(eBook PDF) Foundations of American

Education 8th Edition by L. Dean Webb

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/ebook-pdf-foundations-of-american-education-8th
-edition-by-l-dean-webb/
 Acknowledgments
The author wishes to recognize the many persons who have contributed to the
preparation of this edition and the previous editions of this text. First, we extend
special recognition to the teachers, administrators, and other educators who work
each day to provide learning opportunities for the youth of America. Second, we
wish to acknowledge the scholars who have provided the past and present record
of the development of education in the United States and the researchers and pol-
icy analysts who are charting the future. Third, we express appreciation to my
professional colleagues for their critical comments and suggestions about ways to
improve the eighth edition. Last, we wish to acknowledge Laurie Hines, Assistant
Professor at Kent State University, for assistance in the revision of Chapter 10, and
Forrest Parkay, Professor at Washington State University, for his work on the revi-
sion of Chapter 14.
We wish to extend my special thanks to Editor Julie Peters, Project Managers Janet
Domingo and Doug Bell, Digital Editor Bryce Bell, and Program Manager Megan
Moffo and many others for their invaluable advice and assistance. Last, to the vari-
ous reviewers of the eighth edition, we extend sincere thanks for their constructive
comments. Their efforts helped make this a better and more relevant text. For their
participation, we extend our thanks to Melinda Butler, Lewis-Clark State College;
Laurie A. Hines, Kent State University, Trumbull; and Elecia B. Lathon, ­Louisiana
State University.

vii
 Brief Contents
Part I The Teaching Profession
Chapter 1 Status of the Profession 1
Chapter 2 Development of the Profession 25

Part II Philosophy and its Impact on the Schools

Chapter 3 The Major Philosophies 48
Chapter 4 The Impact of Educational Theories on Educational Practice 70

Part III Historical Foundations of Education

Chapter 5 American Education: European Heritage and Colonial Experience 97
Chapter 6 American Education: From Revolution to the Twentieth Century 123
Chapter 7 Modern American Education: From the Progressive Movement to the Present 157

Part IV Schooling in a Diverse and Multicultural Society

Chapter 8 The Social and Cultural Contexts of Schooling: Their Influence and Consequence 190
Chapter 9 Responding to Diversity 216
Chapter 10 Students at Risk and At-Risk Behaviors 241

Part V Legal and Political Control and Financial Support

Chapter 11 Legal Framework for the Public Schools 271
Chapter 12 Teachers, Students, and the Law 297
Chapter 13 Governance and Financing of Elementary and Secondary Schools 334

Part VI Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment in Effective Schools

Chapter 14 Curriculum and Instruction 362
Chapter 15 Standards and Assessment 387

viii
 Contents

Part I The Teaching Profession

Chapter 1 Status of the Profession 1

The Teacher and the Teaching Profession 2
Why Become a Teacher? 4
Ask Yourself: Do I Want to Be a Teacher? 5
Video Insight: Becoming a Teacher 6
Satisfactions and Dissatisfactions with Teaching 6
Teacher Preparation 7
Baccalaureate Teacher Education Programs 7
Historical Note: The Columbian School: The First
Formal Teacher Training Institution 9
Alternative Teacher Preparation/Certification
­Programs 10
Teacher Certification 11
Assessment for Initial Certification and Licensure 11
Emergency Certification 12
Recertification 12
Reciprocity and Interstate Certification 13
National Certification: The NBPTS 13
Teacher Supply and Demand 14
Salary and Other Compensation 15
Salary Schedules 16
Performance-Based Teacher Compensation 18
Incentive Pay for Hard-to-Staff Schools and Subjects 19
Controversial Issue: Value-Added Pay 19
Compensation for Supplemental Activities 20
Salaries for Administrative and Support Personnel 20
Indirect Compensation: Employee Benefits and
­Services 20
Summary 21
Professional Development Workshop 22

Chapter 2 Development of the Profession 25

Teaching as a Profession 26 Historical Note: Apprentice Contract for
Specialized Knowledge and Training 27 ­Schoolmaster, 1722 36
Provision of Essential Services to Society 27 Professional Development 37
Autonomy and the Exercise of Discretion 28 Self-Renewal 38
Code of Professional Practice and Conduct 28 Teacher Evaluation 39
Professional Codes of Ethics 28 Teachers’ Organizations 41
Ask Yourself: Is Teaching a Profession? 29 National Organizations for Teachers 41
The Increased Professionalization of Teaching 31 Local Organizations for Teachers and Collective
Development of Professional Standards 31 ­Negotiations 43
National Board Certification for Advanced Practice 33 Specialized Organizations for Teachers 43
Induction and Mentoring Programs 33 Teachers’ Organizations and Public Policy Issues 44
Summary 45
Controversial Issue: Teacher Tenure 34
Increased Opportunities for Career Advancement 35 Professional Development Workshop 45

ix
x Contents

Part II Philosophy and Its Impact on the Schools

Chapter 3 The Major Philosophies 48

What Is Philosophy? 49 Contemporary Philosophies and Their Educational

Branches of Philosophy 50 ­Implications 59
Metaphysics: What Is the Nature of Reality? 50 Pragmatism 59
Epistemology: What Is the Nature of Knowledge? 51 Existentialism 61
Axiology: What Is the Nature of Values? 51 Analytic Philosophy 63
Controversial Issue: Should Moral Education, Video Insight: Developing Your Philosophy
­Character Education, or Values Education of Education 64
Be a Responsibility of the School? 52 The Major Eastern Philosophies 64
Traditional Western Philosophies and Their Educational Hinduism 65
Implications 52 Buddhism 65
Idealism 53 Confucianism 65
Ask Yourself: What Is My Philosophy of Life? 53 Taoism 66
Historical Note: Plato’s Academy 55 Summary 66
Realism 56 Professional Development Workshop 67
Neo-Thomism 58

Chapter 4 The Impact of Educational Theories on Educational Practice 70

Theories of Education 71 Curriculum 83

Perennialism 72 Instructional Methods 84
Purpose of Schooling 72 Classroom Management 84
Nature of the Learner 72 Assessment 84
Curriculum 72 The Essentialist Teacher 84
Instructional Methods 72 Leading Educational Proponents 84
Classroom Management 73 Social Reconstructionism 86
Assessment 73 Purpose of Schooling 87
The Perennialist Teacher 73 Nature of the Learner 87
Leading Educational Proponents 73 Curriculum 87
Progressivism 75 Instructional Methods 87
Purpose of Schooling 75 Classroom Management 87
Nature of the Learner 75 Assessment 88
Curriculum 75 The Social Reconstructionist Teacher 88
Instructional Methods 76 Leading Educational Proponents 88
Classroom Management 76 Video Insight: Social Reconstructionism 89
Assessment 77 Postmodernism 90
The Progressivist Teacher 77 Purpose of Schooling 90
Leading Educational Proponents 77 Nature of the Learner 91
Historical Note: John Dewey 77 Curriculum 91
Behaviorism 79 Instructional Methods 91
Purpose of Schooling 80 Classroom Management 92
Nature of the Learner 80 Assessment 92
Curriculum 81 The Postmodernist Teacher 92
Instructional Methods 81 Leading Educational Proponents 92
Classroom Management 81 Identifying Your Philosophy of Education 93
Assessment 81 Ask Yourself: What Is My Philosophy of
The Behaviorist Teacher 81 ­Education? 94
Leading Educational Proponents 82 Summary 94
Essentialism 83 Professional Development Workshop 94
Purpose of Schooling 83
Nature of the Learner 83
 Contents xi

Part III Historical Foundations of Education

Chapter 5 American Education: European Heritage and Colonial Experience 97

Education in Ancient Societies 98 John Calvin (1509–1564) 107

Education in Ancient Israel and Egypt 98
Education in Ancient Greece 99
Education in Ancient Rome 101
Education in the Middle Ages 102
Controversial Issue: Homeschooling 103
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) 103
The Medieval Universities 103
Influence of Arab Scholars 104
Historical Note: Life of the Medieval University
­Student 105
Education During the Renaissance 105
Education During the Reformation 106
Martin Luther (1483–1546) 106
Vernacular Schools 108
Education in the “New” Old World Before J­ amestown 108
Native American Education 108
Education in New Spain 109
Education in New France 109
Education in Colonial America 110
Education in the New England Colonies 110
Education in the Mid-Atlantic Colonies 114
Education in the Southern Colonies 116
Education in the Later Colonial Period 117
Summary 120
Professional Development W
­ orkshop 121

Chapter 6 American Education: From Revolution to the Twentieth Century 123

Education in the Early National Period 124
Northwest Land Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 124
Nationalism and Education 125
New Providers of Elementary Education 128
The Growth of the Academy 130
The Common School Movement 132
Moving Forces Behind the Common School
­Movement 132
Leading Proponents of the Common School 134
Growth of State and Local Support and Supervision 136
Organization and Curriculum 137
Secondary School Movement 137
Slow Beginnings 138
The Movement Grows as Industry and the Economy
Grow 138
Tax Support and Compulsory Attendance Laws Further
Secondary Education and Literacy 138
Controversial Issue: Single-Sex Schools and
Classes 139
The Committee of Ten 140
The Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary
­Education 141
The Junior High School 142
Developments in Higher Education 142
The Dartmouth College Case 142
The Morrill Acts and the Land-Grant College
­Movement 143
Higher Education for Women 143
The Emergence of the Modern University 144
Founding of Junior Colleges 144
Education of Minorities 144
Education of Native Americans 145
Education of Hispanic Americans 147
Education of Asian Americans 147
Education of Black Americans 148
Historical Note: Zeal for Learning Among Freedmen,
1868 149
Video Insight: Booker T. Washington v. W. E. B.
DuBois 150
Teacher Education 152
Establishment of Normal Schools 152
Teacher Institutes 153
Normal School Curriculum and Standards
­Strengthened 153
Universities Enter Teacher Training 154
Summary 154
Professional Development Workshop 154
xii Contents

Chapter 7 Modern American Education: From the Progressive Movement to the Present 157

The Twentieth Century Unfolds 158
The People and the Nation Grow 158
Economic Growth 158
Politics and Reform 159
Changes in Education 159
The Progressive Era in Education 161
The Beginnings of Progressive Education 161
John Dewey 161
Ella Flagg Young 162
Progressive Education Association 162
Influence of the Progressive Movement on Higher
­Education 163
The Child Study Movement 163
The Measurement Movement 163
Education During the Great Depression, the Second World
War, and the Cold War 164
George S. Counts and Social Reconstructionism 166
William C. Bagley and the Essentialists 166
The Impact of the Second World War on the Schools 166
Education in the Postwar Era 167
The Critics and the Decline of Progressive
­Education 168
The Montessori Movement 169
Historical Note: Maria Montessori 169
From Sputnik to the New Federalism 170
Curriculum Reforms 170
Education and the War on Poverty 170
The Civil Rights Movement 172
Video Insight: Brown v. Board of ­Education 172
Further Advances in Equal Educational Opportunity
in Education 174
The 1970s: Retreat and Retrenchment 175
The New Federalism and the New Reform ­Movement 176
The 1980s: Renewed Conservatism and Reform 176
The 1990s: National Goals, National Standards, and
Accountability 178
School Choice 180
The End of a Presidency, the End of a Century 181
Controversial Issue: Charter Schools 182
A New Century: New Federal and State Roles 182
No Child Left Behind and the “New” Educational
­Federalism 182
The Obama Administration: Increased Federal
­Involvement 184
Summary 187
Professional Development Workshop 188

Part IV Schooling in a Diverse and Multicultural Society

Chapter 8 The Social and Cultural Contexts of Schooling: Their Influence and Consequence 190

Society and the Agents of Socialization 191 African Americans 202

The Family 191 Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders 203
The School 193 Native Americans (American Indians and Alaska
The Peer Group 193 Natives) 204
Religion 194 The Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Achievement
The Mass Media 194 and ­Attainment Gaps 206
The Racial and Ethnic Achievement Gap 206
The Purposes and Expectations of Schooling 195
The Racial and Ethnic Attainment Gap 206
Functionalist Perspective 195
The Gender Gap in Reverse 209
Conflict Perspective 196
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 196 Video Insight: Boys vs. Girls: What You Need to
The Diverse Student Population 197 Know about the Differences in the Classroom 211
Social Class 197
Students with Exceptionalities 211
Students Who Are English Learners 213
Historical Note: The Evolving Concept of Social
Class 198 Summary 213
Controversial Issue: Standardized Testing 200 Professional Development Workshop 214
Hispanic Americans 201
 Contents xiii

Chapter 9 Responding to Diversity 216

Culture and Its Influence on Teaching, Learning, Education for Disadvantaged Students and Students
and Behavior 217 with Disabilities 230
Culturally Responsive Teaching 220 Compensatory Education 230
Strategies for Teaching Culturally Diverse Creating Equal Educational Opportunities for
Students 222 Students with Disabilities 231
Multicultural Education 222 Video Insight: IEP Meeting 232
Approaches to Multicultural Education 223 Promoting Gender Equity 235
Supporting English Learners 225 Ask Yourself: Inclusion Checklist 236
Services to Immigrant and Migrant Children Goals of Gender Equity 236
and Youth 227 Strategies for Achieving Gender Equity 237
Historical Note: Tape v. Hurley: The Chinese Struggle Summary 239
for Education 229
Professional Development Workshop 239

Chapter 10 Students at Risk and At-Risk Behaviors 241

At-Risk Children and Youth 242 Historical Note: Outcasts: Three HIV-Positive
Identifying At-Risk Students 242 ­Brothers Barred from School 256
Risk, Resiliency, and Protective Factors 243 Childhood Obesity 256
Tobacco, Drug, and Alcohol Use and Abuse 244 Consequences of Childhood Obesity 257
The Effects of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 247 Prevention and Intervention: The Role of the School 258
Identifying Alcohol and Drug Use 247 Child Maltreatment 259
Prevention and Intervention Strategies 247 Child Neglect 260
Adolescent Suicide 248 Physical Abuse 260
Risk Factors for Youth Suicide 248 Sexual Abuse 260
Warning Signs of Youth Suicide 249 Emotional Abuse 260
Prevention and Intervention Strategies 250 Identifying Child Abuse and Neglect 260
Dropping Out of School 251 Prevention and Intervention Strategies 262
Identifying the Potential Dropout 252 School Violence 263
Prevention and Intervention Strategies 252 Bullying 264
Teen Pregnancy 253 Prevention and Intervention Strategies 265
Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy 253 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning
Prevention and Intervention Strategies 254 (LGBTQ) Youth 266
Improving the School Climate 267
Video Insight: Too Young 254
Summary 268
Controversial Issue: Sex Education in Public
Schools 255 Professional Development Workshop 268
xiv Contents

Part V Legal and Political Control and Financial Support

Chapter 11 Legal Framework for the Public Schools 271

Federal Constitutional Provisions Affecting Education 272 Historical Note: Sandra Day O’Connor: Breaking the
First Amendment 273 Glass Ceiling on the U.S. Supreme Court 282
Fourth Amendment 274 Student and Teacher First Amendment Rights:
Eighth Amendment 274 ­Religion 283
Ninth Amendment 275 Prayer and Bible Reading 283
Tenth Amendment 275 Religious Expression 286
Fourteenth Amendment 275 Religious Access to School Buildings 289
State Constitutional Provisions Affecting Challenges to the Curriculum 289
Education 276 Video Insight: Science vs. Religion in America
Laws and Policies Affecting Education 276 (Dover Case) 291
Statutory Law 276 Public Aid to Private Schools 292
Case Law 278 Ask Yourself: How Tall Is the Wall? 293
Administrative Rules and Regulations 278 Vouchers 294
School Board Policies 279 Tax Credits and Deductions 294
Powers and Organization of the Courts 279 Summary 295
The Federal Court System 279 Professional Development Workshop 295
The State Court Systems 281

Chapter 12 Teachers, Students, and the Law 297

Terms and Conditions of Teacher Employment 298 Tort Liability of School District Employees 316
Certification 298 Standard of Care and Duty 316
Citizenship and Residency Requirements 299 Educational Malpractice 317
Health and Physical Requirements 299 Student Rights and Responsibilities 317
The Employment Contract 300 Student Discipline 318
Tenure 301 Controversial Issue: Service Learning 319
Historical Note: Duties of a Dorchester, Search and Seizure 321
MA Schoolmaster, 1645 302 Freedom of Expression 324
Teacher Dismissal 302 Video Insight: Tinker v. Des Moines 326
Teacher Rights 305 Student Records and Privacy 328
Constitutional Rights of Teachers 305 Sexual Harassment of Teachers and Students 329
Teacher Rights: Freedom from Employment Summary 331
­Discrimination 311
Legal Responsibilities of Teachers 312 Professional Development Workshop 331
Reporting Child Abuse and Neglect 312
Observing Copyright 313
 Contents xv

Chapter 13 Governance and Financing of Elementary and Secondary Schools 334

Organization of the Public Schools 335
Education at the Local Level 336
School Boards 337
Superintendent of Schools 337
Building Principal 339
School District Budgeting 339
Charter Schools 340
Federal Support for Elementary and Secondary
Schools 348
Financing of Education 350
Public Policy Goals in State School Finance 350
State School Finance Program Options 351
State Spending Differences 352
Sources of Revenue for Schools 352

Video Insight: Professors 711—Charter School v. Ask Yourself: What Limits Should Be Placed
­Public School 343 on ­Commercialism in Schools? 355
Education at the State Level 344 Controversial Issue: Tuition Tax Credits 356
State Boards of Education 344 Legal Challenges to State Finance Plans 356
Chief State School Officer 345 Historical Note: Serrano v. Priest: The School
State Departments of Education 345 Finance Reform Movement Begins 357
Number of School Districts and Enrollments in the Private Education 357
States 345 Private School Enrollments 358
The Federal Government and Public Education 348 Homeschooling 359
U.S. Department of Education and Secretary Summary 359
of Education 348
Professional Development Workshop 360

Part VI Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment

in Effective Schools

Chapter 14 Curriculum and Instruction 362

Forces Influencing the Curriculum 363
National Standards and the Common Core 364
Textbooks 365
Controversial Issue: National Standards for U.S.
Education 365
Mandated Standardized Assessments 366
State Governments 367
Teachers 367
Local School Boards 368
Parent and Community Groups 369
The Federal Government 369
Patterns of Curriculum Design 369
Subject-Area Curriculum Design 370
Integrated Curriculum Design 371
Core Curriculum Design 371
Student-Centered Curriculum Design 372
Constructivist Curriculum Design 372
Historical Note: Anne Sullivan Macy: “Teacher” to
Helen Keller 373
The Curriculum Orientation Cycle 373
The Hidden and Null Curricula 374
Instructional Goals and Objectives 375
Educational Objectives 375
Taxonomies of Educational Objectives 375
Models of Instruction 376
The Information Processing Family of Models 377
The Social Family of Models 379
Ask Yourself: Are You a Critical Thinker? 380
The Personal Family of Models 381
The Behavioral Systems Family of Models 382
Learning Styles and Characteristics of Learners 383
Summary 384
Professional Development Workshop 385
xvi CONTENTS

CHAPTER 15 Standards and Assessment 387

Standards 388 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUE: High-Stakes Testing 396

Curriculum Content Standards 389 Classroom Assessment 397
Performance Standards 390 Observation Assessment 398
Opportunity to Learn Standards 390 Performance Assessment 398
Assessment: Purposes and Measures 391 VIDEO INSIGHT: Assessment’s Role in Instruction 399
To Inform Instruction and Promote Student Portfolio Assessment 399
Learning 391 Teacher-Developed Assessments 400
To Diagnose Individual Student Learning Strengths Criteria for Quality Assessment 402
and Weaknesses 392
Absence of Bias 402
To Assess Student Achievement 392
Reliability 402
To Compare the Performance of Students 392
Validity 404
To Assist Students in Making Decisions About Courses of
Study or Career Planning 392 Standards-Based Education and Assessment 407
To Evaluate Schools, Inform Program Decisions, and Summary 409
­Evaluate Teachers 392
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Workshop 409
Standardized Assessment 393
International Standardized Assessments 394
State Standardized Assessments 396

GLOSSARY 411

RE FERENCES418

AUTHOR INDEX432

SUBJECT INDEX435
 Special Feature
Chapter 1
Ask Yourself: Do I Want to Be a Teacher? 5
Controversial Issue: Standardized Testing 200
Video Insight: Boys vs. Girls: What You Need to Know
about the Differences in the Classroom 211
Video Insight: Becoming a Teacher 6
Historical Note: The Columbian School: The First
Formal Teacher Training Institution 9
Chapter 9
Historical Note: Tape v. Hurley: The Chinese Struggle for
Controversial Issue: Value-Added Pay 19 Education 229

Chapter 2
Ask Yourself: Is Teaching a Profession? 29
Video Insight: IEP Meeting 232
Ask Yourself: Inclusion Checklist 236

Controversial Issue: Teacher Tenure 34

Historical Note: Apprentice Contract for ­Schoolmaster,
Chapter 10
Video Insight: Too Young 254
1722 36
Controversial Issue: Sex Education in Public
Chapter 3
Controversial Issue: Should Moral Education,
Schools 255
Historical Note: Outcasts: Three HIV-Positive ­Brothers
Barred from School 256
­Character Education, or Values Education
Be a Responsibility of the School? 52
Ask Yourself: What Is My Philosophy of Life? 53
Chapter 11
Historical Note: Sandra Day O’Connor: Breaking the
Historical Note: Plato’s Academy 55 Glass Ceiling on the U.S. Supreme Court 282
Video Insight: Developing Your Philosophy of Video Insight: Science vs. Religion in America
Education 64 (Dover Case) 291

Chapter 4 Ask Yourself: How Tall Is the Wall? 293

Historical Note: John Dewey 77

Video Insight: Social Reconstructionism 89
Chapter 12
Historical Note: Duties of a Dorchester,
Ask Yourself: What Is My Philosophy of ­Education? 94 MA Schoolmaster, 1645 302
Controversial Issue: Service Learning 319
Chapter 5 Video Insight: Tinker v. Des Moines 326
Controversial Issue: Homeschooling 103
Historical Note: Life of the Medieval University
Chapter 13
Video Insight: Professors 711—Charter School v. Public
­Student 105
School 343
Chapter 6
Controversial Issue: Single-Sex Schools and
Ask Yourself: What Limits Should Be Placed on
­Commercialism in Schools? 355
Classes 139 Controversial Issue: Tuition Tax Credits 356
Historical Note: Zeal for Learning Among Freedmen, Historical Note: Serrano v. Priest: The School Finance
1868 149 Reform Movement Begins 357
Video Insight: Booker T. Washington v. W. E. B.
DuBois 150 Chapter 14
Controversial Issue: National Standards for
Chapter 7
Historical Note: Maria Montessori 169
U.S. Education 365
Historical Note: Anne Sullivan Macy: “Teacher” to
Video Insight: Brown v. Board of ­Education 172 Helen Keller 373

Controversial Issue: Charter Schools 182 Ask Yourself: Are You a Critical Thinker? 380

Chapter 8 Chapter 15
Controversial Issue: High-Stakes Testing 396
Historical Note: The Evolving Concept of Social
Class 198 Video Insight: Assessment’s Role in Instruction 399

xvii
This page intentionally left blank
 Status of the Profession
Monkey Business/Fotolia
Learning Outcomes
LO1 Provide an overview of
America’s teaching force and
the teaching profession.
LO2 Identify the most commonly
cited satisfactions and
dissatisfactions of teaching.
LO3 Describe traditional and
alternative teacher preparation
programs.
LO4 Discuss current issues related
to teacher certification, including
CHAPTER
1
testing for certification, emergency
certification, and interstate
certification.
LO5 Compare data related to teacher
supply with that for demand, and
explore the factors contributing to
teacher supply and demand.
LO6 Identify the major elements of
teacher compensation, including
supplemental pay and performance-
based pay.
2 PART 1  The Teaching Profession

Dr. Flynn enters the room of a patient who was recently
admitted to University Hospital complaining of severe
abdominal pain. Several interns follow Dr. Flynn to the
patient’s bedside. Dr. Flynn begins to ask the patient a
series of questions. After the patient responds, Dr. Flynn
turns to one of the interns and asks for a diagnosis. The
intern gives a diagnosis. Dr. Flynn follows with a series of
questions related to the basis for the diagnosis and possi-
ble treatment.
The ABC Corporation has just initiated a new data man-
agement plan. All middle managers have been told to
report to the conference room at 8:30 a.m. on ­Monday.
Upon arrival, the director of human resources intro-
duces Ms. Dominguez from Data Resources, the retailer
of the software supporting the new data management
plan. Ms. Dominguez distributes a packet of materi-
als and spends the remainder of the day with the man-
agers, reviewing the materials in the packet, presenting
additional information using a computer presentation plat-
form, and showing a video related to the data manage-
ment plan.
Mr. Pell stops at Amy Black’s desk and answers a ques-
tion. He moves to the desk of another student; observes
the student writing in a workbook; points to something the
student has written; and then, in a low voice, tells the stu-
dent that the response is not correct and explains why.
He continues around the room, stopping at almost every
desk to make some remark. After about 10 minutes he
goes to the front of the room and says, “Class, it appears
that several people are having problems with this assign-
ment. Let’s review how to divide one fraction by another
fraction.” Mr. Pell walks to the blackboard and begins
to speak.
Which of these individuals—Dr. Flynn, Ms. Dominguez,
or Mr. Pell—is a teacher? Why? What defines the act of
teaching?

T eaching has been considered by some to be the most noble of profes-

sions. H. G. Wells went so far as to say, “The teacher, whether mother,
priest, or schoolmaster, is the real maker of history.” Perhaps you are ask-
ing yourself, “What is a teacher?”; “What is this profession of teaching all about?”
And, perhaps most important, “Should I become a teacher?” This chapter presents
an overview of the teaching profession.

The Teacher and the Teaching Profession

Put most simply, a teacher is one who instructs another. A more formal defi-
nition from the Encyclopedia of Education describes teachers as “­intellectual
leaders who create opportunities for students to demonstrate what they
know and what they know how to do” (Waid & McNergney, 2003, p. 2435).
­Teaching is defined in another work as “the processes of helping pupils acquire
­k nowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or appreciations by means of a systematic
method of i­nstruction” (Shafritz, Koeppe, & Soper, 1988, p. 468). Perhaps the
most provocative ­definition defines the teacher as an artist and teaching as an
art. According to Eisner (2002), teaching can be considered an art from at least
four perspectives:
First, it is an art in that teaching can be performed with such skill and grace that, for
the student as well as for the teacher, the experience can be justifiably characterized
as aesthetic….
Second, teaching is an art in that teachers, like painters, composers, actresses,
and dancers, make judgments based largely on qualities that unfold during the
course of action…. The teacher must “read” the emerging qualities and respond with
qualities appropriate to the ends sought….
Third, teaching is an art in that the teacher’s activity is not dominated by pre-
scriptions or routines but is influenced by qualities and contingencies that are
unpredicted. The teacher must function in an innovative way in order to cope with
these contingencies… . Fourth, teaching is an art in that the ends it achieves are
often created in the process … teaching is a form of human action in which many
 CHAPTER 1 Status of the Profession 3

of the ends achieved are emergent—that is to say, found in the course of interaction For Your
with students rather than preconceived and efficiently attained. (pp. 154–155) Reflection and
Reflection
Analysis
To consider teaching an art does not negate the necessity of establishing a sci- Do you believe that
entific basis for the art of teaching and for developing a theoretical framework for ­teachers are “born
teaching that addresses what we know and believe about intelligence, the condi- not made”? In your
tions of learning, and what defines an effective teacher. The stronger the scientific ­experience as a student
basis, the greater the potential to improve teaching. have you been exposed
Whatever definition is used, there is little argument that the teacher is the cen- to teachers who were
“­artists” in the classroom?
tral element in the educational system. Research has consistently shown that the
teacher is the most important school-related variable in student learning. It is of
interest to review what we know about the almost four million teachers in America
today. Table 1.1 presents some characteristics of public school teachers.

Table 1.1 — Selected Characteristics of Public School Teachers, 2001 and 2012
Teacher Characteristics 2001 2012

Sex (percent)

Male 21.0 23.7

Female 79.0 76.3

Race/ethnicity (percent)

White, non-Hispanic 84.3 81.9

Black, non-Hispanic 7.6 6.8

Hispanic 5.6 7.8

Asian or Pacific Islander 1.6 1.8

American Indian or Alaskan Native 0.8 0.4

Average age (years) 46.0 42.4

Highest degree (percent)

Bachelor’s 43.1 39.9

Master’s 56.0 47.7

Doctorate 0.8

Higher than master’s 8.7

Average years teaching experience 14.0 13.8

Average class size

Elementary 21.0 21.6

Secondary 28.0 24.2

Average number of hours per week spent on

teaching and other school related duties

Elementary teachers 50.0 51.8

Secondary teachers 49.0 53.0

Source: Goldring, R., Gray, L., & Bitterman, A. (2013). Characteristics of public and private ele-
mentary and secondary school teachers in the United States: Results from the 2011–12 Schools
and Staffing Survey. National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Science, U.S.
Department of Education, Washington, DC.
4 PART 1  The Teaching Profession

Table 1.2 — Historical Summary of Public Elementary and Secondary School Statistics: United States,
1869–1870 to 2010–2011
1869–70 1879–80 1889–90 1899–1900 1909–10 1919–20 1929–30

Total enrollment 7,562 9,867 12,723 15,503 17,814 21,578 25,678

(in thousands)

Total instructional staff — — — — —    678 48,880

(in thousands)

Total teachers, ­librarians,   201   287    364    423    523    657    843
and other nonsupervisory
staff (in thousands)

Men    78   123    126    127    110     93    140

Women   123   164    238    296    413    585    703

Source: Snyder, T. D., & Dillow, S. A. (2014). Digest of education statistics, 2013. National Center for Education Statistics, Insti-
tute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC.

As indicated in the table, the teaching force is predominantly female and

white. While only 24% of the teaching force is male, this is actually an increase
from the 21% in 2000; 82% of all public school teachers were non-Hispanic
white. The data also show a less experienced and younger teaching force. The
average class size of secondary teachers was larger than that of elementary
teachers, as were the number of hours per week spent on teaching and other
school-related duties.
The number of teachers and other instructional personnel employed in the
public school systems of the United States has grown over the years as enroll-
ments have increased. Table 1.2 gives a historical summary of public elementary
and secondary school enrollments; number of instructional staff; and number
of teachers, librarians, and other nonsupervisory staff. Since 1990, the total
number of teachers, librarians, and other nonsupervisory staff increased almost
40%. The growth in staff reflects not only enrollment increases but also the
steady reduction in pupil-teacher ratios; the enactment of legislation requiring
increased services and specialized personnel; and the increased utilization of
teacher aides, librarians, guidance counselors, and other instructional support
personnel.

Why Become a Teacher?

There are many reasons why an individual might choose a career in teaching.
Very few teachers would be able to identify a single reason for entering the
profession. Many were positively influenced by former teachers. For others an
important reason might be a practical consideration such as job security or
something as forthright as the fact that their first career choices were blocked
(i.e., they didn’t make it into medical school or into professional sports). Others
may be attracted by the long summer vacations or a schedule that allows them
to spend more time with their families. A less positive reason might be that
1.1 teaching is a good temporary job while waiting to prepare for or be accepted
Check Your
into another career.
Understanding All of the preceding reasons are indeed motives for becoming a teacher, but
Click here to check they are not the primary motives. Over the years, numerous researchers have asked
your understanding teachers what attracted them to the profession. The reasons given most consis-
of this section of tently are (1) a caring for and desire to work with children and young people,
the chapter. (2) the significance of education to society, and (3) an interest in a subject-matter
 CHAPTER 1 Status of the Profession 5

1939–40 1949–50 1959–60 1969–70 1979–80 1989–90 1999–2000 2009–10 2010–11

25,434 25,112 36,087 45,550 41,651 40,543 46,857 49,361 49,484

   912    963 1,457 2,286 2,406 2,986 3,819 4,719 4,151

   875    920 1,393 2,195 2,300 2,860 3,682 4,111 3,986

   195    196    404    711    782 — — —

   681    724    989 1,484 1,518 — — —

field and an excitement in sharing it with others. Other frequently cited reasons are
job security, vacation, and autonomy in the classroom.
The reasons one has for becoming a teacher have a significant effect on the
ultimate satisfaction one finds in the job. For this reason it is important that pro-
spective teachers question themselves about what they expect to gain from or give
to teaching. The set of questions found in the following Ask Yourself feature are
provided to guide you in this inquiry.

ASK YOURSELF Do I Want to Be a Teacher?

1. What are your reasons for becoming a teacher?
Are they inter-directed (e.g., job security, long
vacations, the desire to continue to be engaged in
a chosen discipline, or the autonomy of the class-
room) or o­ ther-directed (e.g. watching students
succeed, making a difference in the life of a child,
making a ­contribution to society, or affecting the
future)?
2. What knowledge and skills do you want to teach or
share with students?
3. How prepared and comfortable are you in working with
students with disabilities?
4. How prepared and comfortable are you in working or in
a minority-majority school or classroom?
5. What age children are you most comfortable with?
6. What are your expectations for student performance
and student behavior?
7. How prepared are you for a work load that often
requires working on nights and weekends?
8. How willing are you to engage in on-going professional
development?
9. How comfortable are you in working on a team? Will
you find it difficult to implement team decisions that
you do not support?
10. Do your communication and interpersonal skills
­prepare you to successfully interact with parents and
other members of the school community?
6 PART 1  The Teaching Profession

VIDEO INSIGHT
Becoming a Teacher
In this video, Penny Brandenburg, a first-year teacher, talks about why she became a
teacher, what she thinks makes a good teacher, the greatest challenges she faces, as
well as some of the benefits and satisfactions of teaching.

00:00 / 00:00

Satisfactions and Dissatisfactions with Teaching

Just as each individual has personal motives for becoming a teacher, each indi-
vidual will find certain aspects of the position satisfying or rewarding and certain
aspects dissatisfying. In fact, it is possible that a particular aspect may be both
satisfying and dissatisfying. Long summer vacations are satisfiers, but the reduced
salary is a dissatisfier. Working with children can be both satisfying and frustrating.
Although each individual will find personal satisfactions and dissatisfactions with
teaching, it is of interest to look at what practicing teachers have identified as the
satisfactions or attractions, as well as the dissatisfactions or challenges, of teaching.
Understanding both is also important to prospective teachers in preparing for what
they will encounter when they enter the classroom. It is also important to those
making policies that affect teachers, because teacher satisfaction has been found to
be associated with student achievement ( Johnson, Kraft, & Papay, 2012; Tek, 2014).
What exactly is it that teachers find satisfying and dissatisfying about teaching?
We have already mentioned what teachers most often identify as the major satis-
factions of teaching: the joy of working with children and the feeling that they are
making a difference in the life of a student and in the larger society. Teachers also
often talk about the importance of contributing to society. Many teachers find the
autonomy they exercise in their classrooms and the control they have over their
own time to be attractions. For others it is the opportunity to have a lifelong associ-
ation with their subject field and with learning: teachers ranked second on a survey
of occupations to learning and doing something new every day (Busteed, 2013).
And for still others the security of the position and the feeling of camaraderie and
cooperation they share with their colleagues are important attractions ( Johnson,
et. al., 2012; Viadero, 2008). Teaching is one of the few professions where competi-
tion is virtually nonexistent.
Among the factors that have been associated with teacher dissatisfaction are level
of support from parents and administrators, workload, availability of resources,
class size, amount of time provided for planning and professional development,
increase of students with behavior problems, condition of the school, and school
safety ( Johnson, et. al, 2012; OECD, 2014; Vassallo, 2014). And, although very few
teachers are motivated by salary to enter teaching, salary and benefits can influ-
ence teachers’ level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the position, as well as their
desire to remain in or leave teaching.
A final dissatisfier, inadequate resources, the constant bane of teachers, inhibits
the ability of teachers to meet the needs of individual students and prepare all
students for higher levels of educational attainment or successful participation in
the workforce. The nationwide recession that began at the end of the first decade
of the twenty-first century has resulted in cuts in public school budgets and has
increased the financial challenges facing the schools.
Perhaps the ultimate indication of teacher job satisfaction or dissatisfaction is
whether, given the opportunity to make the decision again, a person would become
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
doing they may be considered in connection with the remarks of their
critics and a just comparison made. In presenting the views of
Quaker educators reference may be made to salient points in the
criticism, which seem out of keeping with the ideas set forth and
without foundation as matters of fact.
There are quite a number of men, in the brief [Sidenote: Only a
period studied, who stand out clearly and express few of the leaders’
themselves definitely in favor of education, though statements to be
considered]
they do not consider it the first requisite for a
minister of the gospel.[76] From this number it will be feasible to
select only a few for the chief consideration, relegating the remainder
to a place of comparative unimportance and incidental notice. The
work of George Fox, though he was poorly educated, had a
remarkable effect on the educational work of the society. But it is not
necessary to review that in the present chapter as it has been
presented in the first.[77]
By far the most familiar of all characters in Quaker history is that of
William Penn. And to his influence must be attributed largely the
hearty interest in education shown, not only in Philadelphia, but also
in the surrounding communities. He was well educated, but it is not
desired to make a case for or against him on the basis of his
education; let us judge by his written or spoken expression and
actual procedure in practice. No attempt is made to prove or
disprove his contentions as to what was right or wrong, necessary or
unnecessary in education. The questions asked in his case and the
others that follow is: What did they approve or disapprove of in
education?
Not only in works that might be called strictly [Sidenote: Penn
educational did Penn give educational advice, recommends
valuable alike to youth and to parents, the directors practical virtues]
of youth. His advice to his children on the value of
diligence and its necessity for success, and the propriety of frugality,
even in the homes of the rich, embodies many of the most essential
principles in education at any time. It is especially applicable to the
education of the man of business, emphasizing the importance of the
practical duties in life. Some pointed statements are especially
worthy of repetition.
[Sidenote:
Diligence ... is a discreet and understanding Diligence]
application of onesself to business; ... it loses
not, it conquers difficulties.... Be busy to a [Sidenote:
Frugality]
purpose; for a busy man and a man of business
are two different things. Lay your matters and diligence
succeeds them, else pains are lost.... Consider well your end,
suit your means to it, and diligently employ them, and you will
arrive where you would be....[78] Frugality is a virtue too, and
not of little use in life, the better way to be rich, for it hath less
toil and temptation.... I would have you liberal, but not
prodigal; and diligent but not drudging; I would have you
frugal but not sordid.[79]

This bit of philosophy is educational in its bearing in very much the

same way as that of Benjamin Franklin.
In the letters to his wife and children, referring to the care for their
education, he is more specifically concerned with actual school
education.
[Sidenote: School
For their learning, be liberal. Spare no cost, education
for by such parsimony all is lost that is saved; recommended;
but let it be useful knowledge such as is the useful
emphasized]
consistent with truth and godliness, not
cherishing a vain conversation or idle mind; but ingenuity
mixed with industry is good for the body and the mind too. I
recommend the useful parts of mathematics, as building
houses, or ships, measuring, surveying, dialing, navigation;
but agriculture especially is my eye. Let my children be
husbandmen and housewives; it is industrious, healthy,
honest and of good example, ...[80]
 His preference, as might be expected from an [Sidenote: Private
Englishman of that time, was for a tutorial system tutors desired]
of education. His reasons therefore seem to have
been based chiefly on moral grounds.

Rather have an ingenious person in the house to teach

them, than send them to schools; too many evil impressions
being received there.[81]

The above quotation alone would seem to be adequate proof that

Penn did not oppose education, but urged it for others and in his own
family. But still more convincing and irrefutable evidence is found in
the preamble to this school charter, whence an extract is taken.
[Sidenote: Public
Whereas, the prosperity and welfare of any education
people depend in great measure upon the good essential for the
welfare of a
education of youth, and their early instruction in people]
the principles of true religion and virtue, and
qualifying them to serve their country and themselves, by
breeding them in writing and reading and learning of
languages, and useful arts and sciences, suitable to their sex,
age and degree; which cannot be effected in any manner or
so well as by erecting public schools for the purposes
aforesaid, therefore....[82]

If, as must be admitted, the previous statement [Sidenote: His

points out the lack of any opposition to the ordinary ideals expressed
rudimentary education that is necessary for the in action]
everyday walks of life, the last one certainly does [Sidenote: Yearly
the same in reference to his attitude towards a meeting
higher classical education. Moreover, this is not a recommend
French, High and
mere skeleton of words never clothed with the flesh Low Dutch,
of action. The principles set forth in the charter Danish, etc.]
were actually incorporated in the work of the
schools established in Philadelphia, and we find them maintaining a
classical school for languages and higher mathematics.[83] The
practical elements received the just emphasis which belonged to
them; it was necessary that the boys and girls be made able to earn
a living and be at least ordinarily intelligent citizens. The example of
Philadelphia was followed by other communities; practical needs
were given the first consideration and a higher classical education
offered when it became possible. Not only were these studies, which
we would term higher education, mentioned by Penn and other
writers among Quakers, but they were taken up and recommended
by the yearly meeting. For example, in 1737, the minutes
recommend that as opportunity can be found, children should be
privileged to learn “French, High and Low Dutch, Danish, etc.”[84]
This particular recommendation was made by the meeting because
of a felt need.[85] If then in case of a need for a particular subject,
they were willing to recommend that it be taught, can it be truly said
that they opposed all education?
It may be well to examine Barclay, since it is with [Sidenote:
him and his writings that Cox takes issue. In his Barclay’s position
Apology for Christian Divinity Vindicated is to be defined]
found a very clear statement of his position on the
subject, and he voices it as the principle of the whole society as well.
He seems to be answering some critic, who has taken him to task for
his educational views:
[Sidenote: In his
He goes on after his usual manner saying, I Apology]
inveigh against all human learning that has
been made use of any ways in Theology; but where he finds
this asserted I know not, whether the words he would declare
it from, to wit: that man hath rendered the plain and naked
truth obscure and mysterious by his wisdom, will bear such a
consequence is left to the reader’s judgment. But he thinks he
has found out our secret design of being against learning and
schools of learning, which is neither our affirmation nor our
principle, but his own false supposition. We would, saith he,
have all those banished, that we might more easily prevail
with our errors. But methinks the man should be more wary in
 venting his own false imaginations, unless he would bring
some ground for them; for his assertion is so far untrue, that if
he had been rightly informed, he might have known that we
have set up schools of learning for teaching of the languages
and other needful arts and sciences,[86] and that we never
denied its usefulness; only we denied it be a qualification
absolutely necessary for a minister, in which case alone we
have opposed its necessity.[87]

Another character of very great importance in [Sidenote:

this connection is Anthony Benezet. Born, 1713, at Benezet’s early
St. Quentin in France, of “an ancient and life and education]
respectable family” he spent his early years in
France and then in Holland, whither his father had fled for refuge.[88]
A few months were spent in Rotterdam and the family then moved to
London where the father entered into the mercantile business and
retrieved to some extent his fallen fortunes. This enabled him to give
Anthony sufficient education to qualify him for that business, for
which, however, he seemed to evince but little taste. Being of a very
religious nature, he became a member of Friends at about fourteen
years of age, and in that society found the field of his whole life’s
activity, which was chiefly educational.[89] Considerable space will be
devoted to his work in respect to the education of Negroes, so that
will be entirely omitted in this place.[90] He was a voluminous writer,
producing chiefly tracts and letters, and a great majority of these
have a definite educational bearing. Because of the great number of
them it is impossible really to do them justice, but an attempt will be
made to state a few brief theses for which he unchangingly stands.
First, education is a religious and social duty.[91] [Sidenote:
It is exceedingly interesting to notice that he looks Education a
function of
upon education as in the first place a governmental government, but
function, if the governments of this world were often neglected
influenced by true wisdom, they would make the as such; hence
individual effort
proper education of youth their first and special necessary]
care;[92] but since governments have neglected to
do this, it occurs to him that it is a service for which Quakers are
remarkably well fitted. It is a service for which the wage is very small
and which secures no return of special social favors for the laborer.
But they, being a quiet people, not wishing to gain great wealth or to
shine in social positions, can find their sphere of activity in the
education of the youthful members of society.
Second, a special care in the education of the [Sidenote:
poor is urged.[93] This should become the duty and Children
represent
secure the interest of the well-to-do public spirited “capital”; they
man, for if the upper class does not safeguard it, must be
they cannot be educated. The poor child educated]
represents so much unimproved property, the
owner being unable to improve it, which, if taken over by
philanthropists, may become of some consequence to himself and
perform great services for society at large. Such a movement would,
besides being a great aid to the poor and uneducated, be also a
worthy occupation for those who at present have nothing but time
and money to spend. It would help them to realize that there is
something real in the world, something greater than wealth and
broader than religious denominations. The heart of Benezet knew no
bounds; in his philanthropy he included all classes.
Third, a definite stand is made for higher standards for teachers.

I do not know how it is amongst you, but here any person of

tolerable morals, who can read and write, is esteemed
sufficiently qualified for a schoolmaster; when indeed, the
best and wisest men are but sufficient for so weighty a
charge.[94]

He endeavors to show that the work of a teacher is pleasant and

should interest a better class of masters than it has in the past. The
experiences of Benezet in the school work were of most pleasant
nature. Not only by his own statement, but judged also by the
accounts given in his memoirs by Robert Vaux, it seems that he was
unusually kind and sympathetic as a master, which won him the
greatest respect of his pupils.[95] The tasks of schoolteaching are
only unpleasant when being performed merely for the sake of the
wage obtained. Those who attempt to teach large numbers for the
sake of a large income find it disagreeable; they form the class of
teachers against whom he would discriminate.[96] Add to these three
principles, his great contribution toward the freedom and education
of the Negroes, his long life of service, and we have all for which he
lived. It is stated that he had no private life; at any rate it sinks into
oblivion in comparison with his interest and active work in public
philanthropies.[97]
The educational influence of John Woolman in [Sidenote: John
regard to Negro and Indian education will be Woolman, his
position in regard
mentioned in another chapter,[98] but concerning to education]
education generally he was equally outspoken, and
being a member of some consequence he was [Sidenote: The
able to make his influence felt. Like Benezet, he responsibility
tutors and
of

regarded education as a social duty, both to each parents]

individual and to the community of individuals. This
duty could not be performed by immoral tutors and schoolmasters,
for the pupil could be made to rise no higher than the master; so the
result would be an immoral society.[99] The responsibility, in the last
analysis, for the right conduct of schools falls upon the parents. If
they are indifferent, nothing can be accomplished for the schools, for
the whole community is no better or more insistent in its demands
than the individuals constituting it. For this reason he urges individual
philanthropy to come to the aid of the schools, which are badly
neglected; those who possess wealth can do no better, for, as he
says:

Meditating on the situation of schools in our provinces, my

mind hath, at times, been affected with sorrow, and under
these exercises it hath appeared to me, what if those that
have large estates were faithful stewards, and laid no rent or
interest nor other demand, higher than is consistent with
universal love; and those in lower circumstances would under
 a moderate employ, shun unnecessary expense, even to the
smallest article; and all unite humbly in seeking the Lord, he
would graciously instruct and strengthen us, to relieve the
youth from various snares, in which many of them are
entangled.[100]

If to this list of advocates of education, it is [Sidenote: Tuke,

necessary to add others, mention should be made Whitehead,
of Henry Tuke, George Whitehead, and William Crouch as
advocates of
Crouch. In defending certain differences between education]
the Quaker doctrine and that of other
denominations, the former discusses this one, in not considering
human learning essential to a minister of the gospel.[101] The
reasons adduced are chiefly biblical; the knowledge of human
literature is not recommended by the New Testament as being
necessary for a minister, and this is considered conclusive proof.
Moreover, it is pointed out that Paul, though a well educated man,
disclaimed the value of his education for that service, and wished
always to appear to the people as an unlettered man of God.[102] But
Tuke goes on to explain that though it is not essential for a minister,
learning is not unesteemed nor its usefulness slighted.[103] Members
are desired to direct their attention to education, for a right use of it
may promote religion and benefit civil society.[104] That the use of
Latin and Greek is not decried may be seen in the work of Penn and
Whitehead, who were both scholars, and whose works are full of
classical references and illustrations. In one instance their chief
argument against swearing is produced from certain references to
the works of Socrates and Xenocrates, pointing out that the Greeks
were aware of a higher righteousness excelling that of the legal
Jews.[105] The same point of view with reference to a knowledge of
the classics is taken by William Crouch, as is understood at once by
this statement:

They acknowledge the understanding of languages,

especially of Hebrew, Greek and Latin, formerly was and still
 is very useful, yet they take them not therefore to be
necessary to make a minister nor so profitable as that one
unacquainted with them must be styled an idiot, illiterate and
of no authority.[106]

Moreover, from various sources one is assured [Sidenote: The

that a classical education was not abhorred by the Latin School of
Quakers of Philadelphia. The work offered in the Philadelphia
exemplifies
classical school was for any one who had the contention of
ability to do it and its attainment was encouraged those quoted
by Friends. The higher education was for girls as above]
well as for boys, as we may judge from reading the [Sidenote:
journal kept by Sally Wister (or Wistar), a Quaker Education an
girl of the days of the Revolution.[107] She attended asset; but apt to
be perverted]
the school kept by Anthony Benezet,[108] which
was one of the highest class, moral and literary, and patronized by
the best classes of the citizens. Extracts from her Journal indicate
that her education had not been limited to the mere rudiments, but
that she enjoyed also an elementary knowledge, at least, of Latin
and French.[109] This sort of education was clearly not uncommon
among Friends and it was not the object of opposition on their part. It
must, however, be kept in mind that the Quakers never confused
education necessarily with true Christianity.[110] Religion in this life
and the salvation of one’s soul in the next was a problem which
concerned the poor as well as the rich, the untutored as well as the
learned. How could the demands be greater for one than the other;
the same tests had to be met and passed by all, the educated one
received no favors though more might be expected of him.[111]
Education was looked upon as an asset which might be turned to
great use for Christianity, but the lack of it was never a bar to
Christianity.[112] On the other hand, education might easily become,
according to the Quakers’ views, a definite hindrance to Christianity.
[113]

It would be quite improper in connection with this [Sidenote:

subject to fail to mention the scheme, Utopian in Scheme of
that day, which was conceived in the mind of education
Thomas Budd, for the development of a system of suggested by
Thomas Budd]
education for Pennsylvania and New Jersey. At the
very outset it seems more comprehensive than anything suggested
by any other leader, and in fact it embodied so much that it was quite
beyond the limit of expectation for either of the colonies. Thomas
Budd, though not at first a member of Friends, became convinced of
the justice of their principles and joined the society before the year
1678.[114] He was a man of affairs and became greatly interested in
the colonization of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, whither he soon
came as a colonist himself. At that time it was equally true, as at the
present, that if a scheme or undertaking was to be put through, it
must be made as attractive as possible to the prospector. The
attempt to do this called forth a considerable exercise of individual
initiative, and one result was the educational plan outlined by
Thomas Budd and published in Philadelphia in 1685. The details of
the scheme as outlined are deemed of sufficient interest and
importance to warrant their reproduction here.
[Sidenote:
1. Now it might be well if a law were made by Children to be in
the Governors and General Assemblies of public school
Pennsylvania and New Jersey, that all persons seven
more]
years or

inhabiting the said provinces, do put their

children seven years to the Public School, or longer, if the
parent please.

2. That schools be provided in all towns and [Sidenote: To

cities, and persons of known honesty, skill and receive instruction
understanding be yearly chosen by the in the arts and
sciences and to
Governor and General Assembly, to teach and learn a trade]
instruct boys and girls in all the most useful arts
and sciences that they in their youthful capacities may be
capable to understand, as the learning to read and write true
English and Latin, and other useful speeches and languages,
and fair writing, arithmetic and bookkeeping; the boys to be
taught and instructed in some mystery or trade, as the making
of mathematical instruments, joinery, turnery, the making of
clocks and watches, weaving, shoemaking or any other useful
trade or mystery that the school is capable of teaching; and
the girls to be taught and instructed in spinning of flax and
wool, and knitting of gloves and stockings, sewing, and
making of all sorts of useful needlework, and the making of
straw work, as hats, baskets, etc., or other useful art or
mystery that the school is capable of teaching.

3. That the scholars be kept in the morning [Sidenote: Eight

two hours at reading, writing, bookkeeping, etc., hours per day
and other two hours at work in that art, mystery allotted to studies
and chosen trade]
or trade that he or she most delighteth in, and
then let them have two hours to dine, and for recreation and
in the afternoon two hours at reading, writing, etc., and the
other two hours at work at their several employments.

4. The seventh day of the week the scholars [Sidenote:

may come to school only in the forenoon, and at Regular school
a certain hour in the afternoon let a meeting be work five and
one-half days per
kept by the schoolmasters and their scholars, week; moral
where good instruction and admonition is given instruction on
by the masters to the scholars and thanks Saturday]
returned to the Lord for his mercies and
blessings that are daily received from him, then let a strict
examination be made by the masters, of the conversation of
the scholars in the week past, and let reproof, admonition and
correction be given to the offenders, according to the quantity
and quality of their faults.

5. Let the like meetings be kept by the school [Sidenote: Similar

mistresses, and the girls apart from the boys. arrangement for
By strictly observing this good order our girls educated
separately]
children will be hindered from running into that
excess of riot and wickedness that youth is incident to, and
they will be a comfort to their tender parents.
 6. Let one thousand acres of land be given
and laid out in a good place, to every public [Sidenote: Land
endowment for
school that shall be set up, and the rent or schools]
income of it to go towards the defraying of the
charge of the school.

7. And to the end that the children of the poor [Sidenote: Indians
people, and the children of Indians may have and the poor to be
the like good learning with the children of the educated
cost]
free of

rich people, let them be maintained free of

charge to their parents, out of the profits of the school, arising
by the work of the scholars, by which the poor and the Indians
as well as the rich, will have their children taught, and the
remainder of the profits, if any be to be disposed of in the
building of the schoolhouses and improvements on the
thousand acres of land, which belongs to the school.[115]

The author does not claim to be entirely original [Sidenote: The

in his scheme, having been influenced, he says, by industrial and
a similar thing described by Andrew Yarenton in a commercial
values to be
book, England’s Improvements by Sea and Land. derived are
[116] His chief interest seems to be in the benefit to pointed out]
be derived for the commercial life of the colonies,
and for that reason there is accordingly a great stress on the
industrial education. By this introduction of the industrial schools,
spinning for example, in the larger cities and the preparation of
children at an early age for participation in that great occupation, the
production of linen cloth could be made equal not only to the
domestic demands but also a considerable margin for the foreign
trade.[117] It is pointed out that the colonial consumer pays twice as
much for his purchase as its cost of production in France or
Germany, and that he pays this extra cost into the coffers of the
English merchants. This profit should accrue to the home merchants.
The educational and also the industrial scheme [Sidenote:
is to receive the backing of the colonial Scheme to be
government. It is recommended that laws be
passed for the encouragement of linen encouraged by
manufacturers and that farmers “that keep a plow” the government]
should sow an acre of flax and two of hemp, with [Sidenote:
which to supply the manufacturers.[118] Educational Essential points
urged in the
support by the government was not secured, as is scheme]
amply evidenced by the unsurpassed development
of private and parochial schools of all [Sidenote: The
denominations. The churches were the sponsors lack of
governmental
for education. It is worthy of note, however, that the support; supplied
elements emphasized by Budd, (1) education in the through meetings
arts and sciences for all those capable of it, (2) of Quakers]
industrial education for a trade for every one, (3)
moral and religious training, and (4) equal educational opportunities
for poor and rich or otherwise unfavored classes, are the same as
those urged officially by the Quakers.[119]
Far from receiving governmental support, it was necessary that
the schools be supported by individual or small group enterprise.
The society recognized this, and it is stated in the organization of the
church that the duty of the monthly meeting is to provide for the
subsistence of the poor and for their education.[120] Furthermore it is
recommended that all special bequests of Friends be kept as a
distinct fund for the purpose originally intended by the donor, and
that if expended for any other purpose, it must be again made up by
the quarterly meeting.[121] One of the most frequent uses
designated, judging from the records, seems to have been the
educational.[122]
The reader may have perused the foregoing [Sidenote: Have
pages with more or less interest; a curiosity may Quaker schools
have been aroused concerning the present-day kept pace with the
public?]
attitude of Friends, educationally. Have they
experienced any considerable change? The institutional evidences
of their continued interest are familiar enough to the educationist. But
what is the attitude within the schools: Is instruction stiff and more
formal there than in the public schools, and what can be said of the
progress among the teachers? To answer all of these questions and
similar ones is not the purpose of this present work. And in the
following excerpt, taken from an expression drawn up by a body of
teachers, it is not hoped to find conclusive proof of this or that, but
perhaps it may be taken as a fairly reliable indication of the present
professional attitude.
[Sidenote: The
The teachers’ subjects are not Mathematics, pupil as an
nor Latin, nor Scripture, nor Quakerism—they individual to be
emphasized]
are boys and girls. The information imparted is,
in a sense, a minor matter: the growth of the [Sidenote: Well-
mind that assimilates it is all-important—growth equipped
teachers needed;
in keenness, efficiency and power.... and their
To the Society at large we would put forward academic
freedom
this view that the principles urged above are essential]
deserving of careful consideration in making
any forward move. The quality of the teaching given in our
schools is in a measure in the hands of Friends; they have
raised admirable buildings in many places—these are a small
matter compared with the character of the staff. The freedom
of the teacher, which is an indispensable condition of
excellence is a gift they can grant or withhold. And that we
who are responsible for the term of school life may have the
best chance and the best reward, we would press upon
Friends the need of laying foundations and awakening
interest in the days of childhood, and of turning to best
account the powers of those who go forth from our schools.
[123]

SUMMARY
This chapter treats of the attitude of Friends [Sidenote:
towards education. At the beginning there is Summary of
presented a criticism of S. H. Cox, which is a Cox’s position]
concrete example of the type of criticism referred to
in these pages. Following this there are presented the educational
views of several Friends,—Penn, Barclay, Benezet, Woolman,
Whitehead, Crouch, Tuke, and Thomas Budd, in order that the
reader may judge of the truth or error presented in the criticism. The
chief points made in Cox’s criticism are: (1) hostility of the Quaker
system to classical education, (2) general hostility of the Friends to
colleges and seminaries of learning, and (3) that the “light within”
was sufficient without any education.
From the material next presented it is shown [Sidenote:
that: (1) Penn recommended both practical and Summary of
higher education, (2) useful arts and sciences are points maintained
by certain Quaker
recommended to be taught in public schools, (3) leaders]
the classics were introduced as a part of the
curriculum in the Penn Charter School, and also in other schools
established by the society, (4) Barclay explains that the society holds
a classical education not absolutely necessary for a minister, though
it is useful, (5) the learning of languages is recommended by the
London Yearly Meeting, (6) education is advocated by Benezet as a
religious and social duty; the education of the poor and unfortunate
classes and races is urged; a higher education for schoolmasters is
recommended, (7) Woolman urges the education of Negroes and
Indians as a social duty; the responsibility is placed on the individual,
(8) Crouch states that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin are recognized as
useful and are not opposed when taught for that purpose, (9) Budd,
one of the early Quakers in Pennsylvania, introduced a very
comprehensive and Utopian scheme for (a) industrial education and
(b) higher education, proposing to organize it under the control of the
General Assembly, and (10) indications are that progress, within the
teaching body in Friends’ institutions, is quite comparable with that of
other institutions, though there is no attempt to produce conclusive
evidence either to that effect or the contrary.
 CHAPTER IV
EDUCATION IN PHILADELPHIA[124]

On ye 27th day of October, 1682, arrived before ye Towne

of New Castle from England, William Penn, Esqe., whoo
produced twoo deeds of feofment for this Towne and twelve
myles about itt, and also for ye twoo lower counties, ye
Whoorekills and St. Jones’s—wherefore ye said William Penn
received possession of ye Towne ye 28th of October, 1682.
[125]

It is probable that Penn reached Philadelphia in [Sidenote: The

the latter days of October or the early part of date of Penn’s
coming disputed]
November,[126] though no student of Philadelphia
history has yet been able to settle the question of the day absolutely.
Tradition says he came up the river in an open boat and landed at
the landing on Dock Street near the new tavern, the Blue Anchor,
which had just been erected by George Guest, a Quaker.[127] The
formal ceremony of transferring the territory which had been
arranged between Penn and the Duke of York before leaving
England,[128] was accomplished with the Duke’s commissioners,
Moll and Herman,[129] and the official debut of Pennsylvania in
colonial society was no longer a hope but a reality.
The foundation of the colony’s educational [Sidenote:
institutions had, however, not been delayed till the Education
formalities of “making” a colony were over. provided for in
first Frame of
Education received early consideration in the Government]
Frame of Government which was drawn up from
England by Penn and agreed to on April 25, 1682, before he
prepared to depart for Pennsylvania.[130] In that document it is
clearly set forth that education was the function of the civil authority,
though the intentions of the author were not realized fully for more
than a hundred and fifty years.[131] The same idea is present in each
of the three Frames of Government which were drawn up; the first,
April 25, 1682;[132] the second, April 2, 1683;[133] and the third,
November 7, 1696,[134] under Governor Markham. The instrument
drawn on April 2, 1683, contained in part the following stipulations,
which bear the impression of the Quaker ideal of education.
[Sidenote: The
Tenth. That the Governor and the Provincial provisions]
Council shall erect and order all public schools
and encourage and reward the authors of useful sciences and
laudable inventions in the said provinces and territories
thereof.
Eleventh. That one-third of the Provincial Council residing
with the Governor from time to time shall, with the Governor,
have the care and management of public affairs relating to
peace, justice, treasury and improvement of the province and
territories, and to the good education of the youth, and
sobriety of the manner of the inhabitants therein aforesaid.
[135]

The plan for education as above set forth was [Sidenote: Quaker
not destined to be the one followed consistently for Council provides
more than a century and a half of development, a school]
though throughout the first decades the relations
between the schools of Friends and the governing Council were very
close.[136] It is significant that the first school was actually ordered by
the Council, in keeping with Penn’s provisions. About one year after
Penn’s arrival in Philadelphia the educational problem came to the
attention of the Council and received decided recognition, as the
following witnesses:

The Governor and Provincial Council having taken into their

serious consideration the great necessity there is of a
schoolmaster for the instruction and sober education of the
 youth in the town of Philadelphia, sent for Enock Flower, an
inhabitant of said town, who for twenty years past has been
exercised in that care and employment in England, to whom
having communicated their minds, he embraced it upon the
following terms: to learn to read English 4s by the quarter, to
learn to read and write 6s by the quarter, to learn to read,
write and cast accounts 8s by the quarter; for boarding a
scholar, that is to say, diet, washing, lodging, and schooling,
ten pounds for one whole year.[137]

Thus the first impetus to education in [Sidenote:

Pennsylvania came through properly constituted Additional
governmental authority. The Council records show provisions or
books]
that the interest in educational affairs was
maintained for some time. In the month following a [Sidenote: Charter
law was proposed for making several sorts of of 1701 does not
refer to education
books for the use of persons in the province, and as did the former
also recommended that care be taken about ones]
“Learning and Instruction of youth, to witt: a school
in the arts and sciences.”[138] This interest in, and the close relation
of the Council to, education were not long continued however; for
this there is no satisfactory explanation, though it is very clear that
the attitude on the part of the government did change.[139] This
change is evidenced in the policy as outlined by the Charter of 1701,
in which there is no reference made to education or the responsibility
of the Governor or Council therefor.[140] To the writer it seems that
the withdrawal of the Council from any very active participation in the
affairs of education may have been due to two reasons: first, the
willingness evinced by private interests to establish schools and thus
take over to themselves the duties of educators (evidenced by the
establishment of Keith’s school by Friends in 1689 without the
assistance or advice of the Council);[141] and second, the urgent
details of establishing a new government, which occupied their first
attention.
 If further proof of the withdrawal of the colonial government from
the active establishment of schools, and of the fact that they did
accept and recognize the assistance of private agencies is desired, it
is to be found in various acts of legislation of the first half century.
Specific instances of such permissive legislation were the acts of
May 28, 1715,[142] and also of February 6, 1730-1.[143] This
legislation is chiefly concerned with granting privileges to purchase
and hold land and erect buildings for the use of institutions stated
therein, among which schools are mentioned. In this connection the
statute of 1715, which evidences the facts stated above, is quoted.

Be it enacted by Charles Gookin, Esq., by the royal

approbation Lieutenant-Governor, under William Penn, Esq.,
Proprietary and Governor-in-Chief of the Province of
Pennsylvania, by and with the advice and consent of the
freemen of the said provinces in General Assembly met, and
by the authority of the same, that it shall and may be lawful to
and for all religious societies or assemblies and
congregations of Protestants, within this province, to
purchase any lands or tenements for burying grounds, and for
erecting houses of religious worship, schools and hospitals;
and by trustees, or otherwise, as they shall think fit, to receive
and take grants or conveyances for the same, for any estate
whatsoever, to and for the use or uses aforesaid, to be holden
of the lord of the fee by the accustomed rents and services.
And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, that all
sales, gifts or grants made to any of the said societies, or to
any person or persons in trust for them, or any of them, for or
concerning any lands, tenements or hereditaments within this
province, for and in any estate whatsoever, to and for the use
and uses aforesaid, shall be and are by this Act ratified and
confirmed according to the tenor and true meaning thereof,
and of the parties concerned therein. And where any gifts,
legacies or bequests have been or shall be made by any
person or persons to the poor of any of the said respective
religious societies, or to or for the use or service of any
meeting or congregation of the said respective societies, the
 same gifts and bequests shall be employed only to those
charitable uses, or to the use of those respective societies or
meetings, or to the poor people to whom the same are or
shall be given or intended to be given or granted, according to
what may be collected to be the true intent and meaning of
the respective donors or grantors.

On “11th month, 9th, 1682,” the Friends met and [Sidenote: The
enacted business relating chiefly to the sick, a first meeting of
meeting house, purchase of books and such other record]
details of importance, but made no reference to [Sidenote: The
schools or the education of youth.[144] This probable length of
Flower’s tenure
remained true for all meetings till 1689,[145] the as teacher]
chief part of business in the meantime having to do
with either (1) strictly religious affairs or (2) raising money for the
poor and the orphans. The absence of any remarks or any plans for
schools from 1682 to 1689 is more easily understood when it is
recalled that the school under Enock Flower was set up in 1683.[146]
There is no evidence to prove definitely that Flower continued as
schoolmaster during the whole of this time, but (1) the absence of
any record of change, (2) no record of schools kept by the Friends
Meeting, (3) the fact that he was a teacher of long experience
(twenty years) and probably as satisfactory as any to be found, and
(4) the absence of keen competition on the part of neighboring
places to draw him away, would lead one to believe it probable that
he remained there for the greater part of the period at least.
In 1689 Friends determined to establish a school, designed to
meet the demands of rich and of poor,[147] which does not seem at
all strange since they were known to have been supporting their poor
and the orphans by subscriptions since their first establishment.[148]
The transaction of the business relating thereto was performed in the
monthly meeting and referred to the quarterly meeting (higher) for its
approval. The following extract from the records of the meeting gives
the result of their decision: