A- LEVEL GEOGRAPHY PRACTICALS LEARNER’S EDITION ¥S EDUUCHT, UPDATED CURRICULUM MBIZIN. MAMVOSHA ©.T. MUTYASIRA T. ZIMUTO M. Di i»MBIZI N, MAMVOSHA OT, MUTYASIRA TT, ZIMUTO M. Cnr Samora Machel Ave / Julius Nyerere Ave EDULIGHT BOOKS Throgmorton House 3rd Floor, Room 312 Harare Tel: 0242 749195 Cell: 0773452208 0715263466 0772 669134 0715263467 0772588092 0773182914 E-mail:edulightpbc@gmail.com/watadzamhazo@gmail.com First Print: 2018 Gwitira Isaiah & Layout: Daniel Njondaya Cover Illustration: Daniel Njondaya Intext Illustrations / Pictures: Norman Mbizi Printed by: Edulight Cover Design: Daniel Njondaya ISBN. 9780797486249 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publishers.ners who appreciate Geography as a Science eography practi Nd seacoast) Mr Kaserera HS, Mr Matongera A, Mr Marimanzi KC, Mr Duru G, Mr Murerwa A and our families for their valuable support throughtout the compilation of this book We would want to thank the following people:phy as a scientific discipline has gone through paradigm shifts. The most one being the shift from a regional approach to a quantitative approach. quantitative approach brought new dimensions in the methods and techniques used in the discipline. In order to support the quantitative approach, the several technologies have been developed to collect and analyse data which has greatly improved the approach of the di inexperienced practitioners to treat Geography as an all-round art, and commercial subject. It is simply, a science, Though it links well with all other learning areas, it has its own unique traits making it a science. There is need therefore for schools to provide conducive environments for the study of Geography as a science. There are specific and crucial requirements required for the effective study of Geography, at Ordinary and Advanced level. Geography now requires its own well-functioning laboratory in addition to the traditional equipment such as weather station equipment, rock specimens, protractors and compasses. The following are some of the requirements prerequisite for effective study of Geography as a science: * Computers installed with software(s) and statistical software; GPS receivers + Printers * Stereoscopes e.g. mirror stereoscope + Clinometers + Pedometers These enable learners to develop the necessary skills and to enjoy the study of Geography. This book focuses on the practicality and scientific nature of the learning area and equips learners with the skills they need to do well in their practical geography paper and also skills they will need for socio-economic contribution, future studies and professional endeavors. We wish our learners all the best,AUTHORS MBIZI N. Masvingo and his Advanced level in Mutare. He graduated with an Honours Degree in Geography at the University of Zimbabwe in 2006. He also attained a Post Graduate Diploma in Education from the Zimbabwe Open University in 2015. He is studying for a MSc Degree in Biodiversity, Wildlife and Ecosys- tems Health. Currently he is teaching Advanced Level Geography at Karirwi High School in Mutare. MAMVOSHA O.T. Mbizi Norman was born in Zaka, Masvingo. He did his Ordinary level in Mamvosha Thirdson Odwell was born in Honde Valley. He did his Ordinary level and Advanced level in Honde Valley. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts Degree at the University of Zimbabwe in 2007, He also attained a Post Graduate Diploma in Education from Zimbabwe Open University in 2016, Currently he is studying for a Masters Degree in Educational Management at Zimbabwe Open University, He is teaching at Chinyauhwera High School in Mutare. =, =»MUTYASIRA Mutyasira Tatenda Talent was born in Mutare. He did his Ordinary and Advanced level in Mutare. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Education (Geography and Music) at Africa University in 2014. Currently he is studying for a Masters Degree in Curriculum studies at Great Zimbabwe University, He is teaching at Light Academy College in Mutare. ZIMUTO M. Zimuto Michael was born in Chiredzi. He did his secondary education at Zimuto High School in Masvingo. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Geography and Environmental Studies at Zimbabwe Open University in 2005. He also attained a Diploma in Education at Mutare Teachers College in 1998 majoring in Geography. Currently he is studying for a Post Graduate Diploma in Safety Health Environment at Midlands State University. He is teaching at Marange High School in Mutare. =D vi =»AIM This book aims to: * — Acquaint learners with Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing practical skills «Equip learners with graphic and cartographic skills critical in the production of sketches (maps, sketch sections, and field Sketches) * Nurture in learners observation, recording, and interpretation skills of geographic phenomena * Develop in learners s f systematic data collection and numeracy + Nurture self- sustained citizens with Enterprise and problem solving skills; and «Promote an appreciation of indigenous knowledge systemsMr Isaiah Gwitira is a lecturer at the University of Zimbabwe in the department of Geography and Environmental Science. He holds a MSc. Degree in Spatial Epidemology and is studying for a PhD in Modeling and interaction of Malaria, ‘TB, and HIV in Zimbabwe. He is a writer of various articles in Geography.TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS UNIT 1.1 The historyof GIS. 1.2 Whatis GIs. 1.3, Componentsof GIS. 1.4 Application of GIS . CHAPTER TWO: GIS DATA AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS UNIT 2.1GIS data. 2.2 Spatial dai 2.3 Attribute data, 2.4 Inputting data into a GIS... 2.5 Conversion of existing data... 2.6 Coordinates. 2.7 Projection 28 Georeferencing.... CHAPTER 3: GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GP%).... UNIT 3.1 What is GPS? ..........0..--secesee 3.2 Sources GPS errors 3.3. Trilateration 3.4. Navigating using GPS 3.5 Using the GPS Receiver. CHAPTER FOUR: GEOSTATISTICAL ANALYSIS. UNIT 4.1 What is geostatistics?., 42> Levels of Measurement........ 4.3 Univariate statistical analysis.4.4 The normal distribution curve and probability. 4.5 Bbivariate statistic 4.6 Correlation 4.7. Regression... CHAPTER FIVE: DATA PRESENTATION UNIT 5.1 Datapresentation techniques... $2. Maps _ 5.2.1 Choropleth map: $.2.2 Dot maps... 5.2.3 Flow line maps 5.2. 4 Isolinemaps 5.1,.5Raydiagrams. $.1.6Proportional symbols... 5.1.7 Proportional divided circles. 5.1.8 Triangulargraphs. $.1.9Pie charts. 5.1.10 Scatter graphs.. 5.1.11 Agesexpyramit CHAPTER SIX: MAPWORK AND FIELD SKETCHES...... UNIT 6.1 What is a map? .. 6.2. Types of maps... 6.3. Sketch map 6.4. Sketch sections... 6.5 Drawing sketches from a photograph. 6.6. Field sketches... 6.7 Describing map features... 6.8 Explaining map features/relationship between features6.9 Comparing sketches ... CHAPTER SEVEN:RESEARCHTECHNIQUES UNIT 7.1 Whatis Research? 7.2. Sampling... 7.3. Research methods. 7.4 Research instruments... CHAPTER EIGHT: REMOTE SENSING .... UNIT 8.1 What is remote sensing’ 82 Components of remote sensing 8.3 Electromagnetic spectrum. 8.4 Multispectral Scanning. 8.5. Scanning system Versus Photographic system. 8.6 Image Interpretation .... 8.7. Stereoscope. 8.8 Colour composites. 8.9 Spectral Reflectance signatures CHAPTER 9: FIELD SURVEYS-PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY .sssse.223 UNIT 9.1 Hydrology and fluvial processes... 9.2 Measuring channel gradient .. 9.3 Measuring stream depth . 9.4 Measuring river velocity. 9.5 Measuring bed load .. 9.6 Measuring river discharge .. 9.7 Measuring infiltration rates .... 989.9 Ground water survey 9,10 Testing forwaterquality .. CHAPTER TEN: FIELD WORK SURVEYS-HUMAN (GEOGRAPHY errircocerscrnemroenion ne UNIT 10.1 What is field survey’ 10.2 Preparing for a field work survey 10.3 Carrying outfield work survey. 10.4 Recording of field work data... 10.5 Presentation of field work data 10.6 The Field Survey 10.7 Land use mapping 10.8 Delimitation of the Central Business District. TYPICAL EXAM I svevsssssssssessoornnnssserssssoseennnnnenesesssorsonnnnenrecsessnnnnnnnensssens. 10) TYPICAL EXAM 2ecssssssssssssscosenesnnsssosssossovenennsnsscsssosonannanssossseeseesensssensel 14We 3 NTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) Chapter objectives By the end of the chapter, one should be able to: * Explain what is GIS * Explain the importance of GIS * Outline the components of a GIS Introduction The word Geography can be broken down into two, “Geo” which means Earth and “graphy” which means “to write” or to map. In this case Geography is concerned with mapping features/phenomena on the Earth's surface. The features that Geography concerns itself with are located at unique positions on the Earth’s surface where they have spatial dimensions. The spatial dimension of geographic phenomena means it is referenced to Earth therefore we say the features are geo- referenced to Earth. In order to map spatial phenomena there is need for tools that allow for data capture and processing hence the need for GIS. The data processing revolution has led to the development of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to process spatial data. As long as the data is geo-referenced, social scientists, environmental scientists, engineers, forensic experts and many other professionals make use of this data in a GIS. It is therefore pertinent that this chapter focus on helping learners to understand what GIS is, how it operates and also understand and appreciate its importance. UNIT 1.1: THE HISTORY OF GIS GIS has a long history. The first attempts in the application of GIS started in 1854 when John Snow produced a map of cholera in London during a cholera outbreak in the city. Through his map Dr John Snow demonstrated that the cholera cases were related to the sources of water which brought a new dimension in the way = ' a»people understood the environment. Besides identifying the source of the cholera bacteria, Dr Snow’s work led to the development of a new science of spatial epidemiology which is the study of how diseases spread. The name GIS was coined in Canada in the 1960s hence Canada pioneered the adoption of modern GIS. Roger Tomlinson started planning and directing the development of GIS, He developed the Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS). The main aim of that first CGIS was to enable the undertaking of Canadian Land Inventory. Later on, other countries followed Canada’s footsteps and developed their own GIS software. Some early adopters of GIS were the US Census Bureau and The Ordinance Survey in the UK. Today GIS is used in most countries and the advent of cheaper computers has helped in the adoption of GIS. Developmental decisions that have spatial bearing are made using GIS and also spatially related challenges are now solved using the same system. Globalization and technological advancement have virtually made GIS an indispensable weapon for modern day scientists, engineers, farmers, urban planners, and researchers to name just a few. UNIT 1.2: WHAT IS GIS? The acronym GIS stands for Geographic Information System(s). A Geographic Information system is a computerised way of collecting, storing, and analysing, manipulating, retrieving and presenting spatial data. It is capable of assembling, storing, manipulating and displaying geographical information. Geographic data - refers to data that has a known location or that is geo-referenced to Earth. Data in this case refers to verifiable facts about the real world. Information is data organized to reveal patterns and meaning implying that the data in a GIS is organized to yield useful knowledge. System implies that a GIS is made up of several interrelated and linked components with different functions: input, analysis and presentation, Spatial data is also called Geographic data. This refers to phenomena with a¥@) location on the Earth’s surface, The phenomenon is said to be geo- ed. It is the spatial aspect that distinguishes Geography from any other ine. For example, the impacts of the HIV/AIDS pandemic have a spatial dimension as these are felt at certain villages, growth points, districts or towns whose location can be mapped using coordinates. UNIT 1.3: COMPONENTS OF GIS GIS encompasses input, process and output. To understand how GIS works, it s fundamental that we understand the components of a GIS. What makes up a GIS? Some have attempted to understand GIS and to gain the skills by focusing on its output- the maps ete, Some have simply assumed GIS to be the mere use of computers by Geographers. That has led to some leamers simply clicking their computers without enough knowledge of their actions. To be well acquainted with GIS, one has to understand its components. The six basic components of a GIS are people, software, data, approaches, hardware and network. These are shown in fig 1.1 below. A GIS is made up of six components illustrated in figure 1.1 Figure 1.1: Components of a GIS Z=>:UNIT 1. 3.1: HARDWARE Hardware refers to the physical components on which GIS operates, for example, the Central Processing Unit (CPU), scanners, printers and digitising tables, A computer is an electronic device which enables users to input data, process it and give output as per user’s instruction. Note that this definition of a computer refers to all forms of computers be they desktops or laptops. A computer has hardware and software components. The hardware component is the physical computer itself made up of parts which can be divided into groups such as input components, processors and output components, The computers are important components in a GIS as they enable users to store, process and display information, The different components of computers function in different ways ina GIS. The monitor, for example, displays information. The user is able to view files and information on the monitor. Monitor resolution, picture and colour quality of each type affects the quality of the output. The Central Processing Unit(CPU) is the workhorse of the computer. It processes data and its capacity depends on Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory(ROM). RAM does not store data permanently hence if power goes off while working on documents or data which is on RAM, the data can get lost. Data in RAM can be edited or modified with easy. ROM as the name suggests, offers difficulty in modifying the data stored in this memory. It is a non-volatile memory. The other components of computers essential in a GIS are the mouse, keyboards and storage devices such as discs and USBs. Apart from the computer and its immediate accessories, a GIS uses other hardware components. A GIS, also uses remotely sensed data. The satellite system provides remotely sensed data for GIS. The data is therefore an input into a GIS. The GIS processes the data and gives output(s) through the output devices such as the printer. There are different types of printers according to their capacities and output quality. The output of a GIS can be maps or images. Scanners, digitizers and GPS receivers are also other hardware components of a GIS, However it should be noted that a fast computer with large data storage capacity and quality display is required in GIS.UNIT 1.3.2: GIS SOFTWARE The software is made up of computer encoded instructions that enable users to perform specific tasks. Whereas we can touch and see the hardware, we cannot touch the software, but we can see the effects of the software. A computer with only hardware without software will not save its purpose. It would not even be better than the traditional manual type writer as it will not be able to perform even the simplest tasks. It provides tools to perform and effectively display spatial data. As we have seen in the previous unit, a computer has its own components; its own hardware and software. A computer's software is crucial for GIS but computers without the actual GIS software will not be able to perform GIS functions. In other words, apart from the computer’s common software, for GIS application it has to get an installation of one of the GIS software to become a capable GIS tool. The GIS software examples are; QGIS (Quantum Geographical Information Systems), SAGA (System for Automated Geoscientific Analysis) GIS, GRASS ( Geographic Resource Analysis Support System) GIS, and many others. GIS software has special components which make them special for spatial data. These are: GIS Tools: these support browsing of GIS data Query Tools: they enable database management, allowing entering and deleting of data GUI: stands for Graphical User Interface. It helps the user and the softwareto communicate RDBMS: That is Relational Database Management System. It stores GlSdata; and Layout GIS softwares are available for public and commercial purposes. UNIT 1.3.3: DATA The data is arguably the most important component in a GIS. GIS data should be relevant, clear and accessible. The sources of geographic data are diverse. The GIS data can either be graphic or tabular. Graphic data will be in vector or raster model. Raster stores information in form of pixels or grid cells while as vector [=p 5 iDdata is discrete data which uses x; y coordinates. Data is the fuel for GIS data. It can be collected or purchased. Demands on Data * should be firm * relevance. * accessibility. + quality assessment.As we have seen there is a variety of GIS software. To start performing GIS functions on a computer requires installation of the software. In the case of QGIS you will have to download the Quantum GIS software from the website; www.qgis.org where you can get versions such as 2.18.28. Then, you need to install it on your computer. You will however, have to keep checking the website for the latest versions. After installing QGIS, it will be ready for use. Click the QGIS icon and it will present you with the user interface shown in fig 1,2 The user interface is divided into the sections which are; the menu bar, tool bar, layers panel, map canvas, layers order panel, layer styling panel and statusbar, DBBBQA Mot sesNPpaas @ & 2859944) Map Canvas Figure 1.2: OGIS user interfaceMenu Bar provides various options on the functions you can perform with QGIS. You have to read what is shown on the menu bar so that you click the right option. The tools bar also provides access to same functions as the menu. Rather than having title like the menu bar, it has icons, For you to understand what each icon stands for, you need to hold your mouse over any icon so that a short description of what the icon allows you to do will appear. There is therefore no need for you to click what you do not know what it leads to. Once you load layers onto QGIS, they will appear on the layers panel or layers list shown in fig 1.3 Figure 1,3 Spatial layers in OGIS If you want to perform any other function on the layers you just right click that layer and it will give you many options. In the layers panel you can manipulate layers so that you work with them better. For example, you can group them so that you work with them in groups. To do so, move the mouse pointer to the layerspanel, right click, and then choose Add Group. Drag the layers you want to add to the group one at a time into the new folder that appears. Give the folder a new name. Map Canvas displays maps, When working on a project the project you will be working on appears on the Map Canvas so that you can view it, On the Map Canvas you are able to manipulate the map and get a better view by performing functions such as panning and zooming. Panning is shifting the focus of the map display to another region. The toolbars and mouse are important here as they allow you to Work on the map. To pan a map, place the mouse cursor inside the map area and right click on the arrow key to pan to the east, left arrow key to pan to the west, up arrow key to pan north and down arrow key to pan south, Any changes you make on the layers panel will influence the appearance ‘on the map canvas, The other important panels in QGIS are the overview panel and the status bar. The overview panel provides a full extent view of layers in the map canvas while as the status bar shows the current position in map coordinates. As the pointer moves across the map in the Map Canvas, the coordinates will change signaling a change in position, You need to familiarize yourself with the QGIS User Interface so that when you start working on your files you will make informed clicks. To yield the desired results you will have to understand the implications of your actions. Both vector and raster files processed using QGIS but let’s start by looking at how we work with vector files in QGIS, In our examples we shall be using vector data in form of shape files. Take note that for all QGIS practicals in this book the assumption is that the shape files and raster files are already created and saved in the computer documents section. These include Zimbabwe international boundary, provincial, and district boundaries as well as roads, towns, cities, national parks and dams. Attribute data for such files is also already saved.IT 1.3.4: PEOPLE The other GIS components need to be operated by skilled people who manage or operate the GIS, From data acquisition, input and processing up to display, there is need for people well acquainted with GIS. The capabilities and benefits of GIS can be harnessed for application to real world problems only if there are people with the necessary GIS skills. When we refer to people as a component of a GIS we are referring to the experts who use the GIS and also the people who will consume the final output of a GIS, They have to be considered if a GIS is to have benefits to those people. UNIT 1.3.5: METHODS/ PROCEDURES Each organization implementing a GIS should have a_ well-organized implementation plan. Usually that plan is unique to that specific organization. In most Less Economically Developed Countries, the adoption of GIS is gaining momentum. In some organisations, adoption of a GIS may mean alteration of organization structure. Skilled staff is therefore a pre-requisite for the use of GIS. Proper planning is needed in attaining the benefits of a GIS. Activity 1.2 Planning to Introduce GIS UNIT 1.3.6: NETWORK Network refers to the connectedness of the components of GIS as a system. All the five components should be well connected such that they efficiently function in the collection, storage, processing, presentation and analysis of spatial data. =D 10 i»NIT 1.3.4; PEOPLE The other GIS components need to be operated by skilled people who manage or operate the GIS. From data acquisition, input and processing up to display, there is need for people well acquainted with GIS. The capabilities and benefits of GIS ion to real world problems only if there are people When we refer to people as a component of a GIS we are referring to the experts who use the GIS and also the people who will consume the final output of a GIS, ‘They have to be considered if'a GIS is to have benefits to those people. UNIT 1.3.5: METHODS/ PROCEDURES Each organization implementing a GIS should have a well-organized implementation plan. Usually that plan is unique to that specific organization. In most Less Economically Developed Countries, the adoption of GIS is gaining momentum. In some organisations, adoption of a GIS may mean alteration of organization structure. Skilled staff is therefore a pre-requisite for the use of GIS, Proper planning is needed in attaining the benefits of a GIS. Planning to I Draft a plan on how you will introduce GIS, stating: The hardware components required, the software you would recommend and the possible challenges you will face. UNIT 1.3.6: NETWORK Network refers to the connectedness of the components of GIS as a system. All the five components should be well connected such that they efficiently function in the collection, storage, processing, presentation and analysis of spatial data. [2 10 i»UNIT 1.4: APPLICATION OF GIS GIS is a powerful tool for spatial data analysis. Examples of analysis which can be done using GIS are: + Measuring distance between given areas. For example, we are able to measure the distance from Mutare to Harare using GIS. Computing area of a given geographic region. The total area of a farm or a plantation for example can be calculated using a GIS. Computing the number of facilities within a given area. We can use a GIS to calculate the number of schools or clinics in a given area. Determining the sphere of influence of a given central place, Using a GIS, we are able to determine the number of people using a given central place. We are also able to determine the number of people living within a certain radius from the central place. ‘Theseexamplesshow thataGIS providespowerfuldataanalysistechniques. Some geographic phenomena are best understood if comparisons can be made, GIS enable Geographers and other professionals to identify relationships which are crucial in explaining spatial distribution, To understand the distribution of agricultural activities we have to relate the land uses to climatic conditions and soil types. A GIS is able to display the three features together making interpretation quite meaningful. UNIT 1.4.1: GIS IN INDUSTRY GIS can be used in a variety of industries where it facilitates effective planning and monitoring, good examples where GIS can be used include rural-urban planning, environmental management, environmental impact assessment, land use, veld fire mapping, surveying and spatial epidemiology. 1. Rural- urban planning Urban planners make use of GIS to analyze the growth of towns and cities, The direction of growth of the cities and towns is analyzed using GIS. To come up with appropriate location of some facilities and infrastructure for example, sewage systems and dumping sites in relation to other facilities, GIS plays a significant 2 i =Drole. Rural areas are also growing in terms of complexity and are also showing some degree of urbanity especially in More Economically Developed Countries (MEDC), Planning for such rural growth requires the use of GIS for informed decisions to be reached. 2. Environmental Impact Assessment It is the process of evaluating the likely impacts of a developmental project on the environment with the aim of reducing or alleviating the likely damage to the environment as a result of the project. This process depends on a GIS. The area to be affected by the developmental project is calculated using a GIS. 3. Land Use Land use is made effective by the use of GIS. The GIS capability to relate spatially distributed data planners to make good decisions on what to use certain given land for. A GIS can relate soil type to vegetation cover, For land use planners such information is important. 4. Veld fire mapping Using GIS mapping has been improved. Risks and environmental can be analyzed effectively. Plantations, farms and wildlife conservatives are under constant threats of veld fires in some areas. The zones prone to such environmental disasters can be mapped using a GIS. Mitigation measures can therefore be effectively directed towards the appropriate areas 5. Surveying Surveying needs more land information. The extent of the land and nature of the soils need to be considered. Such information is also useful for land use determination. A GIS improves the quality of surveys. 6. Spatial Epidemiology GIS is critical in the study of how diseases spread. The use of mapping techniques to study the spread of diseases was started by Dr Snow in the nineteenth century. GIS has improved that technique and diseases such as HIV/AIDS have spatial implications. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS varies spatially. There is need to identify the certain areas that have the highest and lowest numbers of infections. Once these areas are identified relationships between the diseases and possible sources can be understood. Activities occurring at given locations such as border posts, mines and growth points are clearly linked to their relative prevalence =D 2 iD. The causes of the spread are easily determined. GIS enables the health sector to save resources and lives. Activity 1.3 Getting used to QGIS user interface Summary “A GIS comprises of five components which are; software, data, people, hardwareandmethods ¥ GlSdealswithspatiallyreferenceddata ¥ GlSenablesplannerstomakeinformeddecisions Y GIS software include Quantum GIS, ArcView, QGIS, GRASS GIS and ArcGIS ¥ Implementing a GIS calls for good planning and acquiring of proper hardware and software Glossary GIS- Geographic Information System(s), is a computerized way of creating, solving, analyzing, manipulating, retrieving and presenting spatial data. Computer- is an electronic device which enables users to input data, process it and give output as per user’s instruction, CPU (Central Processing Unit) - Is the component of the computer which is responsible for processing data. Data: these are verified facts about given phenomena. =D i: iDHardware: These are the physical components of a GIS including all the equipment used is collection, processing, presentation and analysis of spatial data. Information: these are processed facts that reveal patterns yielding knowledge on observed phenomena. Network: is the connectedness of the components of a GIS as a system. RAM (Random Access Memory) - Is the CPU memory where data is temporarily and can be modified with easy. ROM (Read Only Memory)- is the CPU memory where data is stored permanently and data cannot be easily modified. Spatial Data- is geo-referenced data. It is data which has known place or location as denoted by place name or coordinates. Software: these are encoded computer instructions which enable users of a GIS to perform specific tasks. stored To monitor the risk of fire at a plantation, Activity 1.3 uf Meerncene ner Revision Exercisel 1. List S components you need to introduce a GIS at your school 6) 2. State the 5 challenges you would face in introducing a GIS at your school (5) 3. Describe any 3 functions you would perform using a GIS (9) 4. Distinguish between hardware and software components ofa GIS (6) 5 (a) Explain the term GIS (6) (b) Describe and explain how the 5 components of a GIS work together (12) (c) Evaluate the solutions to challenges faced in implementing GIS in Zimbabwe a 6. “The most important component in a GIS is data” Discuss (25). P+‘ i»CHAPTER TWO GIS DATA AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS Chapter objectives By the end of the chapter, one should be able to: + Locate features using the different coordinate types. * Distinguish the major coordinate system. * Project a vector layer from one coordinate system to another. Introduction GIS data can either be in-house data or can be purchased from external sources. A GIS uses special data types hence it is the major aim of this chapter, to focus on the types of GIS data. The chapter will also address the issue of sourcing GIS data using different technologies and also how the data is input into a GIS. The data used in a GIS should be geo-referenced hence this chapter will also focus on different coordinate systems and projection. UNIT 2.1: GIS DATA GIS uses digital data with discrete values. This data is stored as thematic layers in a computer. Geographic data for use in a GIS can be created or can be purchased. ‘The thematic layers in which GIS store information are linked to geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS actually stores real world features. How is that possible? How can mountains, rivers and many other landforms for example fit into a computer. Hard copy maps use symbols and scale to enable representation of features on a piece of paper. A GIS uses models to store real world features in digital format. UNIT 2.2: SPATIAL DATA Spatial data can either be vector or raster data. Raster data and vector data work under different situations. Vector data models are the representation of the world D5using points, lines and polygons whereas raster data models involves representing the world as a surface divided into a regular grid of cells. UNIT 2.2.1: VECTOR DATA Vector data models are used to show discrete objects as points, lines or polygons, Polygons represent areas, These models are used to represent real features in a GIS, Features such as mountains, hills and other landforms cannot be shown on a map as three dimensional features. Points, lines and polygons are therefore used to represent them, The features as discrete objects are separated by border lines. Points are just x;y coordinates and are used to represent features such as trees, schools, huts.. etc. Such points represent real features on the earth's surface, Each and every tree in an orchard has its own specific location. It has its own coordinates, That is why we can locate them on the ground that there is a tree or trees at such and such a place. The entire area of trees for example, a plantation or an orchard, because it is a bigger area covered by trees, ean be shown as a polygon. Figure 2.1: Representation of features as points Vector data also uses lines connecting vertex. The lines are the paths and are called vector lines. Vertices are points joined together to form lines. This model is used to show features which are linear in nature, for example, rivers, roads and railway lines. These connect different junctions and tum along the way. On the maps, the same features are also represented by vector lines of various thickness and appearance to emphasise varying importance, for example, of routes. Dust or gravel roads are shown as thin lines while major tarred roads are shown in thicker lines. Rail lines are shown by a different colour from roads. Fig 2.2 below shows how points are connected to create lines representing linear features such as rivers. > is i»Figure 2.2: Representation of line features such asroads Polygons show boundaries and the area path, Fig 2.3 shows a polygon where the paths close and the polygon’s area is enclosed inside the polygon. Figure 2.3: Representation of Polygon Features, for example, distri Zimbabwe D7 iDLoading Shape Files in QGIS At this point, it is important for us to note that we are working with the assumption that the shape files have already been created and saved for us in our computers, although we can create our own shape files. Once we already have the shape files in our computers, we now need to work on them in QGIS. Hence we need to load them from the computer documents sections onto QGIS. Assuming we want to display Zimbabwe's Provincial Boundaries and major roads, cities and towns, we have to follow the following steps to load the files: * Click Add Vector Layer Button shown in Fig 2.4 (the Add Vector Layer Dialogue Box will appear Click Browse and navigate to the folder which has desired contains (for example, start with choosing Provincial Boundaries) Click open (the map of Zimbabwe with all provinces will appear) Once the map appears on the map canvas we can manipulate it, for example, changing color which we will discuss later. Using the same procedure, we can add major roads, cities and towns To save the project, click on the save icon and choose the folder you want to save the project Figure 2.4: Adding vector data in OGISctivity 2.1 Load the following shape files on your QGIS International boundary Zimbabwe national parks Kariba dam save the project. UNIT 2.2.2 RASTER DATA Raster is made up of grid cells, also called pixels. Each pixel or raster has its own class value. The grid cells are useful in storing data which varies continuous! for example,. temperature, elevation. Raster model can represent either discrete or continuous information or data. Discrete may represent soil type or land use, From such raster data models such as land use maps, one can distinguish cach thematic class. Thematic classes are the categories represented by each distinctive data as shown in figure 2.5. Photographs store data in pixels, to see them zoom into an image in your smart phone. You will see tiny boxes (pixels) making up the image. Figure 2.5: Discrete data Continuous data can also be represented as continuous fields, for example, elevation or temperature as illustrated in figure 2.6 _D ° iD- Figure 2.6: Representation of continuous fields, for example, elevation Some phenomena have gradual variation. Good examples are temperature and rainfall, The boundary in terms of rainfall amounts and temperatures received by different areas is not clearly cut but there is just a gradual decrease as we approach areas of low rainfall, for example, continuous raster surface for such phenomena is derived from a fixed registration point. Nas hala ayae4 |e Peo many Open the project you saved in activity 2.1; Change the colour of international boundary. If the international Boundary of Zimbabwe was filled with a certain colour, the colour should change. You should choose the colour of your choice which enable you to clearly show all layers. Activity 2.3 \)\ Creating Overlays On the shape files (International boundary, Kariba dam and national parks) that you have already loaded and saved, add Natural Regions. How does the project look like? On the map canvas Natural Regions have blocked visibility of Parks and Kariba dam. Isn't it? Now for you to be able to make meaningful spatial analysis and relationships between the distribution of national parks and natural regions you need both layers to be visible. As a result, manipulate the layers so that Natural regions and National Parks are visible. D> 2Manipulating Loaded Layers Once you load the layers onto QGIS for example the Provincial boundaries, roads and cities, you can re-order them, The layers loaded will appear on the map canvas according to the order you loaded them. The layer at the bottom of the list is drawn first and that at the top, last. To change how the layers, appear on the map canvas you have to change how they are listed on the layers panel, You will have to drag the layers up and down to change their order and the appearance of the map will also change, Choose an order that gives the best view. If you draw some layers below opaque ones they will not show on the map. Another aspect of shape files that can be manipulated in QGIS is the symbology which is how layers appear on map. You can change the colour or the symbols representing towns and cities for stars or squares. * To change colours of the layers follow the following steps: right click on the layer in the layers’ list panel select the menu item properties in the menu that appears; once in the properties dialogue box select the style tab which is on the extreme left click the select colour bar on the dialogue box that will appear, choose the colour of your choice click ok on the colour bar and on the Layers Properties box UNIT 2.2.3: SOURCES OF RASTER DATA Raster data is obtained from the following sources: + Aerial photographs- these are taken from aircraft or drones. The images are imported into a computer and are Geo-referenced + Satellite images- satellites orbit the earth and use special sensors to take images from the earth surface =D 2} D>Figure 2.7; Satellite image Advantages of vector data accurate as exact coordinates of features are used to a is helpful for proximity and network + Vector data is represent phenomena. Vector da analysis and linear feature. * Itcan contain topology. Disadvantages of vector data + There is generalization of how phenomena are distributed within a pixel. + Showing a lot of features using vector leads to the challenge of vector. + manipulation algorithms becoming complex. Advantages of raster data * Itis easy to understand the cell size. + Performing map algebra with raster is + Itis a powerful format for advanced spatial and statistical analysis. * Can perform fast overlays with complex data sets. Disadvantages of raster data + Raster data sets maybe too lar; compromising processing speed. + Data costs a lot in terms of storage space. =D 22 oDUNIT 2.3; ATTRIBUTE DATA {tis non-geographic data. It is the non spatial data about a geometric object. This data can be stored in table or database, It comes in five different forms which are character, integer, floating, date and Binary large Object (BLOB). Characters attribute data This data is also called string. It is stored in a database as a series of alphanumeric symbols. Good examples are text based values such as name of street. Character data can be organised in ascending order or descending order. Numbers are sorted alphabetically hence 1,2,3,9,12,20,30 would be sorted in ascending order as 1,12, 2, 20, 3, 30, 9. Character data is not numeric; hence calculations are not performed in this field. Integer and floating These are numeric values stored in ascending or descending order, They can be a count, for example, total number of female students or ratio such as the percentage of female students at a school. Date and time data These show fields of time and time values. BLOB data BLOB means binary large object. This type of attribute is used to store information such as images. It stores objects created in other applications such as images and multimedia and linked from the BLOB field. Spatial data (geographic data) is different from attribute data (non- geographic) as we have seen, Table2.1 Spatial and Attribute Data Py ratte Peta g Pong i _ | | I Longitudes(62.56784and62.3456 1 jandlatitudes(-31.65321and-31.56784)are ED 23 aDspatial data while as the disease names (malaria and TB) as well the date is attributedata. Attribute Data in QGIS Despite the spatial data a vector layer also has attributes that describes the features shown on the map layer. To understand the features shown, we need to open attribute tables of the features. To open the attribute table for a layer we take the following steps: + highlight the layer in the layers’ list * click open the attribute table icon (you can also right click the layer in the layers’ list and select attribute table in the box that comes up) Attribute data is also crucial for labeling the layers. With QGIS we can label the points, lines and polygons. To label a layer we follow the following steps: + highlight the layers in the layers* panel + click on the labels Icon on the tools bar or the layer styling tab, + make the desired changes on options 3 and 4 on the layer styling tab (see how the labels are added onto your map). UNIT 2.4: INPUTTING DATA INTO A GIS As we saw in previous units data is stored as either spatial data (vector and raster) or attribute data. As GIS learners you should be able to enter the data into the GIS so that you start using the GIS. There are several methods of entering data into a GIS. When entering data into a GIS we have to decide the appropriate method of entering the data, The choice of the input method depends on the nature of the data as well as the available budget. Some of the methods of inputting data into aGIS are: + Manual digitizing + scanning * manual entry + converting existing dataUNIT 2.4.1; MANUAL DIGITIZIN' Digitizing is the process of converting coordinates from a map or image so that they take a digital format. It enables the images or map as well as other data sources to be compatible with a GIS. Manual digitizing uses a digitizer or a dig- itizing table also known as a tablet, The map or image to be digitized is secured on the tablet with removable sticking tape. A magnetic pen also called a puck (shown in fig 2.8) mouse or stylus is used to trace the spatial features from a map or image. Figure 28: Digitising tablet As one is tracing, the detail will be transferred into the computer. When one starts digitizing one needs to enter the coordinates to be assumed by the digitized data into the computer, As a result, as one digitizes the data is registered in that coordinate system. It is called manual digitizing because one literary tr the lines on the map. After tracing, the data is saved as a new digitized map or image. It will be ready for use with a GIS. Manual digitizing has the advantage that it is relatively cheap. Digitizing tablets are cheaper. Also it is versatile. The use of manual digitizing brings flexibility. Also the skill of tracing can be mastered easily and computers are allowed to read otherwise illegible maps and images. Manual digitizing, however, has the disadvantage that the accuracy only depends on the dexterity of the tracer. Although the skill is easy to master, the people’s capabilities cannot be the same. Dp + oDUNIT 2.4.2: SCANNING Scanning involves the use of scanners which capture spatial data with high speed, Although these scanners do not recognize text and symbols, they allow us to input spatial data into a GIS, The scanned data also requires a lot of editing and that makes scanning expensive in terms of labour. Figure 2,9: Frequently used scanners, for example, flatbed scanners UNIT 2.4.3: MANUAL ENTRY This method is used to input data into a GIS data that is either collected or measured, The data can be text files or binary coordinates. These columns allow Geo-referencing of the file so that the data is associated with a specific geographic coordinate system. Binary files come from measuring devices such as GPS. They also have X and Y coordinates. UNIT 2.5: CONVERSION OF EXISTING DATA ‘This process of inputting data into a GIS involves converting data from one form to another so that it becomes compatible with a GIS. The use of GPS is a good example of data conversion process. iD *<Sources of GIS data in Zimbabwe include: Spatial data sources * GPS coordinates * Surveyor general’s office + Digitizing topographic maps + Remote sensed images Attribute Data + Zimbabwe Statistics Office + Non-Governmental Organizations * Police + Health department as well as many other government departments UNIT 2.6: COORDINATES Coordinates are numerical values which enable the determination of positions of features on the Earth’s surface. Coordinates enable geographers and other GIS users to carry out spatial analysis with accuracy. They use measurements such meters or, degrees, minutes as reference of the positions of features. UNIT 2.6.1: COORDINATE SYSTEMS A coordinate system is a reference system used to give the location of spatial features. Most of the data is referenced (given location) horizontal and vertical coordinates. Horizontal coordinates help to locate data across the surface of the Earth, Vertical coordinates give the height or depth of data. This chapter will look at two types of coordinates and these are: (a) Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) This is the most commonly used coordinate system. It uses three dimensional (BD) spherical surface to give location on the Earth’s surface. Decimal degrees and degrees are used as units of measurement. GCS involves use of longitudes and latitudes. Take note that GCS have in some cases been called a data but the datum is just a single component of GCS. Longitudes and latitudes are angles measured D2 2Din degrees from the center of the Earth to the point on the surface. Longitudes are also referred to as north-south lines because they run from North to the South of the Earth. The lines are of equal longitude or meridians. Fig 2.10 shows latitudes and longitudes on the Earth. x6) oo Figure 2.10: Latitude and Latitude used in giving Geographic Location Source: Wood (2018) Longitudes are also called meridians and they have X- value between -180 and +180 degrees, The central line in longitudes which has the value of zero (0) is called the prime meridian. It is commonly called the Greenwich meridian because it passes through Greenwich in England. Unlike Longitudes which give the X- value, latitudes give the Y- value. Latitudes are horizontal lines dividing the globe from East to West. The line of latitude, central to the poles is called the equator. It has the value of zero degrees. The latitudes are measured in relation to the equator and ranges from -90 at the South Pole to +90 at the North, Latitudes and longitudes divide the entire globe to form what is called a graticule, A point on the Earth’s surface is referenced by its longitudes and latitude values. A graticule’s origin has 0°0 coordinates. That is where the equator and prime meridian intersects. (b) Projected Coordinates A Projected Coordinate System (PCS) is a coordinate system defined ona flat 2D surface. An example of a projected coordinate system is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). This coordinate system uses linear measurements and not angular degrees. The UTM uses two lines intersecting to give a grid square. iD 2: EDThe lines intersecting are called axes and the point of intersection is called the origin (0, 0) of the coordinate system. The horizontal axis (East-West) is labeled. as the X- axis and the vertical axis (North- South) as Y- axis. The position of a point in the rectangular coordinate system is defined by its distance from the X and Y axes. Whereas GCS uses curved grids to accommodate the curved surface of the Earth, geographic latitudes and longitudes coordinates do not do so. In order to understand how UTM coordinates work we have to look at UTM projection. UTM Projection UTM projection transforms 3D world into 2D system. The process allows cartographers to show maps on a piece of paper and map users to measure distance, angle and area with accuracy. To project 3D world on to a 2D paper, UTM divides the world into 60 zones. Each zone is 6° wide in need terms of longitude. The 60 zones multiply by 6° give us 360° which is a complete revolution. So, the UTM is able to Transverse the entire Earth. These 60 zones start | that is from the International Date Line (IDL) which is located between Alaska and Russia. The meridian at the center of each zone is called the central meridian. Figure 2.11: UTM zones ‘Source: Bunett (2000) D> 22) a»How UTM Coordinates Work To use the UTM coordinate system it is important to first find the UTM zone in which the position or object is located. The zone is usually written on the margins of large scale maps. The second step is to identify the hemisphere in which the location is, UTM. coordinates work in both North and South Hemisphere hence it is important to be sure of the location. The position of an object is identified using Eastings and Northings. The values of UTM Coordinates are always in meters. Eastings in a UTM coordinate system are lines increasing in value to the east. These are vertical lines. Northings are lines increasing in value to the north and are horizontal, When giving UTM coordinates we start with Eastings and then Northings. UTM coordinate ‘System uses a false origin; 500 000meters to the West of the meridian of the UTM zone for Eastings. Remember, the value of Eastings increase to the east, This means that a point lying 4meters to the east of a central meridian has an Easting of 500 000+4= 500 004mE. For a point 400m West of the central meridian, the Easting value would be 500 000- 400= 499600mE. To find the East-West distance between the two points we find the difference between their easting values. In this case it will be 500 004- 499600= 404, It is important to note that Easting values cannot be larger than 834000m and smaller than 166000m. This means that the Easting coordinate is always a six- digit number, Northing values are determined by counting the number of meters a location lies North of the equator, The northing of a point south of the equator is found by saying 10 000 000m minus it’s distance from the equator. For example, a point south of the equator with a northing of 628 7834mN is 10 000 000- 6287834= 3712166 m south of the equator. ‘A point found 54m south of the equator has a northing of 10 000 000-54=9999946 m, However, a point 54m North of the equator has a northing reading of 00000054mN. The north- south distance between the 2 points north of the equator with northing of 628 7834mN and 618 2824mN is 628 7834-618 2824=105010 m.