of study they may once have considered separate.
Notable Changes to This Edition
This eighth edition of Essentials of Oceanography contains a
number of substantial changes from the seventh edition. We
have significantly streamlined this edition to remove excessive
details that can distract students from key concepts. To accom-
plish this, we have tried to distill complex marine features and
processes into a truly “essentials only” textbook that is appro-
priate for a wide range of students. An underlying goal of this
edition was to focus on concise writing. Many of the interest-
ing, but nonessential technical details, past student questions,
explorer insights, and the detailed information boxes have
been removed so that students can focus on the content with-
out interruptions to the narrative flow.
This edition has a total of 11 chapters compared with
the 15 chapters that were in the seventh edition. This allows
instructors to cover one chapter a week and still leave time for
introductions, exam days, and class activities during the term.
We believe these changes result in a student-centered book
that illustrates the complexity and beauty of the ocean while
making it more economical and therefore accessible to a wider
range of students.
Each chapter has been extensively revised to update
the content and enhance its presentation with new figures.
Chapter 1: An Ocean World is a combination of the key com-
ponents of the seventh edition’s first two chapters (Earth
and Ocean and A History of Marine Science). The material
has been streamlined and unified into a single chapter that
describes the Earth’s origin and the process by which marine
scientists are able to study the ocean. Additional information
that reflects our changing understanding of the source of the
oceans has also been added. Chapter 2: Plate Tectonics has been
streamlined and reorganized to put the focus of the chapter
on how plate tectonics has shaped ocean features while lim-
iting the historical account of our evolving understanding of
Earth’s geology. Chapter 3: The Ocean Floor is a new chapter that
combines material from the previous edition’s chapters Ocean
Basins and Ocean Sediments. This chapter emphasizes the key
features of the seafloor and couples it with the role marine Organization and Pedagogy
sediments play in our understanding of marine processes.
The next few chapters focus on physical oceanography. A broad view of marine science is presented in 11 chapters,
Chapter 4: Water and Ocean Structure has been revised to each free-standing (or nearly so) to allow an instructor to as-
improve the flow. It presents a survey of ocean physics and sign chapters in any order he or she finds appropriate. Each
chemistry in preparation for future discussions of atmospheric chapter begins with a list of the four or five most impor-
circulation, classical physical oceanography, and coastal pro- tant concepts highlighted by a small illustration. An engaging
cesses. Additional examples have been added and sections that chapter opener photo and caption whets the appetite for the
we have found to confuse past students have been rewritten to material to come.
clarify and emphasize the main points. Chapter 5: Atmospheric The chapters are written in an engaging style. Terms are
Circulation has significant changes to the discussion of the defined and principles are developed in a straightforward man-
Coriolis effect and focuses on more recent storms that students ner. Some of the more complex ideas are initially outlined in
can better relate to. Chapter 6: Ocean Circulation incorporates broad brushstrokes; then the same concepts are discussed again
a new example to help understand Ekman spirals and adds a in greater depth after the reader has a clear view of the overall
discussion on the 2015–2016 El Niño. Chapter 7: Waves and situation. When appropriate to their meanings, the derivations
Tides combines two chapters that previously described these of words are shown. Measurements are given in both met-
topics separately. The previous edition’s chapters have been ric (SI) and American systems. At the request of a great many
streamlined to focus attention on the similarities and differ- students, the units are written out (that is, we write kilometer
ences among all types of waves and clarify some of the concepts rather than km) to avoid ambiguity and for ease of reading.
to improve student understanding. Chapter 8: Coasts contains We have modified the illustration program to incorpo-
new information on sea level rise and a number of new and rate National Geographic Society assets. The maps, charts,
updated figures to better illustrate the diversity of coasts in
different areas of the world.
Our look at marine biology begins with an overview of
the problems and benefits of living in seawater, continues with
a discussion of the production and consumption of food, and
ends with taxonomic and ecological surveys of marine com-
munities. Chapter 9: Life in the Ocean begins with a section
discussing how life is tied to the ocean. This is a revised sec-
tion from the previous edition’s first chapter that broadens
the chapter’s discussion and improves the book’s overall flow.
New figures help to illustrate key concepts. Chapter 10: Marine
Communities is a new chapter that combines material from the
previous edition’s chapters Pelagic Communities and Benthic
Communities. This information has been significantly reorga-
nized and revised to allow the reader to explore a few of the
most interesting and important marine communities and to
profile some of their most common organisms. There are a
number of new figures and information in this chapter to help
students appreciate the diversity and complexity of marine life
in the ocean. The last chapter, Chapter 11: Uses and Abuses of the
Ocean, surveys marine resources and environmental concerns,
and illustrates how our present rates of economic growth and
environmental degradation are unsustainable. Many of the
statistics and figures have been updated to better reflect how
humans are impacting the marine environment.
As before, a great many students have participated alongside
©Robert Ellis

professional marine scientists in the writing and reviewing pro-

cess. We have responded to their recommendations, as well as
those of instructors who have adopted previous editions of this
book. It is our sincere hope that the resulting work accurately A group of students learn navigational techniques before
reflects the present state of our fast-moving field of science. setting sail.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
PR EFACE xv
 ©Gregory Matthew Allen

Learning about the ocean involves close contact, and

often great fun.

paintings, and photographs drawn from Society archives have

greatly enhanced the visual program for increased clarity and
accuracy. Heads and subheads are written as complete sen-
tences for clarity, with the main heads sequentially numbered.

©Tom Garrison
Each chapter ends with an array of study materials for
students, beginning with Chapter in Perspective, a narrative
review of the chapter just concluded. Important Terms and
Father, son, ocean—learning marine science is a joy at
Concepts to Remember are listed next; these are also defined
any age.
in an extensive Glossary in the back of the book. Study Ques-
tions are also included in each chapter; writing the answers to
these questions will cement your understanding of the con-
cepts presented. r
Create multiple test versions in an instant
Appendixes will help you master measurements and con- r
Deliver tests from your learning management system
versions, geological time, absolute and relative dating, latitude (LMS), your classroom, or wherever you want
and longitude, and chart projections. In case you’d like to join
us in our life’s work, Appendix 6 discusses jobs in marine
science. Instructor’s Companion Site
This book has been thoroughly student tested. You need
not feel intimidated by the concepts—this material has been Everything you need for your course in one place! This collec-
mastered by students just like you. Read slowly and go step-by- tion of book-specific lecture and class tools is available online
step through any parts that give you trouble. Your predecessors via www.cengage.com/login. Access and download PowerPoint
have found the ideas presented in this book to be useful, inspir- presentations, images, instructor’s manual, videos, and more.
ing, and applicable to their lives. Best of all, they have found
the subject to be interesting!
Student Resources
Instructor Resources Earth Science MindTap for Essentials of
Oceanography
Cognero Test Bank
MindTap is well beyond an eBook, a homework solution or
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible,
digital supplement, a resource center Web site, a course deliv-
online system that allows you to:
ery platform, or an LMS. More than 70% of students surveyed
r
Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple said that it was unlike anything they have ever seen before.
Cengage Learning solutions MindTap is a new personal learning experience that combines

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
xvi PREFACE
 Jesus Reyes, Julie Oswald, Lisa Snyder, Joana Tavares-Reager,
and our division coordinator, JP Nguyen, again should be
awarded medals for putting up with us, answering hundreds
of our questions, and being so forbearing through the book’s
lengthy gestation period. Thanks also to our dean, Tara Giblin,
and our college president, Dennis Harkins, for supporting this
project and encouraging our faculty to teach, conduct research,
and be involved in community service. Our past and present
department teaching assistants and student aquarium manag-
ers deserve a great deal of praise for helping us develop new
educational materials and maintain a positive learning environ-
ment for our students, especially Brian Schneiderman, Hannah
Rodnunsky, Zane Calendine, Brynne McNabb, Jazmin Eck,
Meghan Thompson, Megan Vandewalle, Jillian Demeter,

©Robert Ellis
A marine science student finds a peaceful place to study on
a crisp morning in British Columbia.
all of your digital assets—readings, multimedia, activities, and
assessments—into a singular learning path to improve student
outcomes.
Global Geoscience Watch
Updated several times a day, the Global Geoscience Watch is
an ideal one-stop site for current events and research projects
for all things geoscience! Broken into the four key areas (geog-
raphy, geology, meteorology, and oceanography), you can easily
find the most relevant information for the course you are taking.
You will have access to the latest information from trusted
academic journals, news outlets, and magazines. You will also
receive access to statistics, primary sources, case studies, pod-
casts, and much more!
David Krueger, Brittany Rodriguez, Carolynn Rohwer, Tammy
Schofield, Casey Moore, Samantha Garcia, Michal Biggerstaff,
Leslie Portugal, Jessey Luis, and Jack Bassham.
Yet another round of gold medals should go to our families
for being patient (well, relatively patient) during those years
of days and nights when we were holed up in our respective
dark reference-littered caves again working late on “The
Book.” Thank you, Marsha, Jeanne, Greg, Grace, Sarah, John,
Dinara, Alem, Alia, Katie, Kalen, and Abigail for your love and
understanding. The many friends and colleagues whom we
have bounced ideas off deserve special recognition including
Karen Baker, Mary Blasius, Erik Bender, Jim Schneider, Kelli
Elliott, Jan Goerrissen, Nick Contopoulos, Jerome Fang,
Jenell Schwab, Mary Arbogast, Joana Tavares-Reager, Chris
Krajacic, Sarah Sikich, and Andy Balendy.

Acknowledgments
Many, many years ago, Jack Carey, the grand master of college
textbook publishing, willed the first edition of this book into be-
ing. His suggestions have been combined with those of more than
1,400 undergraduate students and 175 reviewers to contribute
to my continuously growing understanding of marine science.
Donald Lovejoy, Stanley Ulanski, Richard Yuretich, Ronald
Johnson, John Mylroie, and Steve Lund at the University of
Southern California deserve special recognition for many years
of patient direction. For this edition, we have especially de-
©Tom Garrison

pended on the expert advice of Wayne Henderson, Kurt Bretsch,

Todd Benedict, Anne Gasc, Deborah Friele, Sammy Castonguay,
Elizabeth Keddy, Stephen MacAvoy, and Ursula Quillman.
Our long-suffering departmental colleagues Karen Baker, A marine technician assembles a sensor. Most oceanographic
Mary Blasius, Rip Profeta, Dennis Kelly, Don Johnston, data are collected by remote sensors like this one.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
PR EFACE xvii
 ©Deborah Ellis
Kayaking in the crystal-clear waters of the tropics can provide
relaxation for the entire family.
©Tom Garrison

A tourist photographs the steerboard of a restored Viking long-

ship. “Steerboard” became “starboard,” the right side of a vessel.

The Cengage Learning team performed the customary

miracles. The charge was led by Lauren Oliveira, who helped
polish the chapters. Sheila Higgins, our copy editor, saved us
from many errors. Christine Myaskovsky and Nick Barrows
worked tirelessly to assist us in photo research and permissions,
and Carol Samet was in charge of production. Kellie Petruz-
zelli and Lauren Oliveira kept the digital world in line for the
book’s Web site. The amazing Dawn Giovanniello and Morgan
Carney kept us all running in the same direction. What skill!
My unending thanks to all.

A Goal and a Gift

©Tom Garrison

The goal of all this effort: To allow you to gain an oceanic perspec-
tive. Perspective means being able to view things in terms of
their relative importance or relationship to one another. An
oceanic perspective lets you see this misnamed planet in a new Despite a severe California drought, these supratidal plants are
light and helps you plan for its future. You will see that water, sustained by heavy morning fogs.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
xviii PREFACE
continents, seafloors, sunlight, storms, seaweeds, and
society are connected in subtle and beautiful ways.
The ocean’s greatest gift to humanity is intellectual—
the constant challenge its restless mass presents. Let your-
self be swept into this book and the class it accompanies.
Give yourself time to ponder: “Meditation and water are
wedded forever,” wrote Herman Melville in Moby Dick.
Ask questions of your instructors and TAs, read some of
the references, try your hand at the questions at the end
of the chapters.
Be optimistic. Take pleasure in the natural world.
Please write to me when you find errors or if you have
comments. Above all, enjoy yourself!

Tom Garrison

©Zak Noyle/A-Frame
Orange Coast College
University of Southern California

Robert Ellis
Orange Coast College Trash in the surf in Java, southern Indonesia. Residents dump their
rellis@occ.cccd.edu waste in rivers that lead to the sea.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
PR EFACE xix
 In Loving Memory of Dr. Tom S. Garrison

From a daughter to her dad—From a student to her teacher

On February 24, 2016, Dr. Garrison, my dad, passed away after

a long battle with Lymphoma.
To quote my dad’s idyllic professor, Earl Pullius, USC,
“A teacher is many things...a guide, a model, a modernizer, a
searcher, a student, a counselor, and a friend. A teacher is a cre-
ator, a doer of routine, a storyteller, and a builder of commu-
nity. A teacher is a way of being.” My dad was the embodiment
of this quote. He realized the impact he had on his students,
not just in teaching the subject of marine science, but in set-
ting students on the right course by exemplifying the different
roles of a teacher, just as Dr. Pullius emphasized.
My dad saw the potential in us all. He called us all “Mas-
ters of the Universe.” He made all of us want to be better and
he made us want to continue growing and pushing forward for
the rest of our lives. He celebrated so many victories with me
and always guided me forward when I needed it the most, as he
did with all his students. As a teacher, my dad was a master at
sucking you in to the material through the magic, the mystery,
and the astonishing power of his stories and then guiding you
on a path that would lead you to exactly where you needed to
be. It was then that he would stop and watch you walk ahead,
confidently, into your future.
My dad always told me that the most important goal of
anyone’s life is to be happy. He defined happiness as a state
of peace, satisfaction, and friendship. He said it comes from
having the education to see the connections between things,

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
xx
 the stability to have meaningful relationships, the ability to get
and hold a job, and the desire to make a difference in the
world. He always said that Thomas Jefferson was amazingly
insightful in basing his vision for a new country on the pursuit
of happiness. Not a guarantee, mind you, but the assurance of
freedom to pursue whatever you wanted. He also reminded me
that there would be hard times and I would need to weather
the storms of my own doubts. He encouraged me, as he did
with all his students, and was always confident in our abilities
to succeed.
He explained to me that teaching is the immortal pro-
fession because you have the ability to inspire students long
after you’re gone. My dad still lives on in me, as I hope
he will in all of you. His personality shines through in his
textbooks. Growing up, I have fond memories of him sit-
ting at his desk at all hours of the night, listening to classical
music and writing. His hope was to pass on his joy, his love
of learning, and his knowledge of the ocean to the world.
He was a distinguished professor, a world-renowned author,
an endearing husband, and a beloved father and friend. He
made a difference! I hope he will continue to inspire you to
achieve your fullest potential. He told me regularly, “There
is much good in this world, go and add to it.” This was his
motto, along with citius, altius, fortius—faster, higher, stron-
ger. He dedicated his life to his family, his friends, and his
students. He wants all of us to know that we are his hope for
the future. He wants us to find what makes us truly happy
and then race, unwaveringly, toward it.
Do as Tennyson suggests in his Ulysses: To strive, to seek, to
find, and not to yield.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
xxi
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 1 An Ocean
World

KEY CONCEPTS

The world ocean is Earth’s largest surface feature,

covering 70.8% of its area. Due to its enormous size, the
ocean influences many aspects of life on the planet.

Science is a systematic process of asking questions

about the observable world by gathering and then
analyzing information.

The materials that formed the Earth and ocean were

constructed during the life cycle of stars.

Water vapor from volcanic outgassing and water

delivered to Earth during impacts are the most likely
sources of the water in Earth’s ocean.

Past and current scientific investigations have helped

us better understand the ocean’s integral role of
supporting and influencing life on Earth.

Nearby stars shine over the ocean as the sun begins to rise in
Los Cabos, Mexico. Earth, its ocean, and all of its inhabitants were
formed by unimaginable energies across enormous spans of time.
Our story begins here, with the stars.
Kenneth_Wilson/Getty Images

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
1
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
very little more effort than is required to paddle it. The use of the pole
necessitates a standing position, but this is neither risky nor difficult
for any canoeist who understands the knack of balancing a canoe,
and none but an experienced canoeist has any business in swift,
white water. The setting pole is gripped with the left hand near the
top, with the right hand held stationary about 2 ft. lower, and as the
canoe travels past the pole, firmly planted on the river bottom, the
poler leans forward and makes use of his weight and strength to give
a quick push. The pole is again shoved forward as quickly as
possible, that the craft may lose as little headway as possible, and a
new grip secured for the next push. After a little experience with the
pole, the canoeist will find it an easy matter to swing his craft across
the current and avoid rocks and other obstructions as easily as when
paddling. When contemplating a long trip up a stream where the
water is heavy and the current swift, the use of two poles will make
the work easier. Both persons should pole from the same side, the
man in the bow doing the steering while the stern man adds his
straight-ahead push to force the canoe upstream.
 Shifting the Paddle from One Side of the Canoe to The Other

The Track Line

The average wilderness stream of the North has enough “tight”

places which judgment tells the traveler to avoid by making a detour
by land rather than risk a capsize and a possible loss of the outfit. To
“tote” the outfit overland means more or less hard work, and as
every canoeist will avoid portaging if there is a fair chance of getting
the canoe through a bad stretch of water, the tracking line will come
in handy very often. The usual ring in the bow of the canoe is far too
flimsy for hauling the loaded craft, and sufficient length of stout rope
should be carried along to pass through the painter eye, and then
carried aft and half-hitched to the first and second thwarts. One man
can pull the canoe up a swift stream by walking along the bank while
his partner takes up the opposite side and steers the craft away from
rocks by using a stern line. With a heavily loaded canoe in very swift
and shallow water, both men must often wade, and a tump line
rigged up as a breast or shoulder strap will make it easier work for
the man at the bow line.

Paddling a Canoe Single-Handed

The open, or Canadian-model, canoe is, of course, handled more

easily and with better speed with two paddlers but there are
occasions when the canoe is used single-handed. When out for a
few hours’ paddle, the canoeist usually balances the craft by sitting
on the bow seat—or kneels on the bottom with his back against the
bow-seat brace—and using the stern for the bow. This brings the
paddler’s weight nearer the center and keeps the canoe better
balanced than when paddling from the stern with the bow high in the
air. However, when the canoe is loaded, many canoeists stow their
camp duffle forward and paddle from the stern, the weight of the
outfit keeping the craft on an even keel. This answers well enough
for smooth-water going, but when the water is rough, or a stretch of
rapids is run single-handed, the stern position is by no means a good
one since the craft is more difficult to control, and much more
strength is required to drive it forward. The Indian manner of
paddling a canoe alone is the only correct one, for he always sits
amidships—kneeling in the center—and if a load is carried, it is
placed in front and back of him so that the craft is balanced on an
even keel. Consequently the canoe draws less water and can be
paddled faster with the same effort, while the paddler has the craft
under perfect control. But the experienced line paddler does not
kneel in the center, he moves out until his body is close to the
gunwale. This makes the craft heel at a decided angle, it is true, but
this position makes for better speed because it enables the paddle to
be held almost vertical, and the more nearly perpendicular the
paddle is swung the more efficient will be the stroke.
 In using the double blade, the paddler dips first on one side, then
on the other, and to make the blades travel through the air with the
least resistance, it is customary to set them at right angles to each
other. The motion is really a push and pull, the shaft of the paddle
being rotated in the hands so that the blade will enter the water with
the full breadth facing the canoeist. Rubber cups, to catch the drip as
the paddle rises in the air when making the stroke, are sometimes
used by novices, but these are unnecessary if the paddles are set at
right angles, and the paddler will bend his wrist a trifle to throw the
drip ahead and to one side. At the beginning, the novice will very
likely throw a little water in the canoe, but a little practice will soon
master the knack.

Care and Repair of the Canoe

The canvas-covered cedar canoe will stand a vast amount of hard

service, but it should not be dragged over the ground or over the
boarding of the landing float, neither should it be so placed that any
strain will come amidships while the ends are well supported. When
storing for the winter, keep it under cover, resting bottom side down
on a floor, or turn it bottom side up and support it with boxes, or other
standards, at the center as well as at the ends. While unused at the
camp, turn it bottom side up on the bank. Birch bark must be kept
out of the sun, and the paint of canvas-covered canoes will last
longer if kept in the shade. When the paint becomes rough,
sandpaper it down smooth, and give it a couple of coats of canoe
paint. When the paint is worn off and exposes the canvas, give the
bare cloth a couple of coats of shellac before painting.
 Paddling should be Done on the Knees When Traveling Where High Winds
and Seas are Encountered

A repair kit should be taken along on all long trips, consisting of a

small can of white lead, a can of orange shellac, and a sheet of oiled
silk. For small cuts in the canvas, a coat or two of shellac will suffice,
but for bad gashes, cut off the loose threads of canvas and rub on a
little white lead under the raised portion near the hole and on the
surface, cut a patch of the oiled silk to cover it, and paste it in
position. When the lead is dry, give it a couple of coats of shellac.
For making quick repairs, a roll of electrician’s tape will come in
handy. The birch canoe is quickly repaired in the same manner as
suggested for the canvas-covered craft, and as the shellac is
waterproof and dries quickly, all ordinary repairs may be made by the
stream side with but little loss of time.
 Oiling Tool for Clocks
Jewelers use a little tool for oiling clocks and watches that could
be used profitably by others for the same and similar work. It
consists of a steel wire, bluntly pointed on the end and set into a
wood handle. Very often the only thing that is the matter with a clock
which does not keep good time, is that it is dirty and dry. If this is the
case, any person handy with tools can fix it at practically no cost.
Remove the works, which are usually held with four screws, from the
case, immerse them in kerosene and allow them to stand for a few
minutes, then remove and drain. This will clean out the dirt.

The Tool will Pick Up a Drop of Oil and Deposit It Where Wanted

The oiling tool is dipped in light oil and a drop applied to each
bearing. Replace the works in the case and the job is finished. A
reliable jeweler will charge very little for this work, but the more crafty
ones may ask a good price for this “mysterious” process. If the works
are not dirty, apply the oil with the tool. Anyone who has tried to oil a
clock with an ordinary spout oilcan knows the futility of the attempt.
The object of the tool is to pick up and carry a drop of oil and deposit
it where wanted. A can, a feather, or a match will do, but any one of
them is apt to carry dirt, flood the dry part, or smear up nonmoving
parts.
Easily Constructed Wall Shelves
 Shelves for Books Supported with Picture-Frame Wire to the Wall

All that is necessary to make and support the simple set of wall
shelves, shown in the illustration, is lumber for the shelves, four
screw eyes, four screw hooks, sufficient picture-frame wire to form
the braces and supports, and wood screws for attaching the wire. On
the top side of the upper shelf are fastened the four screw eyes, two
near the wall edge and the others near the outer edge. To support
the upper shelf four screw hooks are used; two placed in the wall
and spaced to match the set of screw eyes nearest the wall, the
others being placed above the first and connected to the outer set of
screw eyes with the wire, thereby forming strong inclined supports.
The remaining shelves can be hung to suit by the supporting wires,
which are fastened with screws to the end of each shelf.
 Showing the Strength of a Giant
This trick is not so well known as it might be, although for a while it
was quite a popular drawing attraction for circus side shows and
other amusement places. It is one of the favorite Hindu tricks. The
performer passes for examination two pieces of rope 10 ft. long. In
one end of each rope a large ring is fastened. Taking a ring in each
hand the performer commands three or four men at each end of the
rope to take hold of it and at a signal they pull as hard as possible.
They pull until they are exhausted as in a tug of war, but the
performer only appears a trifle exerted and finds no difficulty in
holding the men.

The Performer Seems to Hold the Ones Pulling on the Ropes without Any
Effort, Producing an Effect That cannot be Readily Understood, and Making
an Excellent Trick for the Lawn Party

The secret is in the use of a piece of flexible wire, which passes up

the right sleeve of the performer, across the back and down the left
sleeve, lying just inside of the coat sleeve. At the ends of the wire
are small hooks. When about to perform this trick the performer puts
on a pair of gloves. The gloves are slit in the palms to allow the
hooks to pass through. The hooks are covered with cloth, colored to
match the gloves. An essential point to remember in performing the
trick is to keep the fingers well around the rings to prevent the ropes
from dropping in case of a slack-up on the tension.
 The Tricks of Camping Out
By STILLMAN TAYLOR

PART I—The Camping Outfit

Toouter
enjoy a vacation in the woods thoroughly, it is essential that the
be provided with the right kind of an outfit. The
inexperienced are likely to carry too much rather than too little to the
woods; to include many unnecessary luxuries and overlook the more
practical necessities. However, camp life does not mean that one
must be uncomfortable, but rather implies plain and simple living
close to nature. An adequate shelter from the sun and rain, a
comfortable bed, a good cooking kit, and plenty of wholesome food,
are the important things to consider. No man or woman requires
more, and if unwilling to share the plain fare of the woodsman, the
pampered ones should be left at home, for the grouchy, complaining
individual makes, of all persons, the very worst of camping
companions.
The Old Hand at the Camping Game Prefers
to Cut Poles on the Camping Site and Set
Them Up on the Outside for the Camp-Fire
Tent

The Wall Tent may be erected with the

Regular Poles, or, When Ordered with Tapes
along the Ridge, It can be Set Up with Outside
Tripod or Shear Poles
 The Choice of a Tent

There are tents and tents, but for average outings in what may be
considered a permanent camp, the regulation wall, or army, tent is
generally used to make a comfortable shelter. It is a splendid utility
tent, with generous floor space and plenty of headroom. For the
permanent camp, the wall tent is often provided with a fly, which may
be set up as an extra covering for the roof, or extended over the front
to make a kind of porch. An extension may also be purchased to
serve the same purpose. The 7 by 9-ft. wall tent will shelter two
persons comfortably, but when the camp is seldom moved, the 9 by
12-ft. size, with a 3¹⁄₂-ft. wall, will afford more room. The regulation 8-
oz. duck is heavy enough, or the same tent may be obtained in tan
or dark green khaki, if preferred. In any case the tent should have a
sod cloth, from 6 to 12 in. wide, extending around the bottom and
sewed to the tent. An extra piece of canvas or floor cloth is desirable,
but this as well as the fly are extras, and while convenient, are by no
means necessary. The wall tent may be erected with the regular
poles, or it may be ordered with tapes along the ridge and erected by
suspending between two trees. The old hand at the camping game
rarely uses the shop poles supplied with most tents, but prefers to
cut them at the camping site and rig them up on the outside, one
slender pole fastened with tapes along the ridge and supported at
either end in the crotch formed by setting up two poles, tripod or
shear-fashion.
The “Baker” style is a popular tent, giving a large sleeping
capacity, yet folding compactly. The 7 by 7-ft. size, with a 2-ft. wall,
makes a good comfortable home for two, and will shelter three, or
even four, if required. The entire front may be opened to the fire by
extending it to form an awning, or it may be thrown back over the
ridge to form an open-front lean-to shelter.
The “Dan Beard,” or camp-fire, tent is a modification of the Baker
style, having a slightly steeper pitch, with a smaller front opening.
The dimensions are practically the same as the Baker, and it may be
pitched by suspending between two trees, by outside poles, or the
regular poles may be used.
 For traveling light by canoe or pack, a somewhat lighter and less
bulky form of tent than the above styles may be chosen, and the
woodsman is likely to select the forester’s or ranger types. The
ranger is a half tent with a 2-ft. wall and the entire front is open; in
fact, this is the same as the Baker tent without the flap. If desired,
two half ranger tents with tapes may be purchased and fastened
together to form an A, or wedge, tent. This makes a good tent for two
on a hike, as each man carries his own half, and is assured a good
shelter in case one becomes separated from his companion, and a
tight shelter when the two make camp together.
The forester’s tent is another good one, giving good floor space
and folding up very compactly, a 9 by 9-ft. tent weighing about 5¹⁄₂ lb.
when made of standard-weight fabric. It may be had either with or
without hood, and is quickly erected by using three small saplings,
one along the ridge, running from peak to ground, and one on each
side of the opening, to form a crotch to support the ridge pole, shear-
fashion. These tents are not provided with sod or floor cloths,
although these may be ordered as extras if wanted.
The canoe or “protean” tents are good styles for the camper who
travels light and is often on the move. The canoe tent has a circular
front, while the protean style is made with a square front, and the
wall is attached to the back and along the two sides. Both tents are
quickly set up, either with a single inside pole or with two poles set
shear-fashion on the outside. A 9 by 9-ft. canoe or protean tent with
a 3-ft. wall makes a comfortable home in the open.
Whatever style of tent is chosen, it is well to pay a fair price and
obtain a good quality of material and workmanship. The cheaper
tents are made of heavier material to render them waterproof, while
the better grades are fashioned from light-weight fabric of close
weave and treated with a waterproofing process. Many of the
cheaper tents will give fair service, but the workmanship is often
poor, the grommets are apt to pull out, and the seams rip after a little
hard use. All tents should be waterproofed, and each provided with a
bag in which to pack it. An ordinary tent may be waterproofed in the
following manner: Dissolve ¹⁄₂ lb. of ordinary powdered alum in 4 gal.
of hot rain water, and in a separate bucket dissolve ¹⁄₂ lb. of acetate
of lead—sugar of lead—in 4 gal. of hot rain water. The acetate of
lead is poisonous if taken internally. When thoroughly dissolved, let
the solution stand until clear, then pour the alum solution into a tub
and add the lead solution. Let the solution stand for an hour or two,
then pour off the clear water and thoroughly soak the fabric in the
waterproofing mixture by rubbing and working the material with the
hands. Hang the cloth up without wringing it out.
The Forester’s Tent is Quickly Erected by
Using Three Small Saplings, One along the
Ridge, and One on Each Side of the Opening
to Form a Crotch for the Ridge Pole
The Ranger’s or Hiker’s Tent Comes in The Canoe or Protean Tents
Halves. Each Half may be Used Are Good Styles for the
Independently as a Lean-To Shelter for One Camper Who Travels Light
Man, or Both Joined Together to Make Room and Is Often on the Move,
for Two Persons and They can be Quickly Set
Up with a Single Inside Pole

How to Pitch a Tent

It is, of course, possible to pitch a tent almost anywhere, but for

the sake of comfort, it is well to select a site with natural drainage.
Many campers dig a shallow trench around the tent to prevent water
from running in during a heavy rain. This is a good idea for the
permanent camp, but is not often necessary if the soil is sandy or
porous, or where a sod cloth is used.
It is rarely necessary to carry the regular poles to the camping
ground, and they may be omitted excepting when en route to a
treeless region. The wall and other large tents may be pitched in
several ways. In some places the woodsman cuts a straight ridge
pole, about 3 ft. longer than the tent, and two crotched uprights, 1 ft.
or more longer than the height of the tent. The ridge pole is passed
through the opening in the peak of the tent, or fastened to the
outside of the ridge with tapes sewed to the cloth. The two upright
stakes are then firmly planted in the ground, one at the back and the
other in front, and the ridge pole is lifted and dropped into these
crotched supports. Set up the four corner guys first to get the tent in
shape, then peg down the side guys and slide them taut so that all of
them will exert an even pull on the tent. Another good method for
setting up the side guys is to drive four crotched stakes, each about
4 ft. long, somewhere near 3 ft. from each corner of the tent, and
drop a fairly heavy pole in the rest so formed, then fasten the guy
ropes to this pole. When a sod cloth is provided it is turned under on
the inside, the floor cloth is spread over it and the camp duffel
distributed along the walls of the tent, to hold it down and prevent
insects and rain from entering.
To overcome the disadvantage of placing the poles in the center of
the entrance, the uprights may be formed by lashing two poles
together near the top to make a crotch and spreading the bottoms to
form a pair of shears. Poles may be dispensed with entirely,
providing the tent is ordered with tapes for attaching a rope to
suspend the ridge of the tent between two trees. In a wooded
country this manner of setting a tent is generally preferred.
Where a wall tent is used in a more permanent camp, it is a good
plan to order a fly, a couple of sizes larger than the tent. This should
be set up by using separate poles and rigged some 6 or 8 in. higher
than the ridge of the tent, thus affording an air space to temper the
heat of the sun and also serving to keep things dry during long,
heavy rains.

The Camping Kit

The camping kit, including the few handy articles needed in the
woods, as well as the bedding and cooking outfit, may be either
elaborate or simple, according to the personal experience and ideas
of the camper. In making up a list, it is a good plan to remember that
only comparatively few articles are really essential for a comfortable
vacation in the wilderness. A comfortable bed must be reckoned one
of the chief essentials, and one may choose the de-luxe couch—the
air mattress or sleeping pocket—use the ordinary sleeping bag, or
court slumber on one of the several other styles of camp beds. The
fold-over combination bed, the stretcher bed, or a common bag
made of ticking, 6¹⁄₂ ft. long by 2 ft. wide, which is stuffed with
browse or leaves, will suffice for the average person. Folding camp
cots, chairs, tables, and other so-called camp furniture, have their
places in the large, fixed camps, but the woodsman can manage to
live comfortably without them. A good pair of warm blankets should
be included for each person, providing the sleeping bag is not taken
along. The regulation army blankets are a good choice and
reasonable in price, or the blankets used at home may be pressed
into service.
A good ax is the woodsman’s everyday companion, and a good-
weight tool, weighing 3 or 4 lb., and a smaller one of 1¹⁄₂ lb. should
be carried. When going light, the belt ax will suffice.
The oil lantern is only suited for the fixed camp, since the fuel is
difficult to transport unless it is placed in screw-top cans. The
“Stonbridge” and other folding candle lanterns are the most
convenient for the woods and give sufficient light for camp life.
The aluminum cooking outfits are light in weight, nest compactly,
and will stand many years of hard usage, but like other good things,
they are somewhat expensive. A good substitute, at half the price,
may be obtained in tin and steel, having the good feature of nesting
within each other, but, of course, not being quite so light nor so
attractive in appearance as the higher-priced outfits. Both the
aluminum and steel outfits are put up in canvas carrying bags, and
an outfit for two includes a large and a small cooking pot coffee pot;
frying pan with folding or detachable handle; two plates; cups knives;
forks, and spoons. Outfits may be bought for any number of persons
and almost all sporting-goods stores carry them. The two-man outfit
in heavy aluminum will cost $9 or $10, while the same outfit
duplicated in steel is priced at $3.35.