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CHAPTER 4: 5.5 How Do Rocks Melt? 116
E A R T H M AT E R I A L S 74 5.6 How Do Igneous Rocks Form? 118
5.7 How Does Magma Move? 120
4.1 What Is the Difference Between a Rock 5.8 How Does Magma Solidify? 122
and a Mineral? 76 5.9 How Does Magma Form Along Divergent
4.2 How Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks? 78 Plate Boundaries? 124
4.3 How Do We Distinguish One Mineral 5.10 How Does Magma Form Along Convergent
from Another? 80 Plate Boundaries? 126
4.4 What Controls a Crystal’s Shape? 82 5.11 How Is Magma Generated at Hot Spots and
4.5 What Causes Cleavage in Minerals? 84 Other Sites Away from Plate Boundaries? 128
4.6 How Are Minerals Classified? 86 5.12 How Do Large Magma Chambers Form and
How Are They Expressed in Landscapes? 130
4.7 What Is the Crystalline Structure
of Silicate Minerals? 88 5.13 How Are Small Intrusions Formed
and Expressed in Landscapes? 132
4.8 What Are Some Common Silicate Minerals? 90
5.14 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Sierra
4.9 What Are Some Common Nonsilicate Minerals? 92
Nevada Form? 134
4.10 Where Are Different Minerals Abundant? 94
5.15 INVESTIGATION: What Types of Igneous
4.11 What Are the Building Blocks of Minerals? 96 Processes Are Occurring Here? 136
4.12 How Do Atoms Bond Together? 98
4.13 How Do Chemical Reactions Help Minerals
Grow or Dissolve? 100
4.14 CONNECTIONS: How Are Minerals
Used in Society? 102
4.15 INVESTIGATION: What Minerals Would
You Use to Build a House? 104

C H A P T E R 5: C H A P T E R 6:
IGNEOUS ENVIRONMENTS 106 V O LC A N O E S A N D V O LC A N I C
HAZARDS 138
5.1 What Textures Do Igneous Rocks Display? 108
5.2 How Are Igneous Rocks Classified? 110 6.1 What Is and Is Not a Volcano? 140
5.3 What Are Some Other Igneous Rocks? 112 6.2 What Controls the Style of Eruption? 142
5.4 How Do Temperature and Pressure 6.3 What Features Characterize Basaltic Volcanoes? 144
Vary Inside Earth? 114 6.4 How Do Shield Volcanoes Form? 146

VII
 6.5 What Causes Flood Basalts? 148 7.9 Where Does Sandstone Form? 188
6.6 What Are the Hazards of Basaltic Eruptions? 150 7.10 How Do Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks Form? 190
6.7 What Are Composite Volcanoes? 152 7.11 How Do Carbonate Rocks Form? 192
6.8 What Disasters Were Caused by 7.12 How Do Changing Environments Create
Composite Volcanoes? 154 a Sequence of Different Kinds of Sediments? 194
6.9 How Do Volcanic Domes Form? 156 7.13 How Do We Study Sedimentary Sequences? 196
6.10 Why Does a Caldera Form? 158 7.14 Why Are Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
6.11 What Disasters Were Related to Calderas? 160 Important to Our Society? 198
6.12 What Areas Have the Highest Potential 7.15 CONNECTIONS: How Did Sedimentary
for Volcanic Hazards? 162 Layers West of Denver Form? 200
6.13 How Do We Monitor Volcanoes? 164 7.16 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Sedimentary
History of This Plateau? 202
6.14 CONNECTIONS: What Volcanic Hazards
Are Posed by Mount Rainier? 166
6.15 INVESTIGATION: How Would You Assess
Hazards on This Volcano? 168

C H A P T E R 8:
D E F O R M AT I O N A N D
M E TA M O R P H I S M 204

8.1 How Do Rocks Respond to Stress? 206

C H A P T E R 7: 8.2 How Do Rocks Respond to Changes in Stress,
S E D I M E N TA R Y E N V I R O N M E N T S Temperature, and Fluids? 208
AND ROCKS 170 8.3 How Do Rocks Fracture? 210
8.4 What Are Different Types of Faults? 212
7.1 What Sedimentary Environments Occur on Land? 172 8.5 What Are Folds and How Are They Shaped? 214
7.2 What Sedimentary Environments Are 8.6 What Are Some Metamorphic Features? 216
Near Shorelines and in Oceans? 174 8.7 What Are Some Common Metamorphic Rocks? 218
7.3 Where Do Clasts Come From? 176 8.8 How Does Metamorphism Occur? 220
7.4 What Are the Characteristics of 8.9 Where Does Metamorphism Occur? 222
Clastic Sediments? 178 8.10 What Processes Occur in Extensional
7.5 What Types of Rocks Do Clastic Sediments Form? 180 and Strike-Slip Settings? 224
7.6 What Are Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks and 8.11 How Are Different Structures
How Do They Form? 182 and Metamorphic Features Related? 226
7.7 Why Do Sedimentary Rocks Have Layers? 184 8.12 How Are Geologic Structures and Metamorphic
7.8 Where Do Breccia and Conglomerate Form? 186 Rocks Expressed in the Landscape? 228

VIII
8.13 How Do We Study Geologic Structures C H A P T E R 10:
and Metamorphic Features? 230 T H E S E A F LO O R A N D
8.14 CONNECTIONS: What Is the Structural CO N T I N E N TA L M A R G I N S 268
and Metamorphic History of New England? 232
8.15 INVESTIGATION: What Structural and 10.1 How Do We Explore the Seafloor? 270
Metamorphic Events Occurred Here? 234
10.2 What Processes Occur at Mid-Ocean Ridges? 272
10.3 What Are Major Features of the Deep Ocean? 274
10.4 How Do Oceanic Islands, Seamounts,
and Oceanic Plateaus Form? 276
10.5 What Processes Form Island Arcs? 278
10.6 How Did Smaller Seas of the Pacific Form? 280
10.7 How Did Smaller Seas Near Eurasia Form? 282
C H A P T E R 9: 10.8 How Do Reefs and Coral Atolls Form? 284
G E O LO G I C T I M E 236 10.9 What Is the Geology of Continental Margins? 286
10.10 How Do Marine Salt Deposits Form? 288
9.1 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events? 238 10.11 How Did Earth’s Modern Oceans Evolve? 290
9.2 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes? 240 10.12 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Gulf of Mexico
9.3 What Is the Significance of an Unconformity? 242 and the Caribbean Region Form? 292
9.4 How Are Ages Assigned to Rocks and Events? 244 10.13 INVESTIGATION: How Did These Ocean
Features and Continental Margins Form? 294
9.5 What Are Fossils? 246
9.6 How and Why Did Living Things Change
Through Geologic Time? 248
9.7 How Are Fossils Used to Infer Ages of Rocks? 250
9.8 How Was the Geologic Timescale Developed? 252
9.9 What Is the Evidence for the Age of Earth? 254
9.10 What Were Some Milestones
in the Early History of Life on Earth? 256
9.11 What Were Some Milestones
in the Later History of Life on Earth? 258
9.12 How Do We Reconstruct Geologic Histories? 260
9.13 Why Do We Investigate Geologic History? 262
C H A P T E R 11:
M O U N TA I N S , B A S I N S ,
9.14 CONNECTIONS: What Is the History
of the Grand Canyon? 264
A N D CO N T I N E N T S 296
9.15 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic History
of This Place? 266 11.1 Why Are Some Regions High in Elevation? 298
11.2 Where Do Mountain Belts and High Regions Form? 300
11.3 How Do Local Mountains Form? 302
11.4 Where Do Basins Form? 304
11.5 How Do Mountains and Basins Form
at Convergent Continental Margins? 306
11.6 How Does Continental Extension Occur? 308
11.7 What Are the Characteristics and History
of Continental Hot Spots? 310
IX
 11.8 What Features Characterize the Interiors
of Continents? 312
11.9 What Are Tectonic Terranes? 314
11.10 How Do Continents Form? 316
11.11 How Did the Continents Join and Split Apart? 318
11.12 CONNECTIONS 1: How Did the Appalachian
and Ouachita Mountains Form? 320
11.13 CONNECTIONS 2: What Is the Geologic History
of the Western United States? 322
11.14 INVESTIGATION: Where Will Mountains
and Basins Form in This Region? 324
12.13 What Is the Potential for Earthquakes Along
the San Andreas Fault? 352
12.14 How Do We Explore Earth’s Subsurface? 354
12.15 What Do Seismic Waves Indicate
About Earth’s Interior? 356
12.16 How Do We Investigate Deep Processes? 358
12.17 CONNECTIONS: What Happened During
the Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964? 360
12.18 INVESTIGATION: Where Did This Earthquake
Occur, and What Damage Might Be Expected? 362

C H A P T E R 13:
C L I M AT E , W E AT H E R , A N D
C H A P T E R 12: T H E I R I N F LU E N C E S O N G E O LO G Y 364
E A R T H Q UA K E S A N D E A R T H ’S
INTERIOR 326
13.1 What Causes Winds? 366
13.2 What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds? 368
12.1 What Is an Earthquake? 328
13.3 Why Does It Rain, Snow, and Hail? 370
12.2 How Does Faulting Cause Earthquakes? 330
12.3 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? 332 13.4 How Does Rising Air Cause Precipitation? 372

12.4 What Causes Earthquakes Along 13.5 How Do Hurricanes, Tornadoes,

Plate Boundaries and Within Plates? 334 and Other Storms Develop? 374
12.5 How Do Earthquake Waves Travel? 336 13.6 What Is the Global Pattern of Surface Currents? 376
12.6 How Do We Determine the Location and 13.7 How Do Ocean Currents Influence Climate? 378
Size of an Earthquake? 338 13.8 What Causes Short-Term Climatic Variations? 380
12.7 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage? 340 13.9 What Controls the Location of Rain Forests? 382
12.8 What Were Some Major North American 13.10 What Are Deserts and How Do They Form? 384
Earthquakes? 342
13.11 How Does Wind Transport Material? 386
12.9 What Were Some Recent Large Earthquakes? 344
13.12 What Features Are Common in Deserts? 388
12.10 How Does a Tsunami Form
and Cause Destruction? 346 13.13 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change? 390
12.11 How Do We Study Earthquakes in the Field? 348 13.14 What Factors Influence Climate Change? 392
12.12 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? 350 13.15 What Are the Consequences of Climate Change? 394

X
13.16 What Is the Relationship Among Climate,
Tectonics, and Landscape Evolution? 396
13.17 CONNECTIONS: What Happened During
Hurricane Sandy? 398
13.18 INVESTIGATION: What Kinds of Climate
and Weather Would Occur in This Place? 400
14.18 What Causes Changes in Sea Level? 438
14.19 CONNECTIONS: What Would Happen to Sea Level
if the Ice in West Antarctica Melted? 440
14.20 INVESTIGATION: How Could Global Warming
or a Glacial Period Affect North America? 442

C H A P T E R 14:
G L AC I E R S , S H O R E L I N E S ,
AND CHANGING SEA LEVELS 402 C H A P T E R 15:
W E AT H E R I N G , S O I L ,
14.1 What Are Glaciers? 404 A N D U N S TA B L E S LO P E S 444
14.2 How Do Glaciers Form, Move, and Vanish? 406
14.3 How Do Glaciers Erode, Transport, and 15.1 What Physical Processes Affect
Deposit? 408 Earth Materials Near the Surface? 446
14.4 What Are the Landforms of Alpine Glaciation? 410 15.2 How Do Chemical Processes Affect
14.5 What Are the Landforms of Continental Earth Materials Near the Surface? 448
Glaciation? 412 15.3 How Does the Type of Earth Material
14.6 What Features Are Peripheral to Glaciers? 414 Influence Weathering? 450

14.7 What Is the Evidence for Past Glaciations? 416 15.4 How Do Climate, Slope, Vegetation,
and Time Influence Weathering? 452
14.8 What Happened During Past Ice Ages? 418
15.5 How Is Weathering Expressed? 454
14.9 What Starts and Stops Glacial Episodes? 420
15.6 How Do Caves Form? 456
14.10 What Processes Occur Along Shorelines? 422
15.7 What Is Karst Topography? 458
14.11 What Causes High Tides and Low Tides? 424
15.8 How Does Soil Form? 460
14.12 How Do Waves Form and Propagate? 426
15.9 Why Is Soil Important to Society? 462
14.13 How Is Material Eroded, Transported,
and Deposited Along Shorelines? 428 15.10 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 464

14.14 What Landforms Occur Along Shorelines? 430 15.11 How Do Slopes Fail? 466

14.15 What Are Some Challenges of Living
Along Shorelines? 432
14.16 How Do Geologists Assess the Relative
Risks of Different Stretches of Coastline? 434
14.17 What Happens When Sea Level Changes? 436
15.12 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 468
15.13 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 470
15.14 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 472
15.15 How Do We Study Slope Failures and Assess
the Risk for Future Events? 474

XI
 15.16 CONNECTIONS: What Is Happening with the
Slumgullion Landslide in Colorado? 476
15.17 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have
the Highest Risk of Slope Failure? 478

C H A P T E R 17:
WAT E R R E S O U R C E S 514

17.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet? 516

17.2 How Do We Use Freshwater? 518
17.3 Where Is Groundwater Found? 520
C H A P T E R 16: 17.4 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow? 522
S T R E A M S A N D F LO O D I N G 480 17.5 What Is the Relationship Between
Surface Water and Groundwater? 524
16.1 What Are Stream Systems? 482 17.6 How Do We Explore for Groundwater? 526
16.2 How Do Streams Transport Sediment 17.7 What Problems Are Associated
and Erode Their Channels? 484 with Groundwater Pumping? 528
16.3 How Do River Systems Change Downstream 17.8 How Can Water Become Contaminated? 530
or Over Short Time Frames? 486
17.9 How Does Groundwater Contamination Move
16.4 What Factors Influence Profiles of Streams? 488
and How Do We Clean It Up? 532
16.5 Why Do Streams Have Curves? 490
17.10 CONNECTIONS: What Is Going On with the
16.6 What Happens in the Headwaters of Streams? 492 Ogallala Aquifer? 534
16.7 What Features Characterize Braided Streams? 494 17.11 INVESTIGATION: Who Polluted Surface
16.8 What Features Characterize Water and Groundwater in This Place? 536
Low-Gradient Streams? 496
16.9 What Happens When a Stream
Reaches Its Base Level? 498
16.10 How Do Rivers Change Over Time? 500
16.11 What Happens During Stream Incision? 502
16.12 What Is and What Is Not a Flood? 504
16.13 What Were Some Devastating Floods? 506
16.14 How Do We Measure Floods? 508
16.15 CONNECTIONS: How Does the Colorado River
Change as It Flows Across the Landscape? 510
16.16 INVESTIGATION: How Would Flooding
Affect This Place? 512

XII
C H A P T E R 1 8: C H A P T E R 19:
ENERGY AND MINERAL G E O LO G Y O F T H E S O L A R S YS T E M 572
RESOURCES 538
19.1 How Do We Explore Other Planets and Moons? 574
18.1 How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form? 540 19.2 Why Is Each Planet and Moon Different? 576
18.2 In What Settings Are Oil and Gas Trapped? 542 19.3 What Is the Geology of the Inner Planets? 578
18.3 What Are Shale Gas and Shale Oil? 544 19.4 What Is the Geology of Our Moon? 580
18.4 How Do Coal and Coal-Bed Methane Form? 546 19.5 What Is Observed on Jupiter and Its Moons? 582
18.5 What Are Other Types of Hydrocarbons? 548 19.6 What Is Observed on Saturn and Its Moons? 584
18.6 How Do We Explore for Fossil Fuels? 550 19.7 What Is the Geology of the Outer Planets
18.7 How Is Nuclear Energy Produced? 552 and Their Moons? 586
18.8 How Is Water Used to Generate Electricity? 554 19.8 CONNECTIONS: What Have We Learned
About Mars? 588
18.9 What Are Alternative Energy Sources? 556
19.9 INVESTIGATION: How and When Did Geologic
18.10 What Are Mineral Deposits
Features on This Alien World Form? 590
and How Do They Form? 558
18.11 How Do Precious Metal Deposits Form? 560
18.12 How Do Base Metal Deposits Form? 562
18.13 How Do We Explore for Mineral Deposits? 564
18.14 Why Are Industrial Rocks and Minerals
So Important to Society? 566
18.15 CONNECTIONS: Why Is Wyoming So Rich in
Energy Resources? 568
18.16 INVESTIGATION: Where Would You Explore
for Fossil Fuels in This Place? 570

Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
Shaded-Relief Map of the United States I-18
Tapestry of Time Map of North America Inside Back Cover

XIII
 PREFACE
TELLING THE STORY . . .
WE WROTE EXPLORING GEOLOGY SO THAT STUDENTS could
learn from the book on their own, freeing up instructors to teach
the class in any way they want. I (Steve Reynolds) first identified the
need for this book while I was a National Association of Geoscience
Teachers’ (NAGT) distinguished speaker. As part of my NAGT activi-
ties, I traveled around the country conducting workshops on how to
infuse active learning and scientific inquiry into introductory college
geology courses, including those with upwards of 200 students. In
the first part of the workshop, I asked the faculty participants to list
the main goals of an introductory geology college course, especially
for nonmajors. At every school I visited, the main goals were similar
and are consistent with the conclusions of the National Research
Council (see box below):
• to engage students in the process of scientific inquiry so that
they learn what science is and how it is conducted,
• to teach students how to observe and interpret landscapes
and other aspects of their surroundings,
• to enable students to learn and apply important geologic
concepts,
• to help students understand the relevance of geology to their
lives, and
• to enable students to use their new knowledge, skills, and
ways of thinking to become more informed citizens.
I then asked faculty members to rank these goals and estimate how
much time they spent on each goal in class. At this point, many
instructors recognized that their activities in class were not consis-
tent with their own goals. Most instructors were spending nearly all
of class time teaching content. Although this was one of their main
goals, it commonly was not their top goal.
Next, I asked instructors to think about why their activities were
not consistent with their goals. Inevitably, the answer was that most
NRC The National Research Council
NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE
EDUCATION STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT,
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
LEARNING SCIENCE IS AN ACTIVE PROCESS.
Learning science is something students do, not something that is
done to them. In learning science, students describe objects and
events, ask questions, acquire knowledge, construct explanations
of natural phenomena, test those explanations in many different
ways, and communicate their ideas to others. Science teaching
must involve students in inquiry-oriented investigations in which
they interact with their teachers and peers.
XIV
Like most geologists, author Steve Reynolds prefers teaching students
out in the field, where they can directly observe the geology and
reconstruct the sequence of geologic events.
instructors spend nearly all of class time covering content because
(1) textbooks include so much material that students have difficulty
distinguishing what is important from what is not; (2) instructors
needed to lecture so that students would know what is important;
and (3) many students have difficulty learning independently from
the textbook.
In most cases, textbooks drive the curriculum, so the author team
decided that we should write a textbook that (1) contains only impor-
tant material, (2) indicates clearly to the student what is important
and what they need to know, and (3) is designed and written in
such a way that students can learn from the book on their own. This
type of book would give instructors freedom to teach in a way that
is more consistent with their goals, including using local examples
to illustrate geologic concepts and their relevance. Instructors would
also be able to spend more class time teaching students to observe
and interpret geology, and to participate in the process of scientific
inquiry, which represents the top goal for many instructors.
COGNITIVE AND SCIENCE
EDUCATION RESEARCH
To design a book that supports instructor goals, we delved into cogni-
tive and science-education research, especially research on how our
brains process different types of information, what obstacles limit
student learning from textbooks, and how students use visuals versus
text while studying. We also conducted our own research on how stu-
dents interact with textbooks, what students see when they observe
photographs showing geologic features, and how they interpret dif-
ferent types of geologic illustrations, including geologic maps and
cross sections. Exploring Geology is the result of our literature search
and of our own science-education research. As you examine Exploring
Geology, you will notice that it is stylistically different from most other
textbooks, which will likely elicit a few questions.
HOW DOES THIS BOOK SUPPORT STUDENT
 HOW DOES THIS BOOK SUPPORT STUDENT CURIOSITY AND INQUIRY?

CHAPTER
We a t h e r i n g, S o i l, a n d U n s t a b l e Sl o p e s 445

15 Weathering, Soil, and TOPICS IN THIS CHAPTER

Unstable Slopes 15.1

15.2
What Physical Processes Affect
Earth Materials Near the Surface?
How Do Chemical Processes Affect
446
15.9
15.10
Why Is Soil Important to Society?
What Controls the Stability of Slopes?
462
464
15.11 How Do Slopes Fail? 466
SLOPES CAN BE UNSTABLE, leading to slope failures that can produce catastrophic landslides or mudslides Earth Materials Near the Surface? 448
involving thick slurries of mud and debris. Such events have killed tens of thousands of people and destroyed 15.12 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 468
15.3 How Does the Type of Earth Material
houses, bridges, and large parts of cities. Where does this loose material come from, what factors determine if a 15.13 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 470
Influence Weathering? 450
slope is stable, and how do slopes fail? In this chapter, we explore slope stability and the origin of soil, one of 15.14 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 472
15.4 How Do Climate Slope, Vegetation, and Time
our most important resources. Influence Weathering? 452 15.15 How Do We Study Slope Failures and
Assess the Risk for Future Events? 474
15.5 How Is Weathering Expressed? 454
15.16 CONNECTIONS: What Is Happening with
The Cordillera de la Costa is a In December 1999, torrential rains in the mountains caused landslides and mobilized soil and other 15.6 How Do Caves Form? 456
the Slumgullion Landslide in Colorado? 476
steep 2 km-high mountain loose material as debris flows and flash floods that buried parts of the coastal cities. Some light-colored 15.7 What Is Karst Topography? 458
range that runs along the coast landslide scars are visible on the hillsides in this image. 15.17 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have
15.8 How Does Soil Form? 460 the Highest Risk of Slope Failure? 478
of Venezuela, separating the
capital city of Caracas from the How does soil and other loose material form on hillslopes? What factors determine whether a slope
sea. This image, looking south, is stable or is prone to landslides and other types of downhill movement?
has topography overlain with a
satellite image taken in 2000.
The white areas are clouds 15.00.a1
1999 Venezuelan Disaster
Huge boulders smashed through the lower two floors of this
and the purple areas are

A
building in Caraballeda (▼) and ripped away part of the debris flow is a slurry of water and debris,
cities. The Caribbean Sea including mud, sand, gravel, pebbles, boul-
right side. The mud and water that transported these
is in the foreground. ders, vegetation, and even cars and small
boulders is no longer present, but the boulders remain as
a testament to the event. buildings. Debris flows can move at speeds up to
16 m/s (36 mph). In December 1999, two storms
Caracas
dumped as much as 1.1 m (42 in.) of rain on the
Caracas coastal mountains of Venezuela. The rain loosened
soil on the steep hillsides, causing many landslides
and debris flows that coalesced in the steep canyons
Cordillera de la Costa and raced downhill toward the cities built on the
Landslide alluvial fans.
Scars In Caraballeda, the debris flows carried boul-
Landslide ders up to 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and weighing
Scars 300 to 400 tons each. The debris flows and flash
floods raced across the city, flattening cars and
smashing houses, buildings, and bridges. They
left behind a jumble of boulders and other debris
along the path of destruction through the city.
After the event, USGS geologists went into
the area to investigate what had happened and
why. They documented the types of material that
Caracas Airport were carried by the debris flows, mapped the
15.00.a2 Caraballeda, Venezuela
extent of the flows, and measured boulders (▼)
to investigate processes that occurred during the
Caribbean Sea event. When the geologists examined what lay
Caraballeda beneath the foundations of destroyed houses,
Caribbean Sea they discovered that much of the city had been
Alluvial Fan
built on older debris flows. These deposits should
have provided a warning of what was to come.
15.00.a4 Caraballeda, Venezuela
The mountain slopes are too steep for buildings, so people built The city of Caraballeda, built on one such alluvial fan, was especially ◀ This aerial photograph of
the coastal cities on the less steep fan-shaped areas at the foot hard hit in 1999 by debris flows and flash floods that tore a swath of Caraballeda, looking south
of each valley. These flatter areas are alluvial fans composed of destruction through the town. Landslides, debris flows, and flooding up the canyon, shows the
mountain-derived sediment that has been transported down killed more than 19,000 people and caused up to $30 billion in damage damage in the center of the

15.0
the canyons and deposited along the mountain front. in the region. The damage is visible as the light-colored strip through city caused by the debris
the center of town. flows and flash floods.
What are some potential hazards of living next to steep mountain
slopes, especially in a city built on an active alluvial fan? How can loss of life and destruction of property by debris flows and
15.00.a3 Caraballeda, Venezuela
landslides be avoided or at least minimized?
444

Untitled-14 444 10/14/14 4:50 PM

Untitled-14 445 10/14/14 4:51 PM

Exploring Geology promotes inquiry and science

as an active process. It encourages student curios- Inquire
ity and aims to activate existing student knowl-
edge by posing the title of every two-page spread “Exploring Geology is a seminal textbook for the new century, created by a unique
and every subsection as a question. In addition, team of authors who have synergistically merged their expertise in geology and geo-
questions are dispersed throughout the book. science teaching, cognitive science, and the graphic arts. The design of the book has
Integrated into the book are opportunities for stu- been richly informed by current research on how students best learn geoscience,
dents to observe patterns, features, and examples and what topics are essential and relevant. Each chapter is designed as a sequence
before the underlying concepts are explained. of two-page inquiry modules; each module focuses on a specific topic, opens with an
That is, we employ a learning-cycle approach engaging question, and integrates clear, jargon-free explanations with generous, pre-
where student exploration precedes the intro- cisely detailed illustrations. In conventional textbooks, figures are often subordinate
duction of geologic terms and the application to columns and columns of type; in Exploring Geology, text and illustrations are mutu-
of knowledge to a new situation. For example, ally embedded in a topical mosaic. At the close of each chapter, a real-world applica-
chapter 15 on slope stability begins with a three- tion of the subject matter and an investigative exercise complete the learning cycle.
dimensional image of northern Venezuela, and This book is an innovative, accessible resource that fosters understanding through
readers are asked to observe where people are authentic geological inquiry and visualization, rather than dense exposition.”
living in this area and what geologic processes Steven Semken
might have formed these sites. School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University
Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers

XV
 WHY ARE THE PAGES DOMINATED BY ILLUSTRATIONS?
Geology is an extremely visual science. Typically, geology textbooks
contain a variety of photographs, maps, cross sections, block dia-
grams, and other types of illustrations. These diagrams help portray
the distribution and geometry of geologic units on the surface and in
the subsurface in a way words could never do. In geology, a picture
really is worth a thousand words or more.
Engage
“Finally, there is an introductory geology textbook that was
designed around how modern college students learn! Reynolds
and company paid attention to the research on learning and have
produced a text that matches how I teach. My students study and
discuss images in class and then in their textbook. This book is built
around the illustrations—information-rich, graphically interesting
figures that engage most students better than the best-written nar-
rative could. From the spectacular opening spreads to the Connec-
tions and Investigations, Exploring Geology provides a full course
worth of interesting learning opportunities for use in the classroom
and as homework.”
Scott R. Linneman
Western Washington University
Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers
New experiences from the environment enter the
brain via the senses. Images, for example, come in
through the eyes, and sounds enter the ears.
XVI
Exploring Geology contains a wealth of figures to take advantage of
the visual nature of geology and the efficiency of figures in convey-
ing geologic information. This book contains few large blocks of text,
and most text is in smaller blocks that are specifically linked with
illustrations. An example of our integrated figure-text approach is
shown on the previous page and on the next page. In this approach,
each short block of text is one or more complete sentences that suc-
cinctly describe a geologic feature, geologic process, or both of these.
Most of these text blocks are connected to their illustrations with
leader lines so that readers know exactly which feature or part of
the diagram is being referenced by the text block. A reader does not
have to search for the part of the figure that corresponds to a text
passage, as occurs when a student reads a traditional textbook with
large blocks of text referencing a figure that may appear on a differ-
ent page.
The approach in Exploring Geology is consistent with the findings
of cognitive scientists, who conclude that our minds have two dif-
ferent processing systems, one for processing pictorial information
(images) and one for processing verbal information (speech and
Input from the senses is filtered and transferred into two
different types of working memory, a visual area for
images and a phonetic area for words. Each type
of working memory has a very limited
capacity to hold new information.
Information from working memory
is processed further and transferred
into long-term memory. Ideally, new
information is linked to existing
knowledge in long-term memory to
build a more complete understanding.
When information from long-term
memory is needed, it is retrieved into
working memory, where it can be
processed to make decisions.
written words). Cognitive scientists
also speak about two types of memory:
working memory, also called short-
term memory, holds information that
our minds are actively processing, and
long-term memory stores information
until we need it (Baddeley, 2007). Both
the verbal and pictorial processing sys-
tems have a limited amount of working
memory, and our minds have to use
much of our mental processing space
to reconcile the two types of informa-
tion in working memory. For informa-
tion that has both pictorial and verbal
components, the amount of knowl-
edge we retain depends on reconcil-
ing these two types of information, on
transferring information from working
memory to long-term memory, and on
linking the new information with our
existing mental framework. For this
reason, this book integrates text and
figures, as in the example shown here.
WHY ARE THERE SO MANY FIGURES?
This textbook contains more than 2,500
illustrations, which is two to three
times the number in most introduc-
tory geology textbooks. One reason for
this is that the book is designed to pro-
vide a concrete example of each rock
type, environment, or geologic feature
being illustrated. Research shows that
many college students require con-
crete examples before they can begin to
build abstract concepts (Lawson, 1980).
Also, many students have limited travel
experience, so photographs and other
figures allow them to observe places,
environments, and processes they have
not been able to observe firsthand. The
inclusion of an illustration for each text
block reinforces the notion that the
point being discussed is important. In
58
3.5 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries?
AT MID-OCEAN RIDGES, Earth’s tectonic plates diverge (move apart). Ridges are the sites of many small to
moderate-sized earthquakes and much submarine volcanism. On the continents, divergent motion can split a
continent into two pieces, forming a new ocean basin as the pieces move apart.
What Happens at Mid-Ocean Ridges?
Mid-ocean ridges are divergent plate boundaries where new oceanic lithosphere forms as two oceanic plates move
apart. These boundaries are also called spreading centers because of the way the plates spread apart.
1. A narrow trough, or rift, runs along the axis of most mid- 3. Much of the magma solidifies at depth, but some erupts onto
ocean ridges. The rift forms because large blocks of crust slip
down as spreading occurs. The movement causes faulting,
the seafloor, forming submarine lava flows. These eruptions create
new ocean crust that is incorporated into the oceanic plates as
resulting in frequent small to moderate-sized earthquakes. they move apart.
2. As the plates move 4. Mid-ocean ridges are elevated above
apart, solid mantle in
the asthenosphere rises
the surrounding seafloor because they
consist of hotter, less dense materials,
toward the surface. It
partially melts in
including magma. They also are higher
because the underlying lithosphere is thin-
response to a decrease ner beneath ridges than beneath typical
in pressure. The molten
rock (magma) rises
seafloor. Lower density materials and thin
lithosphere mean that the plate “floats”
along narrow conduits,
accumulates in magma
higher above the underlying astheno-
sphere. The elevation of the seafloor
chambers beneath the decreases away from the ridge because
rift, and eventually the rock cools and contracts, and because
becomes part of the the less dense asthenosphere cools
oceanic lithosphere. enough to become part of the more
dense lithosphere.
03.05.a1–2
Untitled-15 58 10/14/14 5:05 PM
Visualize
“This is it! This is a book that my students can use to learn, not just ‘do the reading.’ The focus
on questions on every page draws students in, and the immediacy of the illustration and text
focused on each question makes it almost impossible for students not to want to plunge in to
find out how each question is answered. And the centrality of high-quality illustrations, rather
than exhaustive text, is a key component for helping students learn once they are engaged.
Geoscience is a visual science, and this approach helps students visualize geologic processes in
the real world, truly learning rather than simply preparing to parrot back definitions. Do I worry
that this book isn’t packed with text? Not in the slightest! With examples, real-world data, and
research results easily accessible on the Internet, I don’t want or need an introductory textbook
that tries to be encyclopedic. I want a book that engages students, captures their imaginations,
and helps them learn. This is the book!”
Barbara J. Tewksbury
Hamilton College
Past President, American Geological Institute
Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers
XVII
 174 Sedimentary Environments and Rocks 175

7.2 What Sedimentary Environments 07.02.a5 Namibia

◀ Sandy dunes that are ▶ Some shorelines
include low areas,
07.02.a6 Olympic Peninsula, WA

inland from beaches are

Are Near Shorelines and in Oceans? called coastal dunes. These
dunes commonly form where
called tidal flats,
that are flooded
sand and finer sediment from by the seas during
OCEANS AND THEIR SHORELINES are dynamic environments with wind, waves, and ocean currents transport- the beach are blown or high tide but
ing sediment eroded from the coastline or brought in from elsewhere. The characteristics of each environment, washed inland and reshaped exposed to the air
by the wind. When strong during low tide.
especially the types of sediment, depend mostly on the proximity to shore, the availability of sediment, and the Most tidal flats are
winds blow onto land, sand
depth, temperature, and clarity of the water. can move from the beach to covered by mud
the dunes, and sand can and sand or are
07.02.a2 Carmel, CA move back toward the beach rocky. Some low
◀ Beaches are stretches of coastline along which sediment has accu- when winds blow toward the parts of the land
mulated. Most beaches consist of sand, pieces of shells, and rounded sea or lake. adjacent to tidal
gravel, cobbles, or boulders. The setting determines which of these flats can accumu-
components is most abundant. Some shorelines have bedrock all late salt and other
the way to the ocean and so have little or no beach. evaporite minerals as seawater and terrestrial (on-land) waters
evaporate under hot, arid (dry) conditions.
07.02.a1
07.02.a7 Mississippi Delta, LA

Tidal Flat
Coastal Dunes
Beac
h
07.02.a3 Akumal, Mexico
◀ The water near the
shoreline may be shel-
tered by offshore reefs or
islands. The sheltered Lagoon
water, called a lagoon, is
commonly shallow, calm, Delta
and perhaps warm. The
near-shore parts of lagoons
contain sand, mud, and Reef ▲ In addition to the parts of deltas overlapping the shore,
stones derived from land, submarine deltas extend in some places for tens of kilometers
whereas the outer parts offshore. The muddy or sandy front of the delta may be unsta-
Continental Shelf
may have sand and pieces Submarine Delta ble and material can slide or tumble down the slope, sending
of coral eroded from a reef. sediment into deeper water.
07.02.a4 Red Sea, Egypt
Where ocean water is shal-
low, warm, and clear, coral Lagoon
and other marine crea- Barrier Other accumulations of sand rise above the shallow coastal
tures construct reefs (◀), Island waters as long, narrow islands, called barrier islands. Most
s barrier islands, such as the one below, are only hundreds of
which can parallel the Continental Slope
coast, encircle islands, or meters wide. The areas between barrier islands and the shore-
form irregular mounds and line are commonly shallow lagoons or saltwater marshes (▼).
platforms. Reefs typically
protect the shoreline from
the energetic, big waves
of the deeper ocean.
Deep Seafloor

Away from the shoreline, many landmasses are

flanked by continental shelves and slopes consisting
of layers of mud, sand, and carbonate minerals. The
Material from these sites can move down the slope deep part of
Before You Leave This Page
in landslides or in turbulent, flowing masses of sand, the seafloor is a dark, cold Be Able To

mud, and water called turbidity currents. The slopes
of some continents are incised by branching
submarine canyons (not shown here) that funnel
sediment toward deeper waters.
7.2
environment that commonly is several kilome-
ters beneath the surface. It generally receives less sediment than Sketch and describe the main sedimentary
areas closer to land, and its sediment is dominated by fine, windblown environments in oceanic and near-shore environments.
dust and by remains of mostly single-celled marine organisms.
07.02.a8 Santa Rosa Island, FL

many cases, as in the example on this page, conceptualized figures

Untitled-16 174 10/14/14 5:11 PM
Untitled-16 175 10/14/14 5:11 PM

are integrated with photographs and text so that students can build a
more coherent view of the environment or process.

Exploring Geology focuses on the most important geologic concepts

and makes a deliberate attempt to eliminate text that is not essen-
tial for student learning of these concepts. Inclusion of information
that is not essential tends to distract and confuse students rather than
illuminate the concept; thus you will see fewer words. Cognitive and
science-education research has identified a redundancy effect, where
information that restates and expands upon a more succinct descrip-
tion actually results in a decrease in student learning (Mayer, 2001).
Specifically, students learn less if a long figure caption restates infor-
mation contained elsewhere on the page, such as in a long block of
text that is detached from the figure. We avoid the redundancy effect
by including only text that is integrated with the figure.

The style of illustrations in Exploring Geology was designed to be

more inviting to today’s visually oriented students who are used to
photo-realistic, computer-rendered images in movies, videos, and
computer games. For this reason, many of the figures were created by
world-class artists who have worked on Hollywood movies, on tele-
vision shows, for National Geographic, and in the computer-graphics
industry. In most cases, the figures incorporate real data, such as sat-
ellite images and aerial photographs. Our own research shows that

XVIII
many students do not understand geologic cross sections and other
subsurface diagrams, so nearly every cross section in this book has
a three-dimensional aspect, and many maps are presented in a per-
spective view with topography. Research findings by us and other
researchers (Roth and Bowen, 1999) indicate that including people
and human-related items on photographs and figures attracts undue
attention, thereby distracting students from the geologic features
being illustrated. As a result, our photographs have nondistracting
indicators of scale, like dull coins and plain marking pens. Figures
and photographs do not include people or human-related items
unless we are trying to illustrate how geoscientists study geologic
processes and features.

XIX
 HOW ARE GEOLOGIC TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS BOOK?

Wherever possible, we introduce terms after students have an

opportunity to observe the feature or concept that is being named.
This approach is consistent with several educational philosophies,
including a learning cycle and just-in-time teaching. Research on
learning cycles shows that students are more likely to retain a term if
they already have a mental image of the thing being named (Lawson,
2003). For example, this book presents students with the collection
of igneous rocks shown to the right and asks them to think about
how they would classify the rocks. Only then does the textbook
present a classification of igneous rocks.

Also, the figure-based approach in this book allows terms to be intro-

duced in their context rather than as a definition that is detached
from a visual representation of the term. In this book, we introduce
new terms in italics rather than in boldface, because boldfaced terms
on a textbook page cause students to immediately focus mostly on definition of a term to refresh their memory. To expand comprehen-
the terms, rather than build an understanding of the concepts. The sion of the definition, each entry in the glossary references the page
book includes a glossary for those students who wish to look up the where the term is defined in the context of a figure.

WHY DOES THE BOOK CONSIST OF TWOPAGE SPREADS?

This book consists of two-page spreads, most of which are further load (Sweller, 1994) has profound implications for student learning
subdivided into sections. Research has shown that because of our during lectures and while reading textbooks. Two-page spreads and
limited amount of working memory, much new information is lost if sections help prevent cognitive overload by providing natural breaks
it is not incorporated into long-term memory. Many students keep that allow students to stop and consolidate the new information
reading and highlighting their way through a textbook without stop- before moving on.
ping to integrate the new information into their mental framework.
New information simply displaces existing information in working
memory before it is learned and retained. This concept of cognitive

Before You Leave This Page

6.9
156
Vo l c a n o e s a n d Vo l c a n i c H a z a rd s 157
Be Able To
How Do Volcanic Domes Form? What Types of Rocks and Landscapes Characterize Domes?
MANY VOLCANIC AREAS CONTAIN DOME-SHAPED HILLS called volcanic domes. The domes form when Most volcanic domes consist of andesite, rhyolite, or rocks with a composition between andesite and rhyolite. Domes
viscous lava mounds up above and around a vent. When domes collapse, they sometimes release deadly pyroclastic are distinctive features when they form and harden, and even after they have been partially eroded. They consist of
solidified lava that has several different textures, and typically they are associated with pyroclastic rocks and other
flows that rush downhill at hundreds of kilometers an hour. Volcanic domes form distinctive rocks and features
in the landscape. debris that formed when the dome partially collapsed or was blown apart. Describe the characteristics of a
What Are Some Characteristics of a Volcanic Dome?
06.09.c1 Newberry volcano, OR

◀ Some parts of domes cool rapidly

Rock Types
▶ The outer parts of domes cool, solidify,
06.09.c2 Wickenburg, AZ
volcanic dome.
Some volcanic domes have a nearly symmetrical dome shape, but most have a more irregular shape because some into volcanic glass (obsidian) which, and fracture into angular blocks that can
parts of the dome have grown more than other parts or because one side of the dome has collapsed downhill. Domes although dark, has a felsic composition. become incorporated into the magma
may be hundreds of meters high and one or several kilometers across, but they can be much smaller, too.
06.09.a1 06.09.a2
Obsidian can be almost entirely glass
or can contain vesicles, crystals, and
pumice. This example has layers, called
to produce volcanic breccia. Such
breccias vary from containing mostly
blocks to being mostly intact lava, with
Explain or sketch the two ways by
◀ This rubble-covered dome formed near the end of the 1912 eruption flow bands, formed by shearing and some blocks. The matrix commonly con-
in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska. Volcanic domes
commonly have this type of rubbly appearance because their outer sur- Recent Dome
other processes during flow. tains some volcanic ash.
which a volcanic dome can grow.
face consists of angular blocks as large as houses. The blocks form when ◀ Obsidian and other volcanic glasses ▶ When a volcanic dome collapses,
solidified lava fractures as it is pushed from below, and when pieces and are unstable and over time begin to avalanches of rock and other debris can
blocks slide down steep slopes on the side of a dome. change from unordered glass into rhy- rush downhill in a pyroclastic flow of
Dome
▶ Most domes do not form in isolation but occur in clusters or in asso-
ciation with another type of volcano. Domes can form within the craters
Older Dome olite composed of very small crystals.
The conversion, when not complete,
creates a mottled rock with lighter
blocks and ash. The resulting deposits
are tuff or volcanic breccia consisting of
pieces of the dome in an ash-rich matrix.
Explain or sketch how a volcanic
of composite volcanoes, like these within the crater in Mount St. Helens,
or within large calderas. In composite volcanoes and calderas, domes
commonly are minor eruptions of viscous magmas that remain after a
06.09.c3 Wickenburg, AZ
colored rhyolite and darker areas that
are still partially glass.
06.09.c4 Flagstaff, AZ
dome can collapse or be destroyed
major eruptive event (e.g., the explosion of Mount St. Helens).

Expression in the Landscape

by an explosion.
How Are Volcanic Domes Formed and Destroyed? ◀ Some domes are intermediate between a simple dome shape and a lava flow
with lobes that spread out from the magmatic conduit. This flow-dome formed 1,300
Domes form as viscous lava reaches the surface, flows a short distance, and solidifies near the vent. Domes can grow
in two different ways — from the inside or from the outside. Domes can also be destroyed in two different
ways — collapse or explosion.
years ago and so has a relatively uneroded shape and contains unaltered obsidian.

Growth of a Dome
Domes mostly grow from the
inside as magma injects into the
interior of the dome. This new
material causes the dome to
expand upward and outward,
fracturing the partially solidified
outer crust of the dome. This pro-
cess creates the blocks of rubbly,
solidified lava that coat the out-
side of the dome.
Domes can also grow as
magma breaks through
to the surface and flows
outward as thick, slow-
moving lava. As the magma
advances, the front of the
flow cools, solidifies, and
can collapse into angular
blocks and ash.
▶ Volcanic layers in this cliff define an arch-shaped feature that is a volcanic dome,
Describe the types of rocks
which was formed approximately 20 million years ago and then buried by subse-
Collapse or Destruction of a Dome 06.09.c5 Newberry volcano, OR
quent volcanic layers. Over time, the glass has converted to finely crystalline rhyolite.
associated with volcanic domes.
Domes can be partially 06.09.c6 Superstition Mtns. AZ
destroyed when steep
flanks of the dome collapse
and break into a jumble of
blocks and ash that flow
downhill as small-scale
Deadly Collapse of a Dome at Mount Unzen, Japan
06.09.t1
Describe how you might recognize
M
pyroclastic flows (▶). ount Unzen towers above a small
city in southern Japan. The top of
the mountain contains a steep vol-
Before You Leave This Page
Be Able To
a volcanic dome in the landscape.
06.09.b2 canic dome that formed and collapsed repeat-
edly between 1990 and 1995. The collapsing Describe the characteristics of a
◀ Domes can also
domes unleashed more than 10,000 small volcanic dome.
be destroyed by pyroclastic flows (top photograph) toward the
city below. In 1991, the opportunity to observe Explain or sketch the two ways by
y
explosions originat-
ing within the dome. and film these small pyroclastic flows attracted which a volcanic dome can grow.
These typically occur volcanologists and other onlookers to the Explain or sketch how a volcanic
when magma solidi- mountain. Unfortunately, partial collapse of dome can collapse or be destroyeded
fies in the conduit the dome caused a pyroclastic flow larger 06.09.t2
by an explosion.
and traps gases that
than had occurred previously. This larger flow
build up until the Describe the types of rocks
pressure can no killed 43 journalists and volcanologists and
associated with volcanic domes.
6.9

06.09.b3 longer be held. left a path of destruction through the valley

06.09.b1 (lower photograph). Note that damage was Describe how you might recognize
concentrated along valleys that drain the a volcanic dome in the landscape.
mountains

Untitled-17 156 10/14/14 5:44 PM

Untitled-17 157 10/14/14 5:44 PM

XX
Untitled-17 157 10/14/14 5:44 PM
Each spread has a unique number, such as 6.9 for the 9th topical
two-page spread in chapter 6 (see previous page). These numbers
help instructors and students keep track of where they are and what
is being covered. Each two-page spread, except for those that begin
and end a chapter, contains a Before You Leave This Page checklist
that indicates what is important and what is expected of students
before they move on. This list contains learning objectives for the
spread and provides a clear way for the instructor to indicate to the
student what is important. The items on these lists are compiled into
a master What-to-Know list.
SIGNIFICANT ADVANTAGES OFFERED
BY EXPLORING GEOLOGY
Two-page spreads and integrated Before You Leave This Page lists offer
the following advantages to the student:
• Information is presented in relatively small and coherent
chunks that allow a student to focus on one important aspect
or geologic system at a time.
• Students know when they are done with this particular topic
and can self-assess their understanding with the Before You
Leave This Page list.
HOW IS THIS BOOK ORGANIZED?
Two-page spreads are organized into 19 chapters that are arranged into
five major groups: (1) introduction to Earth and the science of geology,
(2) earth materials and the processes that form them, (3) geologic time
and tectonic systems, (4) climate and surface processes, and (5) cap-
stone chapters on resources and planetary geology. The first three chap-
ters provide an overview of geology, the scientific approach to geology,
and plate tectonics—a unifying theme interwoven throughout the rest
of the book. The next five chapters cover earth materials, including
minerals (chapter 4), different families of rocks and structures (chap-
ters 5–8), and the processes that form or modify rocks. Unlike many
geology books, Exploring Geology begins the discussion of earth materi-
als with an examination of landscapes—something students can relate
to—as a lead-in to rocks, then to minerals, and finally to atoms, the most
abstract topic in geology books. The sedimentary environments chap-
ter includes a brief introduction to weathering, setting the stage for the
discussion of clastic sediments but saving a more detailed discussion of
weathering and soils for the part of the book that deals with surficial
processes. Also, this book integrates the closely related topics of meta-
morphism and deformation into a single chapter.
After earth materials, we cover the principles of geologic time, empha-
sizing how geologists reconstruct Earth’s history (chapter 9). We then
move on to ocean basins, mountains and basins, and earthquakes (chap-
ters 10–12), all of which integrate and apply information about rocks,
structures, geologic time, and plate tectonics. These chapters provide
important details about aspects of plate tectonics, after students have
• Two-page spreads allow busy students to read or study a
complete topic in a short interval of study time, like during
breaks between classes.
• All test questions and assessment materials are tightly
articulated with the Before You Leave This Page lists so that
exams and quizzes cover precisely the same material that was
assigned to students via the What-to-Know list.
The two-page spread approach also has huge advantages for the
instructor. Before writing this book, the authors wrote the items
for the Before You Leave This Page lists. We then used this list to
decide what figures were needed, what topics would be discussed,
and in what order. In other words, the textbook was written from
the learning objectives. The Before You Leave This Page lists provide a
straightforward way for an instructor to tell students what informa-
tion is important. Because we provide the instructor with a master
What-to-Know list, an instructor can selectively assign or eliminate
content by providing students with an edited What-to-Know list.
Alternatively, an instructor can give students a list of assigned two-
page spreads or sections within two-page spreads. In this way, the
instructor can identify content for which students are responsible,
even if the material is not covered in class.
gained an understanding of rocks, structures, and geologic time from
earlier chapters. We have also incorporated a small component of his-
torical geology, including evolution of the continents and ocean basins.
Next, we briefly discuss weather and climate (chapter 13) to pro-
vide a backdrop for subsequent chapters on surface processes and to
introduce timely topics, such as hurricanes and climate change. This
chapter also discusses deserts, drought, and rain forests. Glaciers,
shorelines, and sea-level changes are integrated into a single chapter
(chapter 14) to present a system approach to earth processes and to
emphasize the interplay between glaciations, sea level, and the char-
acter of the shoreline. Chapter 15 focuses on weathering, soils, and
slope stability; chapter 16 presents streams and flooding; and chapter
17 covers surface-water and groundwater resources and groundwater-
related problems.
We consider the last two chapters to be capstones, integrating and
applying previous topics to enable students to understand energy and
mineral resources (chapter 18) and planetary geology (chapter 19).
These two chapters give students and instructors an opportunity to
see how an understanding of rock types, rock-forming processes, geo-
logic structures, geologic time, and the flow of water and other fluids
can help us understand important resources and the surfaces of other
planetary bodies. The late placement of both chapters allows a more
comprehensive treatment of these topics than would be possible if they
were incorporated into earlier chapters.
XXI
SPECIAL TEXT FEATURES
Concept Sketches
Most items on the Before You Leave This Page list are
by design suitable for student construction of concept
sketches. Concept sketches are sketches that are anno-
tated with complete sentences that identify geologic fea-
tures, describe how the features form, characterize the
main geologic processes, and summarize geologic his-
tories (Johnson and Reynolds, 2005). An example of a
concept sketch is shown to the right.

Concept sketches are an excellent way to actively engage

students in class and to assess their understanding of geo-
logic features, processes, and history. Concept sketches
are well suited to the visual nature of geology, especially
cross sections, maps, and block diagrams. Geologists are
natural sketchers using field notebooks, blackboards,
publications, and even napkins, because sketches are
an important way to record observations and thoughts,
organize knowledge, and try to visualize geometries of
rock bodies and sequences of events. Our research data
show that a student who can draw, label, and explain a
concept sketch generally has a good understanding of
that concept.

The next-to-last two-page spread in each chapter is a Connections

TWO-PAGE SPREADS spread, which is designed to help students connect and integrate
Most of the book consists of two-page spreads, each of which is about the various concepts from the chapter and to show how these con-
one or more closely related topics. Topical spreads convey the geo- cepts can be applied to an actual location. Connections are about
logic content and help organize knowledge. real places that illustrate the geologic concepts and features covered
in the chapter and explicitly illustrate how a geologic problem is
526
investigated and how geologic problems have relevance to society.
Wa t e r R e s o u rce s 527
17.6 How Do We Explore for Groundwater?
GROUNDWATER IS AN IMPORTANT RESOURCE, and much time and effort go into exploring for new sources
of groundwater and gaining a better understanding of existing groundwater supplies. Geologists and hydrogeologists
How Do Hydrogeologists Depict the Water Table?
Once hydrogeologists collect the appropriate field, drilling, and geophysical data, they produce various types
The Connections spread also prepares the student for a following
Investigation two-page spread.
explore for groundwater by collecting surface and subsurface data to investigate the depth, amount, and setting of maps and diagrams, especially maps showing the elevation of the water table.
of groundwater, the direction in which groundwater flows, and the quality of the water. 17.06.b1 17.06.b2
The most important piece of Hydrogeologists then draw
information about ground- contours to show the elevation
What Kinds of Information Are Used to Investigate Groundwater? water is a map showing varia- N 140
150 of the top of the water table.
tions in the elevation of the The contours shown here indi-
Hydrogeologists are geoscientists who specialize in groundwater investigations and interactions between surface water water table. The first step in 130 132 140 cate the elevation of the water
and groundwater. They study geology on the surface and in the subsurface, and they use a variety of direct and constructing such a map is to 130 table in meters. Each contour
collect and plot elevations of 129
indirect methods to interpret the subsurface geometry of rock units, sediment, and the water table. 130 follows a specific elevation on
the water table in all available the water table.
17.06.a2 Vietnam
1. Hydrogeologists usually begin a ground- 2. Because surface water and groundwater wells. Each number on this
119 120
water study by collecting known informa- are interrelated, hydrogeologists may collect map is the elevation (in Arrows drawn perpendicular
tion, including topographic and geologic data about the flow of surface water, includ- meters above sea level) of the 115 to the contours show the
maps, reports about the geology and water ing the volume of water (the discharge) water table at a well in that 120
direction of groundwater flow,
resources, and information about depth to flowing in different stretches of streams. Such location. High numbers mean which is down the slope of
the water table is higher than 110 1 km
the water table, especially records of past observations can indicate whether streams are 109 the water table, from higher
drilling. They may also need to gaining or losing water to the groundwater in sites with lower numbers. contours to lower ones.
do new geologic system. Additionally, sampling the chemistry
field studies. of surface waters (▶) may help us under-
stand water quality and potential
threats to groundwater. Other Depictions 17.06.b4 CONNECTIONS Wa t e r R e s o u rce s 535

3. Hydrogeologists and other technical

Hydrogeologists compare contour maps of
water-table elevations to other fea- 17.10 What Is Going On with the Ogallala Aquifer? Where Does Groundwater in the Aquifer Come from and How Is It Used?
staff measure the depth to the water tures, including the locations
▼ This graph shows the water balance for the Ogallala aquifer.
table in existing wells by lowering an of wells, rivers, farms, and Most of the water going
electronic device, called a water-level other sites that may THE MOST IMPORTANT AQUIFER IN THE UNITED STATES lies beneath the High Plains, stretching from South into the aquifer is from
Water going into the aquifer is shown above the axis, whereas
water being lost by the aquifer is below the axis. Some ground-
indicator, into the well (▼). Some water- affect the ground- Dakota to Texas. It provides groundwater for about 20% of all cropland in the country, but it is severely threatened local precipitation. This map water recharge occurs where water from precipitation seeps
level instruments use sound and others water, such as by by overpumping. The setting, characteristics, groundwater flow, and water-use patterns of this aquifer connect shows the amount of pre- into the aquifer, especially in areas that receive higher amounts
use electrical currents. The data are taking water out of cipitation received across
recorded for later analysis. the ground. They ex- many different aspects of water resources and illustrate their relationship to geology. the area, with darker shades
of precipitation, as either rain or snow.
tensively use com- indicating more precipita-
VOLUMETIC RATE (1000 m3 /yr)

GAINS
puterized geographic tion. The western part of 500
17.06.a1
information systems
(GIS) to overlay and A cross section or block diagram, usually drawn
What Is the Setting of the Ogallala Aquifer? the aquifer receives much Pumping Springs Rivers Storage
less precipitation (rain, 0
Recharge

LOSSES
compare one data set with some vertical exaggeration, helps us explore snow, and hail) than the
1. The Ogallala aquifer, also called 3. The aquifer is named for -500
4. Geophysical surveys, to another and to iden- how the water table relates to subsurface geol- eastern part.
the High Plains aquifer, covers much the Ogallala Group, the main
such as measurements of tify patterns and rela- ogy. Key considerations include the geometry and
of the High Plains area in the center geologic formation in the -1000
variations in gravity, magnetism, tions between different distribution of different geologic materials, espe- Predevelopment
of the United States. The lightly aquifer. The formation was
and electrical conductivity, provide types of information. cially those of different permeability, and how -1500
shaded area on this map shows the named by a geologist in the Areas of the aquifer that 2000
key information on the subsurface 5. Information about the subsurface is critical much of each unit is below the water table (in
17.06.b3 outline of the main part of the aqui- early 1900s after the small receive the least amounts -2000 2050
geometry of rock units and the for understanding the setting and controls of 17.06.a6 the saturated zone where it could yield water). 17.10.b2
fer. The aquifer forms an irregularly Nebraskan town of Ogallala. of precipitation — the
water table. The graph below groundwater flow. Hydrogeologists choose Area of
Hydrogeologists incorporate the geologic information and well data into computer pro- shaped north-south belt from South southwestern parts — are
shows measurements of gravity drill-hole sites that will maximize the amount Ogallala The amount taken out of the As the aquifer dewaters
grams to produce three-dimensional depictions of the water table (▼). They then model Dakota and Wyoming through also those predicted to go
over the edge of the basin shown of information gained. Drill holes provide Aquifer aquifer by pumping, springs, it compacts, which causes
Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, the pan-
above; the strength of gravity direct measurements of the depth of the the directions and rates of groundwater flow and calculate the volumes of freshwater that Before You Leave This Page handles of Oklahoma and Texas, and
dry by 2050.
and inflow into rivers greatly a decrease in porosity
decreases slightly as the thickness water table, water samples for quality analysis, will be available for drinking and other uses. The goal of the various depictions is to under-
stand the three-dimensional geometry of the basin, rock units, water table, and topogra-
Be Able To eastern New Mexico. 4. Much of the Ogallala exceeds the recharge, so and a loss of pore space
of low-density sediments increases samples of subsurface material, and a chance 17.06.a3 Group consists of sediment most parts of the aquifer are (in which to store water).
away from the mountain front and to observe the subsurface material with phy. These factors control where and how much water accumulates, where and how it deposited by rivers and wind 17.10.b1 being dewatered. This cannot be undone.
out into the basin. down-hole video cameras and geophysical 6. Geologists and hydrogeologists flows, and how it interacts with features we see on the surface. This computerized model Summarize the types of information
during the last half of the
instruments. The photo below shows a core graphically portray the results of shows, from top to bottom, the land surface, the that hydrogeologists collect and what
Cenozoic, mostly between 19
A of sediment retrieved by drilling. drilling on a drill log (◀), which is base of two different sedimen- each indicates about the subsurface. and 5 million years ago. How Has Overpumping Affected Water Levels in the Ogallala Aquifer?
STRENGTH OF

B similar to a stratigraphic section tary sequences in the subsur- 2. The Ogallala aquifer covers about Braided rivers carried abun-
Describe how a contour map of The USGS estimates that the aquifer contains 3.2 billion acre-feet of water. That is enough to cover the entire lower
GRAVITY

C (plotting types of rocks or sedi- face (colored yellow and 450,000 km2 (174,000 mi2) and is cur- dant sediment eastward from
D ments versus depth). A drill log brown), and the top of hard water-table elevations is constructed 48 states with 1.7 feet of water. How much has overpumping affected the aquifer’s water levels, and what will happen
and how it would be used to predict rently the largest source of ground- the Rocky Mountains, spread-
commonly also includes other bedrock (gray). The vertical lines water in the country. It provides 30% ing over the landscape and to the region and to the country if large parts of the aquifer dry up?
0 100 200 300 400 500 types of information, especially are wells, color coded to show the direction of groundwater flow.
depositing a relatively con-
17.6

of all groundwater used for irrigation This map shows the thickness (in This map shows how many feet the water Future Predictions — It is uncertain what will
DISTANCE FROM MOUNTAIN FRONT (m) geophysical measurements that the presence of sediment satu- Describe factors to show in a cross in the U.S. In 1980, near the height of tinuous layer of sediment.
17.06.b5 meters) of the saturated zone within the table dropped in elevation between 1980 happen, but hydrogeologists are conducting
17.06.a4
correlate with the type of mate- rated by groundwater (yellow) section or block diagram if ground- the aquifer’s use, 17.6 million acre-feet LOCATION OF CROSS SECTION Deposition stopped when aquifer. In some of its northern parts, and 1995 as a consequence of over pump- detailed studies of key areas to try to predict
rial and with the presence or at depth versus unsaturated water is the focus of the study. of water were withdrawn to irrigate 13 regional uplift and tilting more than 300 m (1,000 ft) of the aqui- ing. The largest drops, exceeding 10 m, what will happen in the next decades. Projec-
absence of water. (red) closer to the surface. This million acres of land. The water is caused the rivers to downcut fer is saturated with water, whereas less occurred in southwestern Kansas and the tions of current water use, combined with
17.06.a5 Phoenix, AZ is an unconfined aquifer. used mostly for agriculture and range- and erode rather than con- than 60 m (180 ft) remain saturated in northern part of Texas. Compare this map numerical models of the water balance, pre-
land. The main agricultural products tinuing to deposit sediment. the southern parts. to the one for precipitation. dict that some parts of the aquifer will go dry
include corn, wheat, soybeans, and Present-day rivers continue to by 2050. This will have catastrophic conse-
feed for livestock. erode into the aquifer and quences for the local farmers, ranchers, and
drain eastward and south- businesses, and for people across the country
Untitled-18 526 10/14/14 5:56 PM
ward, eventually flowing into who depend on the aquifer for much of their
Untitled-18 527 10/14/14 5:56 PM the Gulf of Mexico. food. Subsidence related to groundwater with-
drawal and compaction of the aquifer will be
an increasing concern. What do you think
17.10.a1 would happen to the region if this aquifer
were partly pumped dry?

The Aquifer in Cross Section 7. The upper part of the aquifer (shaded yellow) is above the water
table and in the unsaturated zone.
5. This vertically exag- 1.5
gerated cross section NM TX
8. Blue colors show levels of Before You Leave This Page
Be Able To

Each chapter has at least one two-page spread illustrating how geol-
shows the thickness of the water table for 1950 and
ELEVATION (km)

the aquifer from west to Ground Surface 2000, and purple shows the
1.2 TX OK
east. It shows the aqui- predicted levels for 2050.
fer in various colors; 2000 1950 Note that water levels in the
Water Table
e Summarize the location,
rocks below the aquifer 0.9 aquifer have fallen due to
characteristics, and importance
are shaded bluish gray. Base of Ogallala overpumping. The western
17.10

of the Ogallala aquifer.

ogy impacts society and another two-page spread that specifically

Note that the aquifer is part is predicted to be
at the surface and is an 80 km totally depleted by 2050 (no Summarize the water balance
0.6 WEST (DISTANCE) 2050 EAST
unconfined aquifer. purple). for the aquifer and how water
17.10.a2
levels have changed in the last
6. The irregular base of the aquifer is an unconformity that reflects erosion of the land before deposition of the aquifer. several decades.
17.10.c1 17.10.c2

describes how geoscientists study typical problems.

534

rey22924_ch17_514-537.indd 534 10/29/14 10:11 PM rey22924_ch17_514-537.indd 535 10/29/14 9:44 PM

XXII
Each chapter ends with an Investigation spread that is an exercise in spread in Chapter 14 (Glaciers, Shorelines, and Changing Sea
which students apply the knowledge, skills, and approaches learned Levels) covers glacial erosion and transport in more detail, and
in the chapter. These exercises mostly involve virtual places that stu- there are three new two-page spreads in Chapter 15 (Weather-
dents explore and investigate to make observations and interpreta- ing, Soil, and Unstable Slopes) on the role of weathering and
tions and to answer a series of geologic questions. climate on earth materials. We also moved our discussion on the
formation of caves from Chapter 17 into Chapter 15, where it is
accompanied by a new two-page spread on karst topography.
I N V E S T I G AT I O N Wa t e r R e s o u rce s 537
Chapter 18 (Energy and Mineral Resources) has been brought up
17.11 Who Polluted Surface Water and
Groundwater in This Place?
6. Bedrock units cross the landscape
in a series of north-south stripes,
parallel to the strike of the rock lay-
ers. One of the north-south valleys
7. A north-south ridge is
composed of sandstone,
called the lower sand-
stone. Slidetown, a new
Stratigraphic Section
Gravel – Unconsolidated sand and gravel in the lower
parts of the valley
Upper Sandstone – Well-sorted, permeable sandstone
to date with a two-page spread on shale gas and shale oil.
contains several large coal mines town on this ridge, is
SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER IN THIS AREA are contaminated. You will use the geology of the and a coal-burning, electrical- not a possible source of Upper Shale – Impermeable, with coal

• Material was reorganized in seven chapters, including new

area, along with elevations of the water table and chemical analyses of the contaminated water, to determine generating plant. An unsubstanti-
ated rumor says that one of the
where the contamination is, where it came from, and where it is going. From your conclusions, you will decide mines had some sort of chemical
where to drill new wells for uncontaminated groundwater. spill that was never reported.
Activity at the mines and power
1. The region contains a series of ridges to plant has caused fine coal dust to
the contamination
because it was built too Sinkerton Limestone – Porous, cavernous limestone
recently. A few nice- Middle Shale – Impermeable shale
tasting, freshwater springs
issue from the sand- Lower Sandstone – Permeable sandstone
stone where it is cut by

spreads and accompanying reorganization of Chapters 13, 14,

Lower Shale – Impermeable shale
Goals of This Exercise: the east and a broad, gentle valley to the be blown around by the wind small stream valleys.
west. Small towns are scattered across the and washed into the smaller Basal Conglomerate – Poorly sorted with salty water
• Observe the landscape to interpret the area’s geologic setting. ridges and valleys. There are also several rivers that flow along
farms, a dairy, and a number of industrial Granite – Sparsely fractured; oldest rock in area
the valley. 17.11.a2
• Read descriptions of various natural and constructed features. sites, each of which is labeled with a unique
name. Geologists studied one of these towns,

15, 16, 17, and 18.

• Use well data and water chemistry to draw a map showing where
contamination is and which way groundwater is flowing.
• Use the map and other information to interpret where contamination
originated, which facilities might be responsible, and where the
contamination is headed.
• Determine a well location unlikely to be contaminated in the future.
8. The highest part of the region is a ridge of granite and sedimentary
Springtown, and concluded that it is not the rocks along the east edge of the area. This ridge receives quite a bit of
source of any contamination. rain during the summer and snow in the winter. Several clear streams
begin in the ridge and flow westward toward the lowlands.
2. A main river, called the Black River for its
unusual dark, cloudy color, flows westward 9. A company built a coal-burning power plant over tilted beds
(right to left) through the center of the valley. of a unit named the Sinkerton Limestone, so called because it is

• Many two-page spreads have been extensively revised with

Procedures
Use the available information to complete the following steps,
entering your answers on the worksheet or online.
1. This figure shows geologic features, rivers, springs, and human-
constructed features, including a series of wells (lettered A through P).
17.11.a1
The river contains water all year, even associated with many sinkholes, caves, and karst topography.
when it has not rained in quite a The limestone is so permeable that the power plant has had
while. Both sides of the valley difficulty keeping water in ponds built to dispose of waste
slope inward, north and waters, which are rich in the chemical substances (including
south, toward the contaminant) that are naturally present in coal.
the river.
10. The tables below list water-table elevations in meters and
concentrations of contamination in milligrams per liter (mg/L)
for each of the lettered wells (A–P). This table also lists the con-
centration of contamination in samples from four springs (S1–S4)
improved layout, illustrations, and text. These include more than
and eight river segments (R1–R8). The location of each sample

60 new illustrations and more than several hundred revised

Observe the distribution of rock units, sediment, rivers, springs, and site is marked on the figure. Wells M, N, and P are deep wells,
other features on the landscape. Compare these observations with the drilled into the Sinkerton Limestone aquifer at depth, although
cross sections on the sides of the terrain to interpret how the geology they first encountered water at a shallow depth. The chemical
is expressed in different areas. samples from these wells were collected from deep waters.
2. Read the descriptions of key features and consider how this informa-

3.
tion relates to the geologic setting, to the flow of surface water and
groundwater, and to the contamination.
The data table on the next page shows elevation of the water table in
each lettered well. Use these data and the base map on the worksheet
Well
A

B
Elev. WT
110

100
mg/L
0

0
Well
I

J
Elev. WT
130

130
mg/L
30

0
illustrations and tables, including updating the geologic
to construct a groundwater map with contours of the water table at

timescale and current estimates of water usage.

5. From mapping and C 105 0 K 120 0
the following elevations: 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, and 150 meters. On other studies on the sur-
the contoured map, draw arrows pointing down the slope of the face, geologists have deter- D 110 20 L 130 0
water table to show the direction of groundwater flow. mined the sequence of
E 120 10 M 150 50
4. Use the data table showing concentrations of a contaminant, purposely 4. Based on rock units, as summarized
unnamed here, in groundwater to shade in areas where there is con- shallow drilling, in the stratigraphic section F 115 0 N 150 10
the water table (the top in the upper right corner
tamination. Use darker shades for higher levels of contamination.

• Investigations in Chapters 16 and 17 have revised data values,

of the blue shading) of this page. These studies G 120 0 O 140 0
5. Use the groundwater map to interpret where the contamination most mimics the topography, also document a broad
3. Drilling H 120 50 P 150 0
likely originated and which facilities were probably responsible. Mark a and gravity being higher beneath anticline and syncline
large X over these facilities on the map, and explain your reasons in surveys show the ridges than beneath beneath the eastern part
the worksheet. that the valley is the valleys. Overall, the of the region. Note that Spring mg/L River mg/L River mg/L
underlain by a thick water table slopes from contamination can flow

and so have new correct answers.

6. Determine which of the lettered well sites will most likely remain free east to west (right to through the subsurface, S1 50 R1 0 R5 0

17.11
of contamination, and draw a circle around one such well. sequence of relatively
unconsolidated and weakly cemented sand left), parallel to the following limestone and S2 0 R2 20 R6 0
7. Devise a plan to remediate the groundwater contamination by drilling and gravel. The deepest part of the basin has regional slope of the other permeable units,
wells in front of the plume of contamination; mark these on the map been downdropped by normal faults, one of land. All rocks below the instead of passing horizon- S3 0 R3 0 R7 5
with the letter R. which is buried beneath the gravel. water table are saturated tally through impermeable
with groundwater. ones, like shale. S4 0 R4 0 R8 5
536

Untitled-18 536 10/14/14 5:59 PM

Untitled-18 537 10/14/14 6:00 PM
CHAPTER 1 received a light revision, mostly related to improving
layout and conciseness.
Investigations are modeled after the types of problems geologists inves-
tigate, and they use the same kinds of data and illustrations encoun- CHAPTER 2 also received a light revision, but the geologic timescale
tered in the chapter. The Investigation includes a list of goals for the and accompanying text were updated to reflect recent changes in the
exercises and step-by-step instructions, including calculations and age of boundaries between periods.
methods for constructing maps, graphs, and other figures. These inves-
tigations can be completed by students in class, as worksheet-based CHAPTER 3 remains mostly unchanged, with improvements done
homework, or as online activities. mostly to figures.

CHAPTER 4 received significant text and layout changes to accom-

NEW IN THE FOURTH EDITION pany more than 40 new mineral photographs, each taken specifi-
The fourth edition of Exploring Geology represents a significant revi- cally for this edition.
sion. All chapters include many additions and improvements. The
style, approach, and sequence of chapters are unchanged, but revi- CHAPTERS 5 and 6 have several new and improved photographs
sions within chapters vary from minor to major in extent. We revised and photograph collages, along with text and layout changes to
many text blocks to improve clarity and conciseness, or to present accompany the new photographs.
recent discoveries and events. Most chapters contain the same num-
CHAPTER 7 includes 16 new sedimentary environment and rock
ber and order of two-page spreads, but some chapters gained new
photographs, accompanied by revised text, to provide better detail
two-page spreads. Nearly all changes were made in response to com-
regarding important environments.
ments by reviewers and students. The most important revisions are
listed below: CHAPTERS 8 and 9 were slightly revised, but both have new pho-
tographs and updated figures. The geologic timescale in Chapter 9
• This edition contains more than 200 new photographs, with a
is updated to reflect recent adjustments to the ages between certain
deliberate intention to represent a wider geographic diversity,
time periods.
to provide more detail and clarity about a geologic process,
rock, or mineral, and to expand the discussion of specific CHAPTERS 10, 11, and 12 received minor revisions, including a
topics, such as climate change and shale gas and shale oil. few new photographs and changes to illustrations. The illustration
• This edition contains new content equivalent to eight new for the Connections spread on the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean in
two-page spreads. Chapter 13 (Climate, Weather, and Their Chapter 10 has significant changes.
Influences on Geology) received new two-page spreads on local
and regional winds, causes of precipitation, patterns of surface CHAPTER 13 had major revisions, including four new two-page
currents, and the relationship of climate to currents. A new spreads. There are new spreads on local and regional winds, causes

XXIII
of precipitation, and patterns of surface currents. There is also a new
two-page spread on the consequences of climate change. Three exist-
ing spreads on wind, wind transport, and precipitation were heavily
revised to broaden the discussion on climate and climate variables.
A new Connections spread on Hurricane Sandy replaced the exist-
ing spread on older hurricanes. In all, there are 14 new photographs,
more than 45 new figures, and more than 30 revised figures.
CHAPTER 14 underwent a comprehensive revision that included
one new two-page spread on glaciers, three new figures, and more
than 30 new photographs. These revisions and reorganization were
based on input from book reviewers and other textbook authors.
CHAPTER 15 has three nearly new two-page spreads, including the
spread on cave formation that was moved from Chapter 17 and a
new two-page spread on karst topography. The new spreads broaden
our discussion on earth materials and their influence on weathering,
slopes, vegetation, time, etc. In addition, there are 32 new photo-
graphs to complement the wider discussion on earth materials.
CHAPTERS 16 and 17 had moderate revisions in terms of layout
and text, but we also updated several important figures, including
water usage and the Ogallala aquifer illustration in Chapter 17. One
existing spread on streams in Chapter 16 was moderately revised
to include a better introduction and new photographs of stream
headwaters.
CHAPTER 18 contains one new two-page spread on shale gas and
shale oil, along with a discussion of hydraulic fracturing, to pres-
ent the geologic setting and societal issues of this important energy
resource. Other changes mostly consist of updating discussions on
new technologies and environmental issues such as renewable ver-
sus nonrenewable resources. There are eight new photographs and
numerous improvements to illustrations.
XXIV
CHAPTER 19 had moderate revisions, with the addition of six new
NASA images, some depicting more recent images of Mars, and oth-
ers showing improved photographs of the moon and moon rocks.
FRONT AND BACK MATTER, including the Preface, Glossary, and
Index, were revised and updated to reflect the revised table of con-
tents and changes in page numbers due to reorganizations.
REFERENCES CITED
Baddeley, A. D., 2007. Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 400 p.
Johnson, J. K., and Reynolds, S. J., 2005. Concept sketches—Using
student- and instructor-generated annotated sketches for learn-
ing, teaching, and assessment in geology courses. Journal of
Geoscience Education, v. 53, pp. 85–95.
Lawson, A. E., 1980. Relationships among level of intellectual devel-
opment, cognitive styles, and grades in a college biology course.
Science Education, v. 64, pp. 95–102.
Lawson, A., 2003. The neurological basis of learning, development & dis-
covery: Implications for science & mathematics instruction. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 283 p.
Mayer, R. E., 2001. Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 210 p.
Roth, W. M., and Bowen, G. M., 1999. Complexities of graphical rep-
resentations during lectures: A phenomenological approach.
Learning and Instruction, v. 9, pp. 235–255.
Sweller, J., 1994. Cognitive Load Theory, learning difficulty, and
instructional design. Learning and Instruction, v. 4, pp. 295–312.
Another random document with
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 On the lesser urn were the following verses.

Plund’rers with prying eyes, away!

What mean ye by this curious stay?
Hence with your cunning, patron god,
With bonnet wing’d, and magic rod!
Sacred alone to Pluto’s name,
This mighty work of endless fame.

Saint Austin mentions a lamp that was found in a temple,

dedicated to Venus, which was always exposed to the open weather,
and could never be consumed or extinguished. And Ludovicus Vives,
his commentator, mentions another lamp which was found a little
before his time, that had continued burning for one thousand and fifty
years.

It is supposed, that the perpetuity of these lamps, was owing to the

consummate tenacity of the unctuous matter with which the flame
was united, being so proportioned to the strength of the fire, that, like
the radical moisture and natural heat in animals, neither of them
could conquer or destroy the other. Licetus, who is of this opinion,
observes, that in order to preserve this equality of proportion, the
ancients hid these lamps in caverns, or close monuments: and
hence it has happened, that on opening these tombs, the admission
of fresh air to the lamps has produced so great an inequality
between the flame and the oil, that they have been presently
extinguished.
 Mr. Addison in his Spectator, relates the
following story of the lamp of Rosicrucius.
“A certain person having occasion to dig somewhat deep in the
ground, where the philosopher Rosicrucius lay interred, met with a
small door, having a wall on each side of it. His curiosity, and the
hopes of finding some hidden treasure, soon prompted him to force
open the door. He was immediately surprised by a sudden blaze of
light, and discovered a very fair vault: at the upper end of it was a
statue of a man in armour, sitting by a table, and leaning on his left
arm. He held a truncheon in his right hand, and had a lamp burning
before him. The man had no sooner set one foot within the vault,
than the statue erected itself from its leaning posture, stood bolt
upright, and upon the fellow’s advancing another step, lifted up the
truncheon in his right hand. The man still ventured a third step, when
the statue with a furious blow broke the lamp into a thousand pieces,
and left his guest in a sudden darkness.”
Upon the report of this adventure, the country people soon came
with lights to the sepulchre, and discovered that the statue, which
was made of Brass, was nothing more than a piece of clock work;
that the floor of the vault was all loose, and underlaid with several
springs, which, upon any man’s entering, naturally produced that
which had happened.
Rosicrucius, say his disciples, made use of this method, to shew
the world that he had reinvented the ever-burning lamps of the
Ancients, tho’ he was resolved no one should reap any advantage
from the discovery.[2]
[2] Note.—Mr. Addison seems to have borrowed this story from
the one related by Dr. Parsons. Vide p. 121.

In the tenth year of Henry II. at the digging of a new foundation in

the church of St. Mary-Hill, in London, there was found and taken up
the body of Alice Hackney, she had been buried in that church a
hundred and seventy-five years before, yet was she there found
whole of skin, and the joints of her arms pliable; her corpse was kept
above ground four days without any inconvenience, exposed to the
view of as many as would behold it, and then re-committed to the
earth.
Baker’s Chronicle.

In the reign of King James, at Astley in Warwickshire, upon the fall

of the church, there was taken up the corpse of Thomas Grey,
Marquis of Dorset, who was there buried the 10th of October, 1530,
in the twenty second year of King Henry VIII, and although it had
been lain seventy eight years, in this bed of corruption, yet his eyes,
hair, flesh, nails, and joints, remained as if he had been but newly
buried.

In the year 1554, there was found in Rome a coffin of marble,

eight feet long, and in it a robe, embroidered with Goldsmith’s work,
which yielded six and thirty pounds weight of gold; besides forty
rings, a cluster of emeralds, a little mouse, made of another precious
stone, and amongst all these precious magnificences, two leg bones
of a dead corpse, known by the inscription of the tomb to be the
bones of the Empress Mary, daughter of Stilicoe, and wife of the
Emperor Honorius.

Robert Braybrook, born at a village in Northamptonshire, was

consecrated Bishop of London, January, 5th, 1381. He was after that
Chancellor of England for six months. He died, anno. 1404, and was
buried under a marble stone, in the chapel of St. Mary, in the
Cathedral of St. Paul’s, London. Yet was the body of this Bishop
lately taken up, and found firm, as to skin, hair, joints, nails, &c. For
upon that fierce and fatal fire in London, September, 2nd, 1666,
which burnt so much of St. Paul’s church, when part of the floor fell
into St. Faith’s, this dead person was shaken out of his dormitory,
where he had lain no less than two hundred and sixty two years. His
body was exposed to the view of all sorts of people for divers days;
and some thousands did behold and poise it in their arms, till by
special order it was re-interred.
Fuller’s Worthies.

In the Reign of King Henry II. anno. 1089, the bones of King
Arthur, and his wife Guenevor were found in the vale of Avalon,
under an hollow oak, fifteen feet under ground, the hair of the said
Guenevor being then whole and fresh, of a yellow colour; but as
soon as it was touched, it fell to powder, as Fabian relateth: this was
more than six hundred years after his death. His shin bone, set by
the leg of a tall man, reached above his knee the breadth of three
fingers.
Baker’s Chronicle.

The body of Albertus Magnus was taken out of his sepulchre, to

be re-interred in the midst of the chancel in a new tomb for that
purpose, it was two hundred years from the time wherein he had
been first buried; yet was he found entire without any kind of
deformation, unless it was this (says a celebrated historian) that his
jaw seemed to be somewhat fallen.
 Mr. Brydone in his travels, speaking of a Sicilian Convent, says,
the famous convent of Capuchins, about a mile without the city of
Palermo, contains nothing very remarkable but the burial place,
which is indeed a great curiosity. This is a vast subterraneous
apartment, divided into large commodious galleries, the walls on
each side of which are hollowed out into a variety of niches, as if
intended for a great collection of statues. These niches, instead of
statues, are filled with dead bodies set upright upon their legs, and
fixed by the back to the inside of the niche. Their number is about
three hundred. They are all dressed in the clothes they usually wore,
and form a most respectful and venerable assembly. The skin and
muscles, by a certain preparation, become as dry and hard as a
piece of stock fish: and although many of them have been here
upwards of two hundred and fifty years, yet none are reduced to
skeletons. The muscles indeed, in some, appear to be a good deal
more shrunk in some than in others; probably because these
persons had been more extenuated at the time of their death. Here
the people of Palermo pay daily visits to their deceased friends, and
recall with pleasure and regret, the scenes of their past life. Here
they familiarize themselves with their future state, and choose the
company they would wish to keep in the other world. It is a common
thing to make choice of their niche, and to try if the body fits it, that
no alterations may be necessary after they are dead; and sometimes
by way of a voluntary penance, they accustom themselves to stand
for hours in these niches. The bodies of the princes and first nobility,
are lodged in handsome chests, or trunks; some of them richly
adorned. These are not in the shape of coffins, but all of one width,
and about a foot and a half or two feet deep. The keys are kept by
the nearest relations of the family, who sometimes come and drop a
tear over their departed friends. Some of the Capuchins sleep in
these galleries every night, and pretend to have many wonderful
visions and revelations; but the truth is, that very few people believe
them.
 In the philosophical transactions, we find the following account of a
body found in a vault, in the church of Staverton, in Devonshire, by
Mr. Tripe, Surgeon at Ashburton, in a letter to Doctor Huxham, dated
June, 28th, 1750. There having been a great diversity of reports,
says the writer, relating to a body lately discovered in a vault in
Staverton church, I have taken the liberty of communicating to you
the following particulars. As it does not appear by the register of the
burials, that any person has been deposited in this vault since
October, 5th, 1669, it is certain that the body has lain there upwards
of four score years; yet, when the vault was opened, about four
months ago, it was found as perfect in all its parts, as if but just
interred. The whole body was plump and full, the skin white, soft,
smooth, and elastic; the hair strong, and the limbs nearly as flexible
as when living.
A winding sheet, which was as firm as if just applied, enclosed it
from head to foot, and two coarse cloths dipped in a blackish
substance, like pitch, infolding the winding sheet. The body, thus
protected, was placed in an oaken coffin, on which, as it was always
covered with water, was found a large stone, and a log of wood,
probably to keep it at the bottom.
Various have been the conjectures as to the cause of its
preservation; and it has been reported, though probably without
foundation, that the person was a Roman Catholic; there have been
some of that religion, who not having philosophy enough to account
for it from natural causes, have attributed it to a supernatural one,
and canonized him: and, in consequence of this, have taken away
several pieces of the winding sheet and pitch clothes, preserving
them as relics with the greatest veneration.
In my opinion, says Mr. Tripe, the pitch clothes and water
overthrow the miracle, and bring it within the power of natural
agents; from the former by defending the body from the external air;
and the latter by preserving the tenacity of the pitch.
 In the year 1448, in the ruins of an old wall of the beautiful church
at Dunfermling in Scotland, there was found the body of a young
man, in a coffin of lead, wrapped up in silk: it preserved the natural
colour, and was not in the least manner corrupted; though it was
believed to be the body of the son of King Malcolm the Third, by the
Lady Margaret.

In the year 1764, the following interesting account

appeared in an Italian paper.
“Letters from Rome say, that they have removed to the
Clementinian College there, some antiquities which were
discovered in a vineyard near the church de St. Cesair,
situated on the Appian way, not far from the ruins of the baths
of the Emperor Caracalla. The workmen who laboured in the
vineyard, struck against a thick vault, which they broke
through with great difficulty. In this vault they found four urns
of white marble, adorned with bass-reliefs, the subject of
which left no room to doubt of their being sepulchral urns.
Under this vault they perceived another, which being broke
through, discovered two magnificent oval basons, the one of a
black colour, mixed with veins of the Lapis Calcedonius; its
greatest diameter, was about six feet and a half, the least,
three feet, and two feet deep. This bason contained a human
body. The second bason was of a greenish colour, of the
same dimensions with the other, except its being but a foot
and a half deep. This was covered with white marble, and
contained the body of a woman very richly cloathed; but it
was hardly opened, before the body and its attire fell wholly
into powder; from which was recovered eight ounces of pure
gold. In the same place was found a small statue of Pallas, in
white marble; the work of which is highly esteemed.”
 Alexander Guavnerius, speaking of the old and great city of Kiovia,
near De Borysthenes, “There are,” saith he, “certain subterraneous
caverns extended to a great length and breadth within ground: here
are divers ancient sepulchres, and the bodies of certain illustrious
Russians; these, though they have lain there time out of mind, yet do
they appear entire. There are the bodies of two princes in their own
country habits, as they used to walk when alive, and these are so
fresh and whole, as if they had but newly lain there. They lie in a
cave unburied, and by the Russian Monks are shewn to strangers.”

Some years since, at the repairs of the church of St. Cœcilia,

beyond the river Tiber, there was found the body of a certain
Cardinal, an Englishman, who had been buried there three hundred
years before; yet was it every way entire, not the least part of it
perished, as they report, who both saw and handled it.

At the time Constantine reigned with Irene his mother, there was
found in an ancient sepulchre in Constantinople, a body with a plate
of gold upon the breast of it, and thereon thus engraven.—In
Christum credoqui ex Mariâ Virgine nescetor: O Sol, imperantibus
Constantino & Irene interrem me videbus: that is, I believe in that
Christ who shall be born of Mary a Virgin: O Sun thou shall see me
again, when Constantine and Irene shall come to reign.—When this
inscription had been publicly read, the body was restored to the
same place where it had been formerly buried.

The sepulchre of the great Cyrus, king of Persia, was violated in

the days of Alexander the Great, in such a manner, that his bones
were displaced and thrown out, and the urn of gold that was fixed in
his coffin, when it could not be wholly pulled away, was broken off by
parcels. When Alexander was informed hereof, he caused the Magi,
who were intrusted with the care and keeping thereof, to be exposed
unto tortures, to make them confess the authors of so great a
violation and robbery: but they denied with great constancy that they
had any hand in it, or that they knew by whom it was done. Plutarch
says, that it was one Polymachus, a noble Pellean, that was guilty of
so great a crime. It is said, that the epitaph of this mighty monarch
was to this purpose.
O mortal that comest hither (for come I know thou wilt) know that I
am Cyrus the son of Cambyses, who settled the Persian Empire,
and ruled over Asia, and therefore envy me not this little heap of
earth, where-with my body is covered.

Not long since, at Bononiæ, in the church of St. Dominick, there

was found the body of Alexander Tartagnus, a Lawyer at Imola,
which was perfectly entire, and no way decayed, although it had lain
there from his decease above one hundred and fifty years.

Pausanius makes mention of a soldier, whose body was found

with wounds fresh, and apparent upon it, although it had been buried
sixty two Olympiads, that is no less than two hundred and forty eight
years.
 METHODS
OF
EMBALMING.

The ancient Egyptians had three ways of embalming their dead,

and artists were particularly trained up for that purpose: the most
costly method was practised only upon persons of high rank, of
which sort are all the mummies that have remained entire to the
present times: it was done by extracting the brains through the
nostrils, and injecting a rich balm in their stead, then opening the
belly and taking out the intestines, the cavity was washed with palm
wine impregnated with spices, and filled with myrrh and other
aromatics; this done, the body was laid in nitre seventy days, at the
end of which, it was taken out, cleansed, and swathed with fine linen,
gummed and ornamented with various hieroglyphics, expressive of
the deceased’s birth, character, and rank. This process completed,
the embalmer carried home the body, where it was placed in a coffin,
cut in human shape, and then enclosed in an outer case, and placed
upright against the wall of the burying place belonging to the family.
Another less expensive method of embalming was, by injecting
into all the cavities of the body, a certain dissolvent; which being
suffered to run off after a proper time, carried with it whatever was
contained therein liquified; and then the body, thus purged, being
dried by the nitrous process as before, the operation was closed by
swathing, &c. By the third and lowest method of embalming, which
was only in use among the poor, they drenched the body with
injections, and then dried it with nitre.
The Egyptians had a custom among them of pledging the dead
bodies of their parents and kindred, as a security for the payment of
their debts, and whoever neglected to redeem them was held in the
utmost abhorrence, and denied the rights of burial themselves.
They paid extravagant honours to their deceased ancestors: and
there are at this day to be seen in Egypt pompous subterranean
edifices, called by the Greeks Hypogees, representing towns or
habitations under ground, in which there are streets or passages of
communication from one to another, that the dead might have as
free intercourse as when alive.

FINIS.
 INDEX

Page.

A.

Athens, Law there to prevent premature interment, 3

Asia, Dead bodies kept there several days before burial, 10

Abbé Provost, remarkable circumstance attending, 24

Ackland, Sir Hugh, and his Brandy footman, Story of, 28

Acilius Aviola, burnt to death, for want of being first examined,

60

Armenius Erus, returns to life, after being apparently dead, 69

Alexander, Dr. Story related by, 69

Aberdeen, remarkable affair happened there, 115

Ancients, remarkable Tombs and Lamps of, 121

Atestes, a Town in Italy, Lamp found there that had been

burning 1500 years, 130

Austin, St., Lamp mentioned by him that continued burning 1050

years, 133

Addison, Mr., his story of the Rosicrucian Lamp, 134

Alice Hackney, her body found perfect after 175 years interment,
136

Arthur, King and his wife, their bodies found after 600 years
burial, 138

B.

Boy, remarkable recovery of after being laid out for dead, 20

Benedictus, Alexander, his story of a Lady buried alive, 31

Baldock, Master, resuscitated, after apparent death, 65

Burying in churches and confined church-yards, danger of, 96

Buchan, Dr., his observations on burying in the midst of Cities,

116

Baptistæ Portæ, account by, of a burning Lamp, secreted before

the advent of Christ, 129

Braybrook, Robert, his body found after 262 years interment,

137

Brydone, Mr., his account of a remarkable burying-place near

Palermo, 140

Body found in a Vault, curious particulars of, ib.

Bononiæ, Church of, a perfect body found there, 150 years after
burial, 149

Body buried sixty two Olympiads, described by Pausanius, 150

C.

Cicero, his observations concerning the Dead, 1

Coach office Director, restored to life after being supposed
dead, 19

Civile, Francis. Remarkable story of, 25

Cardinal Espinolæ, ditto, 23

Cornwall, Lady there, ditto, 70

Colchester, a child there, nearly buried alive, 74

Churches, observations on the pernicious custom of burying

there, 96

Ditto, ditto, ditto, 98

Ditto, ditto, ditto, 104

Contagion from opening new Graves, how to prevent, 107

Cleopatra’s Tomb, account of, 126

Cedrenus, his description of a wonderful Lamp, 128

Constantine Chlorus, burning Lamp found in his tomb, ib.

Constantine and Irene, remarkable sepulchre found in their time,

147

Cœciliæ, church of, body found there, buried upwards of 300

years, ib.

D.

Dead bodies improperly treated, 10 to 18

Death, difficulty of distinguishing when persons are really so, 78

Dead, various methods of burying by different Nations, 83

Dead bodies, how to preserve safe in their graves, 120

Dr. Parsons extraordinary story, 121

Dunfermline Church, body of a young Man found there, 144

Dominick, St. Church of, remarkable body found there, 149

E.

Egyptians particularly careful of their dead, 2

England, people there keep their dead several days before

burial, 9

Espinola, Cardinal, not dead when about to be dissected, 23

Elizabeth a Servant, not dead after long hanging, and ill

treatment, 64

Egyptians embalm their dead, 87

Eastern Countries, practice of burying their dead, 117

Edessa, remarkable Lamp found there, 128

F.

Fever patients ought to be particularly looked after before laid

out as dead, 80

France, King of, prohibits burying in churches, 98

Female, extraordinary resolve of, 119

G.

Greeks, great veneration of, for their dead, 2

Geneva, people appointed there to inspect the dead, 9

Genoa, dead people there, dressed according to their rank, ib.

Godfrey, the Honourable Mrs. remarkable trance of, 43

Green, Anne, remarkable story of, 62

Glover, Mr. story related by, of a person restored to life after

hanging, 73

Greeks, old, singular method of burial, 85

Graves, danger of opening too soon, 107

Grave, opened too soon in Aberdeen, fatal consequence

attending, 115

Grey, Thomas, Marquis of Dorset, corpse found after seventy

years burial, 136

Guavnerius, Alexander, curious account of a subterranean

cavern by, 146

H.

Hawe’s, Dr., extract from his addresses to the public, 80

Hale, Sir Matthew, his observations on burying in churches, 98

Hall, Bishop, extract from his Sermon on church burials, 99

Hackney, Alice, her body found after 175 years interment, 136

I.

Interment, premature, great danger of, 1

Interesting account from an Italian paper, 145

 J.

Jews, their manner of burying their dead, 9

Janin, Monsieur, story of a child apparently dead, recovered by,

71

Joseph the Second, prohibits burials in churches, 118

K.

Kiovia, City of, subterranean burying places near, 146

L.

Lady buried alive in Russia, 40

Lamps, ever-burning ones of the Ancients, 121 to 135

M.

Mercier, Monsieur, very remarkable story related by, 31

Mold Church, in Flintshire, singular epitaph there, 98

Montpelier, remarkable circumstance that happened there, 104

Maximus, Olybius, curious Lamp made by, 131

Mary-at-Hill, St., body found there after 175 years burial, 136

Magnus, Albertus, his body found after 200 years interment, 139

Methods of embalming, 151

N.

Navier, Monsieur, observations by, on the danger of burying in

churches, 107
Nevis, Island of, wonderful burning Lamp found there, 129

O.

Olybius, Maximus, curious Lamp made by, 131

P.

Plato, attention by him, recommended to the dead, 1

Primitive church, washed and anointed their dead, 8

Pallas, remarkable burning Lamp of, 129

Philosophical transactions, body found in a vault, described

therein, 142

Pausanius, body mentioned by him, found after 248 years

interment, 150

R.

Romans, great attention paid by them to their dead, 3, 4 and 5

Rouen, siege of, remarkable circumstance happened there, 25

Resuscitation, very extraordinary one, in Sweden, 35

Russia, young lady buried alive there, 40

Retchmuth Adoleh, buried alive, at Cologne, 51

Reanimation of a female in Paris, supposed to be dead, 68

Romans, method of burying their dead, 88

Remarkable fact of Sumovin Feodose, 94

Rosicrucian Lamp, story of, 134

Rome, remarkable coffin and curiosities found there, 137

S.

Syrians, their method of embalming, 2

Spain, method of dressing the dead there, 9

Syncope, sometimes mistaken for death, 21

Schmid, Dr. John, story related by, ib.

Syncope, remarkable story of a person having fallen into one,

22

Scroop, Sir Gervase, story of, related by Dr. Fuller, 29

Sweden, remarkable occurrence there, 35

Spain, lady there, returns to life under the hands of the

anatomist, 59

Sumovin Feodose, remarkable story of, 94

Scripture, quotations from, against burying in churches, 99

Story, remarkable, related by Dr. Parsons, 121

Solomon, King, his servant’s tomb, 126

Sicilian convent, remarkable burial place there, 140

Staverton church, curious particulars of a body found in a vault

there, 142

T.

Turks, scrupulously particular in examining the dead, 7

Trance, remarkable one, of the Honourable Mrs. Godfrey, 43

Tatoreidie, after being laid in a coffin for dead, returns to life, 61

Tissot, Dr. story related by him of a girl returning to life, after

being long in the water, 68

Tossach, Mr. case related by, of a Man recovering, after

apparent death, 69

Tomb of King Edward the First, interesting particulars of

opening, 91

Turks, their burying places, rendered handsome and agreeable,

97

Tombs, fatal consequences frequently happen by opening them

too soon, 107

Tombs, remarkable ones of the Ancients, 121

Temple dedicated to Venus, burning Lamp found therein, 133

Tripe, Mr. story related by, of a body found in a vault, 142

V.

Vesabe, physician, to Philip II. of Spain, opens a body before

dead, 57

Vapour, dreadful effects arising from one at Montpelier, 104

Valentia in Spain, remarkable body found there, 126

W.

Walker, Dr. melancholy account of his being buried alive, 45

Wynne, Dr. William, his epitaph, forbidding church burial, 98