Cellular network

A cellular network or mobile network is a

telecommunications network where the link
to and from end nodes is wireless and the
network is distributed over land areas called
cells, each served by at least one fixed-
location transceiver (typically three cell sites
or base transceiver stations).
These base stations provide the cell with
the network coverage which can be used for
transmission of voice, data, and other
types of content. A cell typically uses a
different set of frequencies from
neighboring cells, to avoid interference
and provide guaranteed service quality
within each cell.[1]

Top of a cellular radio tower

 Indoor cell site in Germany

When joined together, these cells provide radio

coverage over a wide geographic area. This
enables numerous portable transceivers (e.g.,
mobile phones, tablets and laptops equipped
with mobile broadband modems, pagers, etc.)
to communicate with each other and with fixed
transceivers and telephones anywhere in the
network, via base stations, even if some of the
transceivers are
moving through more than one cell during
transmission.

Cellular networks offer a number of

desirable features:[1]

More capacity than a single large

transmitter, since the same frequency can be
used for multiple links as long as they are in
different cells
Mobile devices use less power than with a
single transmitter or satellite since the cell
towers are closer[2]
Larger coverage area than a single
terrestrial transmitter, since additional
 cell towers can be added indefinitely
and are not limited by the horizon
Capability of utilizing higher frequency
signals (and thus more available bandwidth
/ faster data rates) that are not able to
propagate at long distances
With data compression and multiplexing,
several video (including digital video) and
audio channels may travel through a higher
frequency signal on a single wideband
carrier

Major telecommunications providers have

deployed voice and data cellular networks over
most of the inhabited land area of Earth. This
allows mobile phones and
mobile computing devices to be connected to
the public switched telephone network and
public Internet access. Private cellular
networks can be used for research[3] or for
large organizations and fleets, such as
dispatch for local public safety agencies or a
taxicab company.[2]

Concept

Example of frequency reuse factor or

pattern, with four frequencies (F1-F4)
In a cellular radio system, a land area to be
supplied with radio service is divided into cells
in a pattern dependent on terrain and reception
characteristics. These cell patterns roughly
take the form of regular shapes, such as
hexagons, squares, or circles although
hexagonal cells are conventional. Each of
these cells is assigned with multiple
frequencies (f1 – f6) which have corresponding
radio base stations. The group of frequencies
can be reused in other cells, provided that the
same frequencies are not reused in adjacent
cells, which would cause co- channel
interference.
The increased capacity in a cellular network,
compared with a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the mobile
communication switching system developed
by Amos Joel of Bell Labs[4] that permitted
multiple callers in a given area to use the same
frequency by switching calls to the nearest
available cellular tower having that frequency
available. This strategy is viable because a
given radio frequency can be reused in a
different area for an unrelated transmission. In
contrast, a single transmitter can only handle
one transmission for a given frequency.
Inevitably, there is some level of
interference from the signal from the other
cells which use the same frequency.
Consequently, there must be at least one cell
gap between cells which reuse the same
frequency in a standard frequency- division
multiple access (FDMA) system.

Consider the case of a taxi company, where

each radio has a manually operated channel
selector knob to tune to different frequencies.
As drivers move around, they change from
channel to channel. The drivers are aware of
which frequency approximately covers some
area. When they do not receive a signal from
the transmitter, they try other channels until
finding one that works. The taxi drivers only
speak one at a time when invited by the base
station operator. This is a form of time-
division multiple access (TDMA).

History

The history of cellular phone technology

began on December 11, 1947 with an internal
memo written by Douglas H. Ring, a Bell
Labs engineer in which he proposed
development of a cellular telephone system by
AT&T.[5]

The first commercial cellular network, the 1G

generation, was launched in Japan by Nippon
Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) in
1979, initially in the metropolitan area of
Tokyo. Within five years, the NTT network
had been expanded to cover the whole
population of Japan and became the first
nationwide 1G network. It was an analog
wireless network. The Bell System had
developed cellular technology since 1947,
and had cellular networks in operation in
Chicago and Dallas prior to 1979, but
commercial service was delayed by the
breakup of the Bell System, with cellular
assets transferred to the Regional Bell
Operating Companies.

The wireless revolution began in the early

1990s,[6][7][8] leading to the transition from
analog to digital networks.[9] This was enabled
by advances in MOSFET technology. The
MOSFET, originally invented by Mohamed
M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in
1959,[10][11] was adapted for cellular networks
by the early 1990s, with the wide adoption of
power MOSFET, LDMOS (RF amplifier), and
RF CMOS (RF circuit) devices leading to the
development and proliferation of digital
wireless mobile networks.[9][12][13]

The first commercial digital cellular network,

the 2G generation, was launched in 1991.
This sparked competition in the sector as the
new operators challenged
the incumbent 1G analog network
operators.

Cell signal encoding

To distinguish signals from several different

transmitters, frequency-division multiple access
(FDMA, used by analog and D-AMPS
systems), time-division multiple access
(TDMA, used by GSM) and code-division
multiple access (CDMA, first used for PCS,
and the basis of 3G) were developed.[1]

With FDMA, the transmitting and receiving

frequencies used by different users in each
cell are different from each other.
Each cellular call was assigned a pair of
frequencies (one for base to mobile, the other
for mobile to base) to provide full- duplex
operation. The original AMPS systems had
666 channel pairs, 333 each for the CLEC "A"
system and ILEC "B" system. The number of
channels was expanded to 416 pairs per
carrier, but ultimately the number of RF
channels limits the number of calls that a cell
site could handle. FDMA is a familiar
technology to telephone companies, which
used frequency-division multiplexing to add
channels to their point-to-point wireline plants
before time-division multiplexing rendered
FDM obsolete.
With TDMA, the transmitting and receiving
time slots used by different users in each cell
are different from each other. TDMA typically
uses digital signaling to store and forward
bursts of voice data that are fit into time slices
for transmission, and expanded at the
receiving end to produce a somewhat normal-
sounding voice at the receiver. TDMA must
introduce latency (time delay) into the audio
signal. As long as the latency time is short
enough that the delayed audio is not heard as
an echo, it is not problematic. TDMA is a
familiar technology for telephone companies,
which used time-division multiplexing to add
channels to their point-to-point
wireline plants before packet switching
rendered FDM obsolete.

The principle of CDMA is based on spread

spectrum technology developed for military
use during World War II and improved during
the Cold War into direct- sequence spread
spectrum that was used for early CDMA
cellular systems and Wi-Fi. DSSS allows
multiple simultaneous phone conversations to
take place on a single wideband RF channel,
without needing to channelize them in time or
frequency.
Although more sophisticated than older
multiple access schemes (and unfamiliar to
legacy telephone companies because it
was not developed by Bell Labs), CDMA
has scaled well to become the basis for 3G
cellular radio systems.

Other available methods of multiplexing such

as MIMO, a more sophisticated version of
antenna diversity, combined with active
beamforming provides much greater spatial
multiplexing ability compared to original
AMPS cells, that typically only addressed one
to three unique spaces. Massive MIMO
deployment allows much greater channel
reuse, thus increasing the number of
subscribers per cell site, greater data
throughput per user, or some combination
thereof. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM) modems offer an increasing number
of bits per symbol, allowing more users per
megahertz of bandwidth (and decibels of
SNR), greater data throughput per user, or
some combination thereof.

Frequency reuse

The key characteristic of a cellular network is

the ability to reuse frequencies to increase both
coverage and capacity. As described above,
adjacent cells must use different frequencies,
however, there is no problem with two cells
sufficiently far apart operating on the same
frequency,
provided the masts and cellular network
users' equipment do not transmit with too
much power.[1]

The elements that determine frequency reuse

are the reuse distance and the reuse factor. The
reuse distance, D is calculated as

where R is the cell radius and N is the number

of cells per cluster. Cells may vary in radius
from 1 to 30 kilometres (0.62 to
18.64 mi). The boundaries of the cells can
also overlap between adjacent cells and
large cells can be divided into smaller
cells.[14]

The frequency reuse factor is the rate at

which the same frequency can be used in the
network. It is 1/K (or K according to some
books) where K is the number of cells which
cannot use the same frequencies for
transmission. Common values for the
frequency reuse factor are 1/3, 1/4, 1/7, 1/9
and 1/12 (or 3, 4, 7, 9 and 12, depending on
notation).[15]

In case of N sector antennas on the same base

station site, each with different direction, the
base station site can serve N
different sectors. N is typically 3. A reuse
pattern of N/K denotes a further division in
frequency among N sector antennas per site.
Some current and historical reuse patterns are
3/7 (North American AMPS), 6/4 (Motorola
NAMPS), and 3/4 (GSM).

If the total available bandwidth is B, each cell

can only use a number of frequency channels
corresponding to a bandwidth of B/K, and
each sector can use a bandwidth of B/NK.

Code-division multiple access-based systems

use a wider frequency band to achieve the
same rate of transmission as
FDMA, but this is compensated for by the
ability to use a frequency reuse factor of 1, for
example using a reuse pattern of 1/1.
In other words, adjacent base station sites
use the same frequencies, and the different
base stations and users are separated by codes
rather than frequencies. While N is shown as 1
in this example, that does not mean the
CDMA cell has only one sector, but rather that
the entire cell bandwidth is also available to
each sector individually.

Recently also orthogonal frequency-

division multiple access based systems such
as LTE are being deployed with a
frequency reuse of 1. Since such systems do
not spread the signal across the frequency
band, inter-cell radio resource management is
important to coordinate resource allocation
between different cell sites and to limit the
inter-cell interference. There are various means
of inter-cell interference coordination (ICIC)
already defined in the standard.[16] Coordinated
scheduling, multi-site MIMO or multi-site
beamforming are other examples for inter- cell
radio resource management that might be
standardized in the future.
Directional antennas

Cellular telephone frequency reuse pattern. See U.S. patent 4,144,411

(https://patents.google.com/patent/US4144411)

Cell towers frequently use a directional signal

to improve reception in higher-traffic areas. In
the United States, the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) limits
omnidirectional cell tower signals to 100 watts
of power. If the tower has directional antennas,
the FCC allows the cell operator to emit up to
500 watts of effective radiated power (ERP).[17]

Although the original cell towers created an

even, omnidirectional signal, were at the
centers of the cells and were omnidirectional,
a cellular map can be redrawn with the
cellular telephone towers located at the
corners of the hexagons where three cells
converge.[18] Each tower has three sets of
directional antennas aimed in three different
directions with 120 degrees for each cell
(totaling 360
degrees) and receiving/transmitting into three
different cells at different frequencies. This
provides a minimum of three channels, and
three towers for each cell and greatly
increases the chances of receiving a usable
signal from at least one direction.

The numbers in the illustration are channel

numbers, which repeat every 3 cells. Large
cells can be subdivided into smaller cells for
high volume areas.[19]

Cell phone companies also use this

directional signal to improve reception
along highways and inside buildings like
stadiums and arenas.[17]

Broadcast messages and paging

Practically every cellular system has some

kind of broadcast mechanism. This can be used
directly for distributing information to multiple
mobiles. Commonly, for example in mobile
telephony systems, the most important use of
broadcast information is to set up channels for
one-to-one communication between the mobile
transceiver and the base station. This is called
paging. The three different paging
procedures generally adopted are sequential,
parallel and selective paging.

The details of the process of paging vary

somewhat from network to network, but
normally we know a limited number of cells
where the phone is located (this group of cells
is called a Location Area in the GSM or
UMTS system, or Routing Area if a data
packet session is involved; in LTE, cells are
grouped into Tracking Areas).
Paging takes place by sending the
broadcast message to all of those cells. Paging
messages can be used for information transfer.
This happens in pagers, in CDMA systems for
sending SMS
messages, and in the UMTS system where it
allows for low downlink latency in packet-
based connections.

Movement from cell to cell and

handing over

In a primitive taxi system, when the taxi

moved away from a first tower and closer to a
second tower, the taxi driver manually
switched from one frequency to another as
needed. If communication was interrupted due
to a loss of a signal, the taxi driver asked the
base station operator to repeat the message on
a different frequency.
In a cellular system, as the distributed mobile
transceivers move from cell to cell during an
ongoing continuous communication,
switching from one cell frequency to a
different cell frequency is done electronically
without interruption and without a base
station operator or manual switching. This is
called the handover or handoff. Typically, a
new channel is automatically selected for the
mobile unit on the new base station which
will serve it. The mobile unit then
automatically switches from the current
channel to the new channel and
communication continues.
The exact details of the mobile system's
move from one base station to the other vary
considerably from system to system (see the
example below for how a mobile phone
network manages handover).

Mobile phone network

WCDMA network architecture

The most common example of a cellular

network is a mobile phone (cell phone)
network. A mobile phone is a portable
telephone which receives or makes calls
through a cell site (base station) or
transmitting tower. Radio waves are used to
transfer signals to and from the cell phone.

Modern mobile phone networks use cells

because radio frequencies are a limited, shared
resource. Cell-sites and handsets change
frequency under computer control and use low
power transmitters so that the usually limited
number of radio frequencies can be
simultaneously used by many callers with less
interference.

A cellular network is used by the mobile

phone operator to achieve both coverage
and capacity for their subscribers. Large
geographic areas are split into smaller cells to
avoid line-of-sight signal loss and to support a
large number of active phones in that area. All
of the cell sites are connected to telephone
exchanges (or switches), which in turn connect
to the public telephone network.

In cities, each cell site may have a range of up

to approximately 1⁄2 mile (0.80 km), while in
rural areas, the range could be as much as 5
miles (8.0 km). It is possible that in clear open
areas, a user may
receive signals from a cell site 25 miles (40
km) away. In rural areas with low-band
coverage and tall towers, basic voice and
messaging service may reach 50 miles (80
km), with limitations on bandwidth and
number of simultaneous calls.

Since almost all mobile phones use cellular

technology, including GSM, CDMA, and
AMPS (analog), the term "cell phone" is in
some regions, notably the US, used
interchangeably with "mobile phone".
However, satellite phones are mobile phones
that do not communicate directly with a
ground-based cellular tower but may do so
indirectly by way of a satellite.
There are a number of different digital cellular
technologies, including: Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM), General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne,
CDMA2000, Evolution- Data Optimized (EV-
DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
(EDGE), Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital
Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
(DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and
Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN).
The transition from existing analog to the
digital standard followed a very different path
in Europe and the US.[20] As a consequence,
multiple digital standards surfaced in the
US, while Europe and many countries
converged towards the GSM standard.

Structure of the mobile phone cellular

network

A simple view of the cellular mobile-radio

network consists of the following:

A network of radio base stations

forming the base station subsystem.
The core circuit switched network for
handling voice calls and text
A packet switched network for handling
mobile data
 The public switched telephone network to
connect subscribers to the wider telephony
network

This network is the foundation of the GSM

system network. There are many functions that
are performed by this network in order to
make sure customers get the desired service
including mobility management, registration,
call set-up, and handover.

Any phone connects to the network via an

RBS (Radio Base Station) at a corner of the
corresponding cell which in turn connects to
the Mobile switching center (MSC). The
MSC provides a connection to the public
switched telephone network
(PSTN). The link from a phone to the RBS is
called an uplink while the other way is
termed downlink.

Radio channels effectively use the

transmission medium through the use of the
following multiplexing and access schemes:
frequency-division multiple access (FDMA),
time-division multiple access (TDMA),
code-division multiple access (CDMA), and
space-division multiple access (SDMA).
Small cells

Small cells, which have a smaller coverage

area than base stations, are categorised as
follows:

Microcell -> less than 2 kilometres,

Picocell -> less than 200 metres,
Femtocell -> around 10 metres,
Attocell -> 1–4 metres

Cellular handover in mobile phone

networks

As the phone user moves from one cell area to

another cell while a call is in progress, the
mobile station will search for
a new channel to attach to in order not to drop
the call. Once a new channel is found, the
network will command the mobile unit to
switch to the new channel and at the same time
switch the call onto the new channel.

With CDMA, multiple CDMA handsets share

a specific radio channel. The signals are
separated by using a pseudonoise code (PN
code) that is specific to each phone. As the
user moves from one cell to another, the
handset sets up radio links with multiple cell
sites (or sectors of the same site)
simultaneously. This is known as "soft
handoff" because, unlike with
traditional cellular technology, there is no
one defined point where the phone switches
to the new cell.

In IS-95 inter-frequency handovers and older

analog systems such as NMT it will typically
be impossible to test the target channel
directly while communicating. In this case,
other techniques have to be used such as pilot
beacons in IS-95. This means that there is
almost always a brief break in the
communication while searching for the new
channel followed by the risk of an unexpected
return to the old channel.
If there is no ongoing communication or the
communication can be interrupted, it is
possible for the mobile unit to spontaneously
move from one cell to another and then notify
the base station with the strongest signal.

Cellular frequency choice in mobile

phone networks

The effect of frequency on cell coverage

means that different frequencies serve better
for different uses. Low frequencies, such as
450 MHz NMT, serve very well for
countryside coverage. GSM 900
(900 MHz) is suitable for light urban
coverage. GSM 1800 (1.8 GHz) starts to be
limited by structural walls. UMTS, at
2.1 GHz is quite similar in coverage to
GSM 1800.

Higher frequencies are a disadvantage when it

comes to coverage, but it is a decided
advantage when it comes to capacity.
Picocells, covering e.g. one floor of a
building, become possible, and the same
frequency can be used for cells which are
practically neighbors.

Cell service area may also vary due to

interference from transmitting systems,
both within and around that cell. This is
true especially in CDMA based systems. The
receiver requires a certain signal-to- noise ratio,
and the transmitter should not send with too
high transmission power in view to not cause
interference with other transmitters. As the
receiver moves away from the transmitter, the
power received decreases, so the power
control algorithm of the transmitter increases
the power it transmits to restore the level of
received power. As the interference (noise)
rises above the received power from the
transmitter, and the power of the transmitter
cannot be increased anymore, the signal
becomes corrupted and eventually unusable.
In CDMA-based
systems, the effect of interference from other
mobile transmitters in the same cell on
coverage area is very marked and has a special
name, cell breathing.

One can see examples of cell coverage by

studying some of the coverage maps provided
by real operators on their web sites or by
looking at independently crowdsourced maps
such as Opensignal or CellMapper. In certain
cases they may mark the site of the
transmitter; in others, it can be calculated by
working out the point of strongest coverage.
A cellular repeater is used to extend cell
coverage into larger areas. They range from
wideband repeaters for consumer use in
homes and offices to smart or digital
repeaters for industrial needs.

Cell size

The following table shows the dependency of

the coverage area of one cell on the frequency
of a CDMA2000 network:[21]

Frequency (MHz) Cell radius (km) Cell area (km2) Relative cell count

450 48.9 7521 1

950 26.9 2269 3.3

1800 14.0 618 12.2

2100 12.0 449 16.2

See also

Cellular network standards and

generation timeline.

Lists and technical information:

Mobile technologies
2G networks (the first digital
networks, 1G and 0G were analog):
GSM
Circuit Switched Data (CSD)
GPRS
 EDGE(IMT-SC)
Evolved
EDGE Digital
AMPS
Cellular Digital Packet
Data (CDPD)
cdmaOne (IS-95)
Circuit Switched Data (CSD)
Personal Handy-phone System
Personal Digital Cellular
3G networks:
UMTS
W-CDMA (air interface)
TD-CDMA (air interface)
 TD-SCDMA (air interface)
HSPA
HSDPA
HSPA+
CDMA2000
OFDMA (air interface)
EVDO
SVDO
4G networks:
IMT Advanced
LTE (TD-LTE)
LTE Advanced
LTE Advanced Pro
WiMAX
 WiMAX-Advanced
(WirelessMAN-Advanced)
Ultra Mobile Broadband (never
commercialized)
MBWA (IEEE 802.20, Mobile
Broadband Wireless Access,
HC-SDMA, iBurst, has been
shut down)
5G networks:
5G NR
5G-Advanced

Starting with EVDO the following

techniques can also be used to improve
performance:
MIMO, SDMA and Beamforming
Cellular frequencies
CDMA frequency bands
GSM frequency bands
UMTS frequency bands
LTE frequency bands 5G
NR frequency bands
Deployed networks by technology List
of UMTS networks
List of CDMA2000 networks
List of LTE networks
List of deployed WiMAX networks
List of 5G NR networks
Deployed networks by country (including
technology and frequencies)
List of mobile network operators of
Europe
List of mobile network operators of
the Americas
List of mobile network operators of
the Asia Pacific region
List of mobile network operators of
the Middle East and Africa
List of mobile network operators
(summary)
Mobile country code - code, frequency,
and technology for each operator in each
country
 Comparison of mobile phone standards
List of mobile phone brands by country
(manufacturers)

Equipment:

Cellular repeater
Cellular router
Professional mobile radio (PMR)
OpenBTS
Remote radio head

Other:

Cellular traffic
MIMO (multiple-input and multiple- output)
 Mobile edge computing
Mobile phone radiation and health Network
simulation
Radio resource management (RRM)
Routing in cellular networks Signal
strength
Title 47 of the Code of Federal
Regulations

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Further reading

P. Key, D. Smith. Teletraffic Engineering in

a competitive world. Elsevier Science
B.V., Amsterdam Netherlands, 1999.
 ISBN 978-0444502681. Chapter 1
(Plenary) and 3 (mobile).
William C. Y. Lee, Mobile Cellular
Telecommunications Systems (https://bo
oks.google.com/books/about/Mobile_Cel
lular_Telecommunications_Syste.html?id
=fS91Sly6vYgC) (1989), McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 978-0-071-00790-0.

External links

Raciti, Robert C. (July 1995). "CELLULAR

TECHNOLOGY" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20130715020839/http://scis.no
va.edu/~raciti/cellular.html) . Nova
Southeastern University. Archived from
 the original (http://scis.nova.edu/~racit
i/cellular.html) on 15 July 2013.
Retrieved 2 April 2012.
A History of Cellular Networks (https://w
ww.staracle.com/general/mobileNetwor
kHistory.php)
What are cellular networks? 1G to 6G
Features & Evolution (https://mystudyte
ch.com/what-are-cellular-networks-1g-t o-6g-
features-evolution/)

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title=Cellular_network&oldid=1196756079"
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