New Laboratory Equipment for Study
of Reflective Cracking in Asphalt Overlays
Juan Gallego and Jorge N. Prieto
One of the current road maintenance problems continues to be the
appearance of reflective cracks in asphalt overlays. It would be of real
benefit if laboratory equipment were available during the design stage
to allow the best solution to be selected for site laying. A new piece of lab-
oratory equipment is reported on for the process known as the wheel
reflective cracking (WRC) test based on the traditional wheel-tracking
device. The WRC apparatus allows the chief failure mechanisms lead-
ing to the phenomenon of reflective cracks to be simulated in the labo-
ratory. Initial results obtained with it on several overlay sections are
consistent with the current Spanish experience in full-scale test sections.
The WRC test can also be of help to researchers in this field since it
enables test parameters to be varied for the purpose of carrying out sen-
sitivity studies. In addition, it allows the loss of structural capacity and
the shape of the cracks to be monitored beyond the mere comparison
between different overlay sections.
Reflective cracking continues to be one of the major factors con-
tributing to the deterioration of asphalt overlays placed over cracked
or jointed pavements. The problem has been studied from different
approaches such as the use of numerical modeling methods, creation
of mechanistic models, and laboratory and field experimentation.
In laboratory research—the category to which this study belongs—
different devices have been developed and laboratory installations
set up that use equipment originally designed for other types of tests.
One of the most often-cited tests in the technical literature for study-
ing reflective cracks in asphalt overlays is the trial developed in the
Autun Laboratory in France (1).
The Polytechnic University of Madrid in Spain is currently engaged
in research on developing a laboratory test to measure the reflective
cracking strength of asphalt mixes and the efficiency of antireflec-
tion systems to counteract this phenomenon. Since the system is based
on a wheel-tracking test device (2), the new test procedure has been
termed the wheel reflective cracking (WRC) test.
One of the research aims pursued was that the test be useful, not only
in academic research but also in laboratories testing road materials
for studies related to the selection of materials, the design of asphalt
mixes, and the study of systems to counteract reflective cracking for
road maintenance projects.
The research began by reviewing various technical publications
referring to different research studies on reflective cracking, which
Transport Department, Civil Engineering School, Polytechnic University of Madrid,
ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, C/ Profesor Aranguren s/n, 28040, Madrid,
Spain.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 1970, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,
D.C., 2006, pp. 215–222.
215
produced the following contributions and formed the starting point
for the process of developing the new test procedure:
• Reflective cracks appear over cracks and joints existing in the
layer below as a result of shear and tensile stresses in the asphalt
overlay induced by traffic loading, changes in temperature, subgrades
made of expansive soils, moisture changes, and discontinuities
(cracks and joints). These factors give rise to horizontal and verti-
cal movements in the joints and cracks, creating high stresses in the
overlay (3).
• Loads from the passage of vehicles produce two types of move-
ment in cracks and joints, which in turn cause two types of stress in
the asphalt overlay—shear stress (Figure 1a and c) and flexural stress
(Figure 1b) (4).
• Drops in temperature cause cracks and joints to open up, giv-
ing rise to tractive stresses in the asphalt overlay (Figure 1d) (4). In
addition, low temperatures increase the rigidity of asphalt mixes,
reducing their strain capacity and making them more susceptible to
reflective cracking.
• Several tests were developed for the laboratory study of the
phenomenon of reflective cracking in asphalts. Some only simulate
traffic load, others only the thermal tractions generated by tem-
perature changes, but few simultaneously simulate traffic load and
thermal tractions (4).
• To simulate vehicle load, some tests use dynamic equipment
producing cyclic loads, whereas others, like the wheel-tracking test,
use moving loads.
TEST DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
It is difficult and can be costly in a laboratory test to represent the
actual conditions to which a material in service is exposed; therefore
the real conditions have to be simplified. In the laboratory, the material
is subjected to a deterioration process over a short period, which pro-
vokes the accelerated action of the factors and distress mechanisms
to study the way they affect the behavior of the material.
ASTM E 632-82 (1996) warns of the difficulty of developing
aging tests on materials with a view to estimating their performance
over extended periods of service on account of the numerous factors
involved and the difficulty in reproducing them adequately.
In any event, tests for studying the behavior of materials can be
classed into two groups (5): behavior-related tests and behavior-based
tests.
In behavior-related tests, test conditions are not directly corre-
lated with expected conditions in service and only provide an ap-
proximation for assessing the behavior of the materials. This type
of test measures the relative efficiency among different materials
216
T a drop in temperature is involved. Contractions occur in the cracked
(a) (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 1 Movements in joints and cracks causing
(a, c) shear stress, (b) flexural stress, and (d ) tractive
stress (4).
or combinations of materials. It is not easy to set up a correlation
allowing laboratory results to be extrapolated in order to obtain
an estimation of useful service life. These tests are used to assess
whether one product is better than another or whether it meets certain
requirements.
Behavior-based tests are representative of the field performance
of the material. These tests simulate service conditions, reproducing
the factors causing distress in degrees of severity that are similar to
the real situation. When these tests include combined factors and
appropriate levels to achieve service conditions successfully, they
can provide an adequate evaluation of behavior and the following
types of information:
• Identification of products likely to perform well in service and
• Estimation of the likely effective life of a product before it
requires the application of maintenance or substitution work.
In line with the foregoing definitions, the WRC test can be classified
as a behavior-related test.
The WRC test was developed by using a four-stage process, defined
by taking into account some of the criteria in ASTM E 632-82:
1. Identification of the factors facilitating distress,
2. Identification of the possible mechanisms causing distress,
3. Definition of the systems for simulating the mechanisms causing
distress, and
4. Definition of the failure criterion.
Stage 1. Identification of Factors
Facilitating Distress
After a study of the factors involved in the phenomenon of reflective
cracking, those considered most important and capable of laboratory
simulation were found to be
• Low temperatures,
• Relative vertical movement between crack borders,
• Temperature changes, and
• Deflection in the pavement structure.
Stage 2. Identification of Possible Mechanisms
Causing Distress
The processes through which the distress factors act and cause
deterioration in the specimen are roughly as follows:
• Low temperatures increase the modulus of elasticity of the
asphalt mix and thereby decrease its strain capacity.
• Relative vertical movement between crack borders generates
shear stress in the asphalt mix.
Transportation Research Record 1970
• Changes in temperature are critical in reflective cracking when
layer that translate into horizontal movements that widen the open-
ing in cracks and joints. This process gives rise to high stresses in the
asphalt of the overlay and to horizontal strain, which facilitate the
appearance of reflective cracking.
• Deflection in the pavement structure produces an increase in
the horizontal strains and stresses on the bottom plane of the bitu-
minous layer, which has the added effect of causing the cracks to
open up.
Generally speaking, in practice these distress mechanisms occur si-
multaneously, generating interactions that increase their deteriorating
capacity and accelerate the reflective cracking process.
Stage 3. Definition of Systems for Simulating
Mechanisms Causing Distress
The simulation systems used for incorporating the distress mecha-
nisms into the test were defined in line with the possibilities provided
by the wheel-tracking device. Some systems for simulating the dis-
tress mechanisms were the end result of an iterative and progressive
process during which different options were tried until a configura-
tion was obtained for the apparatus that allowed the deterioration
factors identified to be simultaneously incorporated.
Figures 2 and 3 show a diagram and a photograph, respectively,
of the equipment developed. The following simulation systems
were used.
Low Temperatures
To simulate the low-temperature distress mechanism, the base tem-
perature chosen for running the test was 5°C ± 1°C. Before the test
was run, the specimen was left at a temperature of 5°C for a period
of at least 10 h. In some published research, the tests were run at
temperatures of 20°C and 25°C. In the Autun trial the tests were run
at a temperature of 5°C. In the Roads Laboratory at the Polytech-
nic University of Madrid a chamber was fitted so that the tempera-
ture could be set in an interval between 0 and 20°C. Even though the
base temperature for running the test was defined as 5°C ± 1°C, for
research purposes it could be of interest to run the tests at different
temperatures.
Relative Movements Between Crack Borders
As can be seen in Figures 2 and 3, the WRC test comprises a support-
ing system and the different elements simulating distress mechanisms.
The supporting system consists of four trapezoidal frames and two
chassis. Each chassis is supported at one end by the trapezoidal frames
by means of a horizontal shaft allowing it to rock, and at the other
end it rests on a rocker that simulates the relative vertical movement
between the borders of the crack or the pavement joint.
Both chassis are set 10 mm apart, a distance simulating the joint
or crack in the deteriorated pavement on which the asphalt overlay
is installed.
Figure 4 shows a diagram of the mechanism simulating the rela-
tive vertical movement and a photograph of the device that was
built. When the position of the load is symmetrical to the crack, the
vertical displacements of the borders (theoretically) are equal, and
deflection is present but not relative vertical movement in the borders
of the crack.
Gallego and Prieto 217

FIGURE 2 Schematic representation of WRC test.

FIGURE 3 WRC equipment.

Rocker

Condition of Condition of
symmetric load asymmetric load

Rubber

FIGURE 4 Mechanism simulating relative vertical movement.

218
When the load is asymmetrical to the center of the crack, it gen-
erates a downward movement on the most-loaded side of the rocker
and consequently an upward movement on the least-loaded side.
In the tests run, it was observed that as long as the specimen sec-
tion located over the crack possessed sufficient strength and struc-
tural capacity to transmit load to the unloaded side of the crack, the
relative vertical movements were very small. However, when the
specimen became debilitated by the action of horizontal displace-
ment, deflection, and applications of load, the relative vertical
movements increased.
Changes in Temperature
The temperature-change distress mechanism was simulated with a
system of sliding plates. The specimen was attached with a synthetic
adhesive to two plates (Figure 5), and it was then placed inside the
apparatus and screwed down tightly. During the test, one of the
plates remained immobile, and the other was displaced horizontally
by the action of the tractive force applied to one end. The method
was chosen to simulate the progressive widening of the crack as a
result of temperature changes, which caused the concrete pavement
slabs to contract and made joints and cracks open up.
The sliding plate was set up so that it could move in the direction
of the tractive force and cause the crack to gradually open wider but
could not undergo any vertical or side movement.
The tractive force was applied with a computer-controlled micro-
motor (Figure 6), which allowed tractive speeds to be applied that
ranged from 50 µm/s to 0.001 µm/s and total displacements of up to
10 mm, so that a wide range of temperature changes could be simulated,
a useful feature for the simulation of different weather conditions.
Deflection
Another of the distress mechanisms at work in the phenomenon of
reflective cracking is deflection. In the WRC test, deflection was
simulated by placement of a prism-shaped rubber block under the
rocker support (Figure 4). As a result, independent of the effect of
the rocker in the center of the specimen, a vertical displacement
occurs caused by the strain in the rubber block. This equipment
allows different magnitudes of deflection to be simulated by vary-
ing the hardness or thickness of the rubber blocks used, to which end
different heights of rocker support are available.
It was decided that in the new test the deflection would be a con-
trolled and limited parameter to prevent the possibility that large deflec-
Sliding plate Fixed plate
FIGURE 5 Specimen in plates of adherence.
Transportation Research Record 1970
tions would occur during the test capable of bringing the specimen to
failure through pure bending. In addition to preventing failure through
deflection, this criterion was also consistent with practice, since it is an
acknowledged fact that building asphalt overlays over pavements with
high deflections is not an economically viable alternative and that it is
necessary, before the overlay is installed, to carry out whatever work
is required to lower the magnitude of the deflections.
In the tests carried out, two superimposed rubber blocks were
used, each 5 mm thick and with a hardness of 63 on the Shore D
scale. (Rubber hardness is measured on the Shore D scale, running
from 0 to 95.) For the test conditions, these rubber blocks produced
a maximum deflection of approximately 0.2 mm.
At the start of the test, deflection may be lower because the spec-
imen possesses greater structural strength, but as the test evolves and
the specimen weakens under the action of the different distress
mechanisms, deflection gradually increases.
Stage 4. Definition of Failure Criterion
To define the failure criterion for the specimen, marking the end of
the test, the following parameters are options:
• Vertical length of the crack, determined by visual observation;
• Vertical displacement or deflection, measured at one of the bor-
ders of the crack in the supporting layer or the cracked layer; and
• Relative vertical movement between the borders of the crack
or joint in the cracked layer.
The vertical length of the crack was used as the failure criterion in
several of the research projects consulted. In the tests carried out in the
course of research reported on here, it was observed that in some cases
a hairline crack propagated throughout the specimen thickness in the
lateral planes, but it did not appear on the surface of the specimen nor
did it affect its structural capacity to any significant degree. This find-
ing indicates that in certain cases a crack can appear on the surface of
the lateral planes of the specimen without significantly affecting the
specimen’s capacity for transmitting load between the borders of the
crack. As a result, the specimen cannot be considered to have reached
the failure point. It was also observed that in a few cases the crack did
not propagate in a uniform way on the two sides of the specimen.
In accordance with the observations made, the practice of mea-
suring crack propagation by visual observation was not considered
an objective criterion for determining specimen failure. Because
deflection was a limited parameter during the test because of the rub-
ber blocks on which the rocker rested, this parameter was similarly
rejected as an appropriate criterion for judging specimen failure.
In the different tests run during the development of the new test-
ing procedure, it was observed that relative vertical movement does
constitute an objective indicator of the structural state of the speci-
men (of its capacity for transmitting load between the edges of a fis-
sure) and it was therefore chosen as the criterion for determining the
moment of failure of the specimen and the end of the test.
In the WRC test, a specimen was deemed to have reached fail-
ure when the relative vertical displacement between crack borders
reached 0.2 mm. In the tests run, it was observed that when the rel-
ative vertical displacement reached this value, the crack had already
extended throughout the thickness of the specimen and the move-
ment between the two parts of the specimen located on each side
of the crack could readily be seen. It may happen that the two parts
continue to be joined and resist greater relative vertical displace-
Gallego and Prieto 219

FIGURE 6 Computer-controlled micromotor.

ments without the specimen’s actually breaking up, but its capac-
ity to transmit load between the edges of the fissure is poor. This
behavior pattern was also observed in tests run with maximum
deflections of 0.1 mm and with a single rubber block in place.
During the course of running a WRC test, the 0.2-mm value for
relative vertical movement lasts for a brief time—a few minutes—
since this is a transition value between lower values, indicating that
the specimen still possesses structural capacity and extremely higher
values, indicating failure of the specimen.
were made with the same gradation of aggregates to diminish the
sources of dispersed results. Equally, all three overlays had the same
binder content, namely, 5.75% of the weight of aggregates.
Overlays 1 and 2 were produced without a geosynthetic; Overlay 1
was made with a 60–70 penetration hydrocarbon binder and Overlay
2 with a bm-3c hydrocarbon binder, a polymer-modified asphalt.
Overlay 3 had a geosynthetic installed and was also made of a bm-3c
hydrocarbon binder. The specimens were 7.5 cm wide.

Specimen Production
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
The specimens used in the test were cut from specimens measuring
With the equipment designed and set up, several tests were run to 305 × 305 × 60 mm, which were produced following the procedure
allow its performance to be classified and the basic conditions to be used for the wheel-tracking test (2), the only exception being that a
set for running tests designed to measure the reflective cracking 10-mm thick bituminous base course was laid first (Figure 7a). A
strength of asphalt overlays. tack coat was subsequently applied with an emulsion in the amount
An experimental study was carried out to evaluate the sensitivity indicated in Table 1 for each overlay.
and coherence of the WRC test. Tests were run on three asphalt over- For Overlay 3, after the emulsion was applied and uniformly dis-
lays with different compositions and assumed to have different reflec- tributed, the geosynthetic was installed in a way that allowed it to
tive cracking strengths (Table 1). Two asphalt overlays were tested: absorb the emulsion before it broke down (Figure 7b). All three
one without a geosynthetic and one with geosynthetic. All overlays overlays were allowed the time required for the emulsion to break
down, after which the asphalt mix was laid and compacted.
During the process of making Overlay 3, the location of the re-
TABLE 1 Specifications for Overlays Tested inforcement filaments of the geosynthetic was indicated so that
when the specimen was cut, the filaments would be evenly dis-
Specification Overlay 1 Overlay 2 Overlay 3 tributed in the cross section. Figure 8 shows the specimen used in
the WRC test.
Gradation of aggregates F-10a F-10a F-10a
Binder type P 60/70 bm-3c bm-3c
Geosynthetic: tensile — — 100
strengthb (kN/m) Test Conditions
Quantity of asphalt in 0.2 0.2 1.2
The specimens were tested in the following conditions:
the interface (kg/m2)
Depth of asphalt mix (mm) 49 48 51
• Temperature: 5°C,
aF-10 corresponds to a gap-graded mix. • Crack or joint opening speed: 600 µm/h, and
b
The strength values refer to the glass filament reinforcement. • Maximum deflection: 0.2 mm.
220 Transportation Research Record 1970

a) b)

FIGURE 7 Specimen production: (a) 10-mm-thick bituminous base course and (b) installation of geosynthetic.

Before testing, the specimens were left for 10 h in a chilled cham-
ber at a temperature of 5°C. During the test, this same temperature
was maintained in the test chamber.
With the specimen placed in the apparatus and before the start of
the test, a horizontal tractive displacement of 200 µm was applied to
eliminate any possible slack. The test was then put in motion by the
application of the load with the moving wheel and the horizontal
tractive displacement at the indicated speed.
During the course of the test, the deflection and the relative verti-
cal movement were measured. The process of reflective cracking was
also monitored by visual observation, not for the purpose of quanti-
fying its progression but to check that the test was running normally.
The tests were considered to have ended when the relative vertical
movement between the edges of the crack reached a value of 0.2 mm.
The WRC test should be carried out in a continuous manner. In the
tests run as part of this research, it was observed that any suspension
affects the results. When a test was restarted, the specimen was seen
to recover structural capacity, and deflection and relative vertical
movement were lower than the levels recorded before the test was sus-
pended. In other research work on reflective cracking, the observation
was also made that suspending the test altered the results (6).
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The result of the test developed in this research project is the time
required for a relative vertical movement of 0.2 mm to occur between
crack borders. The results for the three overlays tested, given as the
average of two specimens’ time to failure, are as follows:
Overlay 1 Overlay 2 Overlay 3
Time to failure (min) 280 315 480

Base Geosynthetic

FIGURE 8 Specimen used in WRC test.

Gallego and Prieto
600
500
400
Minutes
300
200
100
0 • Likewise, in Specimen 2, containing bm-3c hydrocarbon binder,
OVERLAY 1 OVERLAY 2 OVERLAY 3
FIGURE 9 Average time to failure of overlays.
Figure 9 shows a comparison of the times elapsed for each overlay,
and Figure 10 shows the lateral plane of the specimens to demon-
strate the way in which the crack propagates until it is reflected on the
surface and produces failure in the specimen.
The results obtained warrant the following comments.
• The relative strength of each overlay with respect to reflective
cracking is in line with expected results for the materials used to
make the specimens and with the experience acquired with these
materials when installed on roads in service.
• Of the overlays without geosynthetic, Overlay 2, made of bm-3c
hydrocarbon binder, was stronger. This result was to be expected since
bm-3c hydrocarbon binder is of better quality than the conventional
binder with a 60–70 penetration.
• The overlay with the geosynthetic had 1.5 times better strength
than Overlay 2. These two overlays were made from the same type
FIGURE 10 Lateral plane of specimens showing crack propagation: (a) Specimen 1, single reflective crack; (b) Specimen 2, single crack with
ramifications; and (c) Specimen 3, two cracks with multiple ramifications.
221
of hydrocarbon binder. For the test conditions, the geosynthetic
increased the time to failure of the asphalt mix made with bm-3c
binder by 50%.
An analysis of the photographs shown in Figure 10 produces the
following comments:
• In Specimen 1, containing 60–70 penetration hydrocarbon
binder, one single reflective crack occurred with small ramifica-
tions alongside (Figure 10a). The part of the specimen suffering
strain was limited to an area very close to the strip of reflective
cracking.
a single reflective crack occurred. More ramifications were present
but did not develop sufficiently to form another crack (Figure 10b).
The area of strain in this specimen is wider than that in Specimen 1,
attributable to the fact that the specimen possesses a greater strain
capacity at the test temperature owing to the characteristics of the
polymer-modified binder.
• In Specimen 3, containing bm-3c hydrocarbon binder and a geo-
synthetic, the area of strain in the specimen spread over a larger region
and two cracks formed with multiple ramifications (Figure 10c). The
presence of the geosynthetic helped to distribute the stresses over
a greater length of the specimen, reducing the magnitude of the
unitary strains and increasing the time to failure of the specimen.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the work and results
described in this paper:
1. The WRC device enables simultaneous laboratory simulation
of the mechanisms causing distress leading to reflective cracking,
namely, rigidity of the asphalt mix at low temperatures, horizontal
222
movements owing to contraction in cracked or jointed layers as a
result of changes in temperature (increased opening up of cracks or
joints), differential vertical movement between the borders of cracks
or joints, and deflection in the pavement structure.
2. The results of the WRC test applied to different overlays have
shown adequate consistency with the current Spanish experience in
full-scale test sections.
3. For the test conditions, the overlay with the geosynthetic
had 1.5 times better strength than the same overlay without the
geosynthetic.
4. The new test is a tool that will help road maintenance engineers
to make decisions on the most suitable materials and alternatives for
asphalt overlays with respect to controlling the phenomenon of re-
flective cracking. It is also a useful tool in research linked to the same
phenomenon.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported here was sponsored by the Spanish Ministry of
Education and Science. The authors thank all who provided valuable
help in this study.
Transportation Research Record 1970
REFERENCES
1. Vanelstraete, A., A. De Bondt, and L. Courard. Characterisation of Over-
lay Systems. In Prevention of Reflective Cracking in Pavements, RILEM
Report 18, International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for
Materials and Structures (RILEM), Paris, 1997, pp. 61–83.
2. Methods of Test for the Determination of Wheel Tracking Rate and
Depth. BS 598-110. British Standards Institution, London, 1998.
3. Amini, F. Potential Applications of Paving Fabrics to Reduce Reflec-
tive Cracking. Publication FHWA/MS-DOT-RD-05-174. FHWA, U.S.
Department of Transportation, 2005.
4. Francken, L., A. Vanelstraete, and A. De Bondt. Modelling and Structural
Design of Overlay Systems. In Prevention of Reflective Cracking in
Pavements, RILEM Report 18, RILEM, Paris, 1997, pp. 84–103.
5. Masson, J. F., and M. A. Lacasse. Considerations for Performance-
Based Specifications for Bituminous Crack Sealants. In Flexible Pave-
ment Rehabilitation Maintenance, Publication STP 1348, ASTM, West
Conshohocken, Pa., 1998, pp. 168–181.
6. Gibney, A., G. Lohan, and V. Moore. Laboratory Study of Resistance of
Bituminous Overlays to Reflective Cracking. In Transportation Research
Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1809, Trans-
portation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.,
2002, pp. 184 –190.
The Geosynthetics Committee sponsored publication of this paper.