Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

Atom and its constituents

1. The electron and its properties

1.1. Thomson experiment (e/m ratio for electron)
1.2. Millikan’s experiment
2. The atomic nucleus
2.1. Rutherford experiment
2.2. The proton
2.3. The neutron
2.4. Characteristics of the atom
3. Bainbridge mass spectrometer
4. Mass defect and nuclear binding energy
5. Electron-Volt unit

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the English scientist John Dalton (1766-1840)
considered the father of atomic theory, presented the first atomic theory of matter that
describes the existence and the nature of the atom, based on the observations and the results of
experiments of that period. His atomic theory characterize by the proximity of their content
with modern atomic theory, the most important of its postulates are:
i) Substances are made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
ii) Atoms of a single element have the same chemical and physical properties and differ from
atoms of other elements (this hypothesis was later proved incorrect by the discovery of
isotopes).
iii) Atoms of different elements combine to form compounds.
Research and experiments at the beginning of the twentieth century have confirmed
that the atom exists really and that it itself consists of other smaller particles, as we will
explain in this chapter.
Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

1. The electron
Faraday's experiment has shown that there is relationship between electricity and
matter. The mass of the metal deposited at one of the electrodes is directly proportional to the
amount of electricity used in electrolysis (m α q). This proportion is in a form of a simple
numbers (integer), which indicates that electricity is composed of fine particles.
When two plates (cathode and anode) of metal are dipped in a solution of (AgNO3)
and connected to an electric generator (Figure 1), the Ampere-meter shows the passage of an
electric current, which indicates that the anionic solution allows the passage of electric current
and a thin layer of silver (Ag) is deposited on the cathode plate. The mass of silver deposited
is proportional to the amount of electricity passing through the circuit.
The most convincing evidence for the existence
of electrons came from experiments of Crookes.
Gases at normal pressure are electrically
insulating materials, but when they are under low
pressure (P≤0.01 atm) and high potential
difference (5.10+4 V), their electric resistance
decreases and thus allow the passage of electric
current (as happens in Neon lamps commonly
used).:

Figure 1. Faraday's experiment

Crookes's experiment shows:

- The rays emitted from the cathode propagate in a straight line (indicated by the shadow of
the metal object). Since the source is the cathode, they are called cathode rays.
- It has a mass (turned off by the metal object).
- There is brilliance on the rest of the screen, indicating that the rays carry energy.
- These rays contain charged particles because they deflect when exposed to electric or
magnetic fields.
- When changing the metal of the cathode, this phenomenon is similar, which means that
these particles are present in all substances. Later, they are called electrons.
1.1. Thomson experiment (e/m ratio for electron)
In J.J. Thomson's experiment (1856–1940) a beam of cathode rays in an evacuated
electric discharge tube (figure 2) undergoes the simultaneous action of an electric and
magnetic fields, with one deflecting the rays to one side and the other to the opposite side. In
a first step the magnetic field B deflects the cathode rays upwards while the electric field E
deflects them downwards. These fields are adjusted so that the rays take their horizontal path:
r r r E
F + F = 0 ⇒ e.v.B − e.E = 0 ⇒ V =
m e B
In a second step we delete the magnetic field B then the deviation Y of rays produced
by the electric field E output between two plates (its length L) is deduced.
The motion of the rays in the direction of the X-axis is a uniform rectilinear, so the
time required for the passage of the plate is:
Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

=
The motion of the rays in the direction of the Y-axis is uniformly variable, so:
= .

If Y0 is the deflection at the exit of the plates, Y

γ the acceleration on the Y-axis: Fe
. +
= . ⇒ . = . ⇒ =
E Y0 X
O
L

Substituting time and acceleration into the relation of y:

1 . . .
= . = ⇒ =
2 2 . .
Where the deviation (Y0) is set from the device screen, various measurements gave the value:

' &""
= −", $%. "
()
m and e are mass and charge of electron, respectively, C (Couloumb) is the standard unit of
the quantity of electric charge.

Figure 2. Thomson’s experiment

Matter is electrically neutral, so atom must be. Since electrons are negatively charged,
what positive charges balance them? Thomson proposed the first atomic model: An atom is a
spherical solid composed of diffuse positively charged matter with electrons embedded. This
atomic model (plum-pudding model) did not last long as it was overturned by the scientist
Ernest Rutherford.
Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

1.2. Millikan’s experiment (Charge of electron)

In 1909, Robert Millikan (1868-1953) calculated the elementary charge (charge of the
electron) by using an apparatus consisting of a room equipped with an oil spray in which
(volumetric mass ρ) is electrically charged by the collision of its droplets with air ions
(volumetric mass ρ’ and coefficient of viscosity η) that have been pre-charged by rayon X-
rays. Charged oil droplets are subjected to the influence of an electric field caused by two
horizontal plates. The upper one has a hole for the passage of oil droplets. The motion of oil
droplets down or up is observed using a microscope.
In the absence of an electric field, the oil droplet is generally under the influence of the
following forces:
./
Force of gravity (P): *= . + = ,. -. + = . 1 0 . ,. +
0

Force of Stokes (R): It always opposes the motion of the droplet, its expression is:
2 = 6. 4. 5. 1. - A
R
Force of Archimedes (A), which generally is neglected because, their low value:
44 0 7 P
6 = 7. + = 1 ., .+
3
When the droplet velocity is fixed at the value V0 :
r r r r
P+R+A =0
4π 3
r .g [ρ − ρ'] − 6π .η .r.v o = 0.......(I )
3
In the presence of an electric field, an electric force (Fe = q.E) is added, When the Fe
droplet velocity is fixed at the value V1: A
r r r r r R
P+R+A+F =0
e
4π 3 P
r .g [ρ − ρ'] − 6π .η .r.v1 − q.E = 0........ (II )
3
q is the charge of the oil droplet and E the strength of the electric field.

In corresponding figure we supposed that the electric force is opposite to the gravity.
The velocity of the droplet V0, V1 can be calculated by estimating the time required to the oil
droplet for traveling a distance separating two lines fixed on the microscope lens filter.
From equation (I) and (II) we can calculate the unknowns q, r and various
measurements confirmed that the charge of oil droplets is always a valid multiple (q = n.e) of
the value (e = -1,6.10-19 C). Thus, it was conclude that electricity is made up of negatively
charged particles. Referring to the experience of Thomson, the mass of the electron was
deduced:
= 9,109. 10<0 =+ = 9,109. 10< > + = 5,486. 10<. B C ; = −1,602. 10< E F
2. The atomic nucleus
2.1. Rutherford experiment (1871-1937)
Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

Ernest Rutherford has bombarded a gold foil of small thickness (4.10-5cm) with fast α
particles (Helium nucleus He+2) emitted from radium and a circular screen register the
deflection of the α particles. If the Thomson model of the atom were correct, any particles
passing through the foil would have been deflected by very small angles.
Rutherford notes that:
i) Gold foil is not torn.
ii) Most particles pass through the foil with little or without deflection.
iii) A small number of particles deflect through large angles, and a very few particles coming
backwards.
These observations were explained as follows: The particles that passed through the
foil of gold without deviation did not encounter barriers on their way, and since their number
is large, this means that the gold foil (also all matter) is mostly made up of a vacuum. The
repelling or a large deflection of few particles means that they have interfered with small,
dense, and positive objects which was called nucleus. This later contains all positive charge
and all the mass of the atom. Based on these observations, Rutherford has refuted Thomson’s
atomic model and has proposed the following atomic model:
The atom (and more generally the matter) contains large spaces and the size of the nucleus
is very small compared to the size of the atom. In contrast, most of the mass of the atom is
concentrated in the nucleus (99.97%).

2.2. The proton

It was discovered by Rutherford in 1919 during a nuclear reaction. When nitrogen gas
is exposed to a beam of α particles (Helium nucleus He+2), some nitrogen atoms turn into
oxygen atoms with the appearance of a positively charged particle, identified as proton
(hydrogen ion H+).
17 1
14
7
N + 42α 8
O+ 1
P
The charge and mass of the proton was measured as:

G = 1,672. 10< I =+ = 1,672. 10< . + = 1,00727 B C ; = +1,602. 10< E F

2.3. The neutron
It was discovered by Chadwick in 1932 while bombarding beryllium (Be) or bore (B)
atoms with α particles, so he gets very penetrative rays consisting of electrically neutral
particles (not affected by electric and magnetic fields) named neutrons, its mass is close to the
mass of the proton:

K = 1,674. 10< I =+ = 1,674. 10< . + = 1,00866 B C

The proton and the neutron are known as nucleons and due to their large masses
compared to the mass of electron. We conclude that the mass of any atom is concentrated in
the nucleus. It result that the nucleus matter is very dense:
ρnucleus = 10+14 g/mL = 10+8 ton/mL
Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

On the other hand, the size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of the
atom. The radius of atom is 20000 large than the radius of its nucleus (Figure 4):
LMNO = . " P . LQRST RU
The radius of the nucleus is expressed with the following experimental equation:
X
LQRST RU = L . √W ,
R0 = 1,3 Fermi = 1,3.10-15 m is a constant, A = mass number
2.4. Characteristics of the atom
We distinguish between atoms from each other by the atomic number (Z), the mass
number (A) and the isotopes.
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in an atom (which is equal to the number of
electrons in the neutral atom).

Figure 3. Atom and nucleus

The mass number (A) is equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
The mass number is the closest integer number to the mass of an atom (in amu) or to the
molar mass (in g) of an element.
The atomic symbol of an element is based on its name (English, Latin, or Greek). Often
written with the symbol are the atomic number (Z) as a left subscript and the mass number
(A) as a left superscript.

Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number (Z), that is, the same number of protons
and electrons, but they differ in the mass number (A) (different number of neutrons). Isotopes
of one element have the same chemical properties because they have the same number of
electrons.
3. Bainbridge mass spectrometer
The isotopic makeup of an element is determined by mass spectrometry, a method
for measuring relative masses and abundances of atomic-scale particles (isotopes) and mass of
molecules very precisely.
Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

The first mass spectrometer was developed in 1919 by Aston by developing the
electrical discharge tube adopted in the Thomson experiment that allows the separation of
ions depending on their different mass/charge (m/q) values. We will discuss here in detail
about Bainbridge’s mass spectrometer.
Through the hole f1, the sample is introduced into the ionization chamber, where it is
bombarded by a high-energy electron beam (Figure 4). The atoms or molecules turn into
positive ions as a result of losing electrons. A fine beam of formed ions exit the hole f2 at
different speeds to the velocity selector and as a result of the effect of the action of an electric
field E and magnetic field B0 perpendicular to each other, only ions with a velocity equal to v
= E/B0 can pass through the hole f3.
r r r E
Fe + Fm = 0 ⇒ q.E − q.v.B 0 = 0 ⇒ v =
B0
Ions with same velocity enter through the hole f3 into evacuated tube called the
vacuum-analyzer chamber and undergo the action of another magnetic field B1 perpendicular
to its trajectory and parallel to the magnetic field B0 (in the velocity selector). Ions beam are
deflected along a circular path with radius R according to their mass/charge ratio (m/q)
values. The lightest particles are deflected most and the heavier particles least. Due to the
action of a magnetic force, perpendicular to the path of the ions at each time, the movement of
ions is uniformly variable.
r v2
∑ F = m.γ ⇒ q.v.B = m.γ = m. R
v2 E
Where γ = v=
R B0
. .
= 2= Y
2
Where D = 2R is the diameter of the circular path made by the ion.

Figure 4. Bainbridge mass spectrometer

Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

At the end of the analyzer chamber, the particles strike a detector (photographic plate),
which record their relative positions (distances between their points of incidence) and
abundances. For two ions with the same charge:

. .
= Y = Y
2 2

. .
− = (Y − Y )
2
If we denote the distance between their points of incidence d = D2 – D1, then the last
relation become:

\. . "
− " = ]
m1 and m2 are the masses of two isotopes atoms (or molecules).

If the mass of one isotope and the features of the device (B0, B, and E) are known, the
mass the unknown mass of the second isotope can be deduced from the above expression.
Multiplying both sides of the last equation by Avogadro number NA we find:

\. . " . _W
^ − ^" = ]
M1 and M2 are the molar masses of the two isotopes.
4. Mass defect and nuclear binding energy
The nucleons of a nucleus are bonded by force called nuclear force, which is eccentric
attractive force whose effect is short-term, that is, they affect very small distances. They have
no electrical nature and their effect is equal, whether between protons, neutrons, or proton and
neutron. This nuclear force is the result of the conversion of part of nucleus mass into energy.
When comparing the mass of the nucleus of an element with the sum of its nucleon masses
(protons and neutrons), we find that this sum is greater and the difference between them is
called mass defect:
∆ = ab. c + (W − b). Q d − QRST RU
Einstein’s equation gives the energy equivalent to this mass difference. This nuclear
energy is named nuclear binding energy that used to bind the nucleons of the nucleus to each
other:
∆ = ∆ . ' , F = 3. 10&> . e <
The binding energy per nucleon (ΔE/A) is a measure of nuclide stability. The greater
the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nuclide is.
5. Electron-Volt unit
To express the nuclear binding energy of a single nucleus, we use the electron Volt
(eV) unit, which is defined as the energy acquired by an electron when it moves through a
potential difference of 1 volt:
Chapter 2 Atoms and its constituents

1 eV = 1,602.10-19 Joules
Binding energy are commonly expressed in million of electron Volt:
1 MeV = 10+6 = 1,602.10-13 eV
The following relation can be used for converted the mass (in atomic mass unit, amu)
to its energy equivalent (in electron volt, eV):
1 amu = 931,5.10+6 = 931,5 MeV
So, generally:
∆ (^ f) = ∆ (M R) × hX", i