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vi Preface
New Chapters
• CHAPTER 11, School Curricula and Standards
• CHAPTER 12, Assessing Student Learning
New Pedagogy and Up-To-Date Content

• Learning Outcomes at beginning of each chapter
• New Readers’ Voices open each chapter
• More than 250 new references to reflect the most recent information about the
teaching profession in the United States
Latest Trends in Technology and Teaching

A thoroughly revised technology chapter explains how teachers can integrate technology
into teaching in order to engage today’s tech-savvy students fully and to adjust to the
reality that technology has transformed how, when, and where students can learn. From
blogs and wikis, to podcasting and 3-D virtual worlds, the 10th edition is filled with case
examples of how teachers are integrating technology and transforming their teaching to
foster collaboration, discovery, and understanding of the “big ideas” in the curriculum.
New and Expanded Coverage to Address

the Most Current Trends and Issues
Chapter 1, Teaching: Your Chosen Profession
• Revised chapter now covers classroom observations, induction into the profession,
gaining practical experience for becoming a teacher, and benefits of having a mentor.
• Characteristics principals look for when hiring teachers (NEW)
• Timeline for efforts to reauthorize the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) and change the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (NEW)
• Revised section on “Teaching and the National Economy”
• Latest data on school enrollments, school staffing, and teacher salaries
Chapter 2, Today’s Teachers
• Revised chapter now covers the role of teacher leaders in transforming the pro-
fession, the U.S. Department of Education’s “Respect Project,” and seven “critical
components” for transforming teaching.
• Influence of different groups on hiring process in schools (NEW)
• Model for teacher’s thought processes while teaching (NEW)
• Model for multi-stage career ladder for teachers (NEW)
• Updated demographic information on U.S. public school teachers
Chapter 3, Today’s Schools
• Revised chapter now covers educational opportunities for children of lower-income
families, and provides analysis of America’s continuing dropout problem, homeless
children and youth, and extent of child maltreatment in the United States.
• Updated data on child well-being in the United States, drug use among students,
crime in public schools, discipline problems, and dropout rates
Chapter 4, Philosophical Foundations of U.S. Education
• Eight guidelines for facilitating a Socratic discussion (NEW)
• Matrix for comparing five philosophical orientations to teaching (NEW)
• Matrix for comparing three psychological orientations to teaching (NEW)
• Model for an eclectic philosophy of education and teaching (NEW)
• Teaching on Your Feet, “Reluctant Readers” (NEW)
• Being an Agent of Change, “Every Day Is Filled with Deep Thinking and Contem-
plation” (NEW)
Chapter 5, Historical Foundations of U.S. Education
• Revised chapter now covers Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI),
continuing efforts to reauthorize the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA), and “EASA flexibility.”
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Preface vii
• Section that describes the European antecedents of American education (NEW)

• Timeline for European influences on American education (NEW)
• Illustration of the seven liberal arts (NEW)
• Updated historical timeline for U.S. education
• Walk in My Shoes, “Understanding the Past Is the Best Compass for the Future”
(NEW)
Chapter 6, Governance and Finance of U.S. Schools
• Revised chapter includes updated, expanded coverage of: Chicago School Reform
and 2014 school closings; state takeover of the School District of Philadelphia; sum-
mary of Obama administration’s education reform efforts through 2014; up-to-date
analysis of research on charter schools by Stanford University and the National Edu-
cation Policy Center; and critical analysis of the performance of for-profit schools.
• Sections that describe innovative approaches to school governance in New York
City; Washington, D.C.; Memphis, Tennessee; and New Orleans, Louisiana (NEW)
• Section that discusses role of teacher leaders in school governance, including
teacher involvement in teacher education, certification, and staff development
(NEW)
• Section that discusses the District of Columbia School Choice Incentive Act (NEW)
• Discussions of education–business partnerships: GE Foundation and Bill and Me-
linda Gates Foundation (NEW)
• Updated figures and tables for data on 10 largest U.S. school districts, school ex-
penditures, distribution of expenditures, sources of school revenues, state educa-
tion revenues, and funding priorities for education philanthropy
Chapter 7, Ethical and Legal Issues in U.S. Education
• Revised chapter includes updated, expanded coverage of court cases involving
teachers and online social networking, student expression on social networking
sites, dress codes, cyberbullying, and homeschooling.
• Updated references throughout chapter reflect the most recent court rulings on
legal issues in U.S. education
• Legal advice for your student teaching experience (NEW)
• Section on Employment Non-Discrimination Act (NEW)
Chapter 8, Today’s Students
• Revised chapter includes updated, expanded coverage of minority groups and
academic achievement and Afrocentric schools.
• Updated figures and tables for data on children of immigrant families, English lan-
guage learners (ELLs), and poor children and low-income families in the United
States
• Nation’s Report Card: 2013 Mathematics and Reading (NEW)
• Technology in Action: “High School Teacher Earns Online Master’s Degree in
Multicultural Education” (NEW)
Chapter 9, Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs
• Revised chapter includes updated, expanded coverage of multiple intelligences,
and Individual Education Plans (IEPs).
• Graphic to illustrate Piaget’s stages of cognitive growth (NEW)
• Strategies for teaching children at Piaget’s stages of cognitive growth (NEW)
• Updated figures and tables for data on children with disabilities
• Walk in My Shoes, Anthony Mullen (NEW)
• Being an Agent of Change, “Creating an inclusive environment . . . has always
been my mission” (NEW)
Chapter 10, Creating a Community of Learners
• Revised chapter includes updated, expanded coverage of cooperative learning
and cross-cultural interaction, successful classroom management, and assertive
discipline.
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viii Preface
• Graphic of authentic learning activity (NEW)

• Updated figures and tables for data on discipline problems at school and assertive
discipline policy
• Data on importance of what teachers can do for parents (NEW)
• Professional learning environment for teachers (NEW)
• Teaching on Your Feet, “I see a story in every learner” (NEW)
• Sections on how teachers build learning communities and participate in teacher
collaboration (NEW)
Chapter 11, School Curricula and Standards (NEW)
• Model for four kinds of curricula students experience (NEW)
• Model for three noncognitive factors that contribute to academic achievement (NEW)
• Coverage of global awareness; grit, tenacity, and perseverance; academic mindset;
mindfulness/meditation skills; curricula to enhance noncognitive strengths; and
Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) (NEW)
• Walk in My Shoes, “I Learned That I Love Learning” (NEW)
• Being an Agent of Change, “A ‘Techno-Librarian’ Shares New Ideas Across the
Globe” (NEW)
Chapter 12, Assessing Student Learning (NEW)
• Latest data on students’ mathematics, reading, and science performance on the
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) (NEW)
• Map of state high school exit exam policies (NEW)
• Sections on the role of assessment in teaching, standardized assessments, inter-
national assessments, “high-stakes” tests and accountability, and portfolio assess-
ment (NEW)
• Being an Agent of Change, “Good Teachers Don’t Shy Away from Assessment
Data” (NEW)
Chapter 13, Integrating Technology into Teaching
• Revised chapter includes updated, expanded coverage of how technology is trans-
forming teaching, virtual schools, availability and use of technology in schools,
and the latest research studies on the use of educational technology.
• Figure to illustrate how teachers “embrace” digital technology (NEW)
• Sections on the traditional educational model and the digital “learning farm”
model, how students use cell phones in learning, teachers’ use of digital tools,
and online activities teachers assign to students (NEW)
• Sections on the performance of cyberschools, flipped classrooms and flipped
teaching, and “wired” students and their ability to focus (NEW)
• Three vignettes of how teachers use technology (NEW)
• Map of states with multi-district fully online schools (NEW)
• Data on percent of teachers reporting the availability of various technology
devices (NEW)
• Data on students’ use of educational technology during their classes (NEW)
• Being an Agent of Change, “Is Blended Learning Worth the Hype?” (NEW)
Popular Features to Engage Readers

Voices from the Field
Throughout the 10th edition, the voices of preservice, new, and master teachers are
heard.
• “Dear Mentor” Feature Success during the first years of teaching is a challenge for
new teachers. Ask any experienced teacher to identify the key to success and most,
if not all, will stress the importance of mentors. To facilitate your students’ journey
to becoming high-quality teachers, the popular Dear Mentor feature that opens each
part of the book continues, enlisting the help of four novice teachers who pose
important questions to four highly accomplished mentor teachers.
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Preface ix
PA RT 1 DEAR KOURTNI Education is an exciting field and,

yes, there is reform taking place,
THE TEACHING
some of which is long overdue. Don’t fear the word “reform.” Teachers who are
dynamic and experts in their field know that reform or change is another opportu-
nity to take on a new challenge. No one has a crystal ball to see into the future;
however, rest assured that there are and will continue to be jobs in education,
PROFESSION
especially in harder-to-fill specialties such as special education, math, and science.
You are making some excellent decisions about your future as an educator,
and they will serve you well once you start trying to land your first teaching posi-
tion. Having a master of education degree plus your library and special education
endorsements makes you a more marketable job applicant. Multiple endorsements
will also serve you well further down the road in your teaching career since, once
you are teaching full-time, you may find it challenging and costly to go back to
school to add additional endorsements. By entering the teaching profession with a
master’s degree and two endorsements, you will have more freedom in making de-
DEAR MENTOR In two years, I will graduate with a bachelor’s
degree in elementary education; then, I will
continue on to a fifth-year master’s program in special education. I hope to work
cisions about what you would like to teach and where.
Personally, I see teaching as a fantastic career. You know
many of the pluses of the job already: summers off, after several
in the western half of the United States. At this point, I do not have a particular years of teaching you make a decent wage, and, for the most
town or state in mind. part, the benefits are decent, too. Aside from the time off, sal-
While teaching, I would like to work on my Media Specialist Endorsement. ary, and benefits, teaching is like no other profession. You will
This will enable me to work in a school library. While working in a library, my make a difference in the lives of children, their families, and your
master’s in special education will allow me to be on an IEP (Individual Education community. Once you establish yourself at a school, you will be
Program) team. both surprised and delighted to see that the positive relationships
The current economic climate and education reforms have left me with many you build with students in your classroom also carry over into your
questions concerning teaching. Have I chosen the right profession? Do you antici- community.
pate more or less job availability for teachers in the future? Do you see teaching While you are finishing up your certification, I urge you to talk to as
as a lifetime career choice? many educators as you can, especially those who have been in the profes-
SINCERELY, KOURTNI MCHUGH sion awhile. Ask them what they love about teaching; every one of them will
have a different reason for staying in the profession. Yes, teaching has huge
Missoula, MONTANA challenges, but it has huge rewards as well. You have most certainly heard this
before, but it is worth saying again: “Education is a rewarding field that is unlike
any other.” Best of luck to you!
SINCERELY, ADRIENNE LEHMAN, M.ED.

English Language Learner Specialist,
Puyallup School District
Puyallup, WASHINGTON
• Readers’ Voices This feature at the beginning of each chapter provides com-
ments by undergraduate teacher education majors about the importance of chap-
ter content and helps readers feel confident about joining the wider community
of those preparing to teach.
• Teachers’ Voices: Being an Agent of Change This feature brings in the voices
of experienced teachers—many of them National Teachers of the Year award
winners—to focus on how teachers can effect change in the classroom and the
community for the benefit of their students.
TEACHERS’ VOICES BEING AN AGENT OF CHANGE

GEORGE WATSON students who over the course of their 4 years in high school achieve
incredible linguistic success and progress, so by the time that they
Preparing “Citizens of the World” are seniors in my AP class I know that they’re going to be successful
Who Respect Cultural Differences in college; I know that they are going to eventually participate in a
global economy, which is more than just rewarding for me personally,
Buenos dias. I teach Spanish at Walpole High School in Walpole,
it’s nationally critical.
MASSACHUSETTS. I am also the department head of foreign
And last, it’s wonderful for me as a teacher and a depart-
languages for grades 6 through 12. When I was a student many
ment head to celebrate the achievement of students—this is so
years ago, I really looked up to my teachers. I saw them as
very important; we just don’t do this enough, I think, in public
people who had devoted themselves to a very noble profession,
education. In Walpole, we have a very special foreign language
and that belief has not changed. Teaching, along with parenting,
awards night where we do just that, and we highlight not just
is probably the most important job that any one individual can
what students have learned, but what students can do with the
do in any society, in any culture, on any continent.
skills that we’ve provided them.
I teach because I believe that every child wants to learn,
Yes, I am a teacher. I want to do my part to prepare my
is able to learn, and must learn. Furthermore, I teach because
students to be citizens of the world, to be lifelong, self-confident
I believe that every child should have access to foreign lan-
learners, to be students who appreciate and respect cultural
guage education. And every child should have access no matter
differences—those cultural differences that make our society and
what their reading level, no matter what their learning style and,
our world so fascinating and so very, very rich.
really, no matter what grade they are in.
Over the course of my career, I have had the privilege to give QUESTIONS
my students the skills to communicate effectively in a second lan-
1. With respect to the subject area and grade level for which
guage and to give them confidence to navigate in a foreign culture.
you are preparing to teach, how can you help students
And I’ve seen students who have had very difficult middle school
become “citizens of the world”?
years come to my ninth-grade freshman Spanish class and achieve
2. After you become a teacher, what are some ways that you
success. I’ve seen students from both Walpole, Massachusetts, and
can demonstrate to students your own love of learning?
Palmares, Costa Rica, participate in our exchange program and es-
tablish friendships and bonds that last for years and years. I’ve seen George Watson was Massachusetts Teacher of the Year for 2009.
• Teaching on Your Feet This feature has been revised to present examples of how
successful teachers have turned potential problem situations in the classroom into
“teachable moments.” Written by real teachers, this feature illustrates how profes-
sional reflection and inquiry enable teachers to meet the numerous, unpredict-
able challenges that are part of teaching in today’s schools.
• Teachers’ Voices: Walk in My Shoes This margin feature of audio-recordings
profiles teachers whose philosophy and professional contributions reflect com-
mitment to touching others’ lives through teaching. These teacher leaders share
their insights, challenges, and accomplishments and encourage future teachers to
“walk in their shoes.”
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An Emphasis On Today’s Technologies

• Technology in Action These features in each chapter have been revised to high-
light how teachers are integrating cutting-edge technologies—such as virtual labs
and text-to-speech programs—into their teaching. A practical “Try It Out” sec-
tion in each feature gives readers hands-on directions for learning more about
integrating the highlighted technology into their own teaching.
TECHNOLOGY in ACTION
Virtual Labs in a Ninth-Grade Biology Classroom
At this time each year, Mrs. Rajid’s students start to squirm. She VIRTUAL LABS: Virtual labs replicate
teaches introductory ninth-grade science, and the class will be dis- activities that take place in a physical
secting frogs during the coming weeks. Many of her students will lab and deliver basic desired learning outcomes without
bring notes from their parents excusing them from the lesson. Mrs. the need for equipment, supplies, and dangerous materials. Although
Rajid has evidence of a direct correlation between those students who the effectiveness of virtual labs is debated among practitioners,
do not participate in the frog-dissecting activity and their gradual there is no doubt that their growing popularity, combined with the
poor performance in high school science classes. She needs something technology enhancements of the industry, is a promising development
to help her students understand the concepts of the lesson, rather for teachers. These labs usually take the form of interactive animation
than fixate on how “gross” it is to cut open a frog. in which students make decisions, select tools, and perform actions,
So, Mrs. Rajid goes on a frog-dissection webquest and finds while the animation program responds appropriately. Some virtual labs
several options; one is quite user-friendly, accessible on the web, and use video, graphics, and audio to supplement the learning materials.
free. She decides to use the virtual lab (a software program that rep-
VISIT: http://www.sciencecentral.com/. This site is regularly updated
licates the activities in a physical lab) in her next lesson, before the
with new tools and user ratings.
permission slips are sent home. The next day, she takes her students
into the computer lab, has them open a web browser, and instructs POSSIBLE USES: Teachers have successfully used virtual labs to help
them to navigate to the frog-dissection website. She then asks them students understand biology, physics, astronomy, and chemistry.
to dissect their virtual frogs. A few students make comments like For example, virtual labs can allow students to practice appropriate
“Yuck” and “Gross,” but the students perform quite well. They each stream restoration techniques, explore a human cadaver and perform
have a frog preserved in formaldehyde; they dissect it and are able to an autopsy, and mix complex combinations of elements to see how
identify the appropriate organs and structure. those elements interact with one another.
Next week, when it is time to send home the permission slips for
TRY IT OUT: Open a web browser and visit http://www.sciencecentral
dissecting the real frog, she finds that a much higher percentage of her
.com/. Click on the Biology link. Then enter “virtual frog” in the
students are planning to participate. She also finds that her students are
internal search engine. Several options will come up; pick the one
much better prepared to perform the real activity. They know what to do,
that looks most appealing.
how to do it, and what the goals of the activity are. Mrs. Rajid thinks that
some day this virtual lab might indeed replace the need for the actual Source: Copyright © 1994–2011 by Berkeley Lab. Used by permission of the Lawrence
experience—at much less cost and with no formaldehyde smell. Berkeley National Lab.
Instructor’s Resource Center

The Instructor Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.com has a variety of print
and media resources available in downloadable, digital format—all in one location.
As a registered faculty member, you can access and download pass code–protected
resource files, course-management content, and other premium online content directly
to your computer.
Digital resources available for Becoming a Teacher, 10th edition, include the
following:
• Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank, which includes:
• Chapter-by-chapter materials, including a Chapter-at-a-Glance organizer for
each chapter of the text, which correlates chapter outlines, learning objec-
tives, and teaching supplements; an Annotated Lecture Outline, which pro-
vides examples, discussion questions, and student activities; suggestions for
additional readings and media extend chapter learning; and handout masters,
which provide additional lecture support materials.
• A Test Bank of multiple choice and essay tests
• TestGen
• PowerPoint presentations specifically designed for each chapter.
To access these items online, go to www.pearsonhighered.com and click on the In-
structor option. There you will be able to log in or complete a one-time registration
for a user name and password. If you have any questions regarding this process or the
materials available online, please contact your Pearson representative.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many members of the Pearson Education team who provided
expert guidance and support during the preparation of the tenth edition of Becoming
a Teacher. Clearly, Julie Peters, Senior Editor, and Mary Beth Finch, Production Editor,
head the list. From skillful coordination of the revision process, from beginning to end,
to addressing the challenges of preparing a new interactive eText and a print loose-leaf
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Preface xi
version, their hard work is deeply appreciated. Additionally, I am forever grateful to

Meredith D. Fossel for her skill and professionalism in making critical arrangements for
the tenth edition revision of this book.
I extend a very special thanks to Jeffery W. Johnston, Vice President and E ditorial
Director; Bryce Bell, Development Editor; and Kelli K. Jauron, Full-Service Project Man-
ager, all of whom were steadfast in their support of the tenth edition.
I also extend a special thanks to Donald Finn for writing the Test Bank and pre-
paring the Instructor’s Resource Manual and PowerPoints for this edition.
For their patience, encouragement, and understanding while their dad has worked
on revisions of this book since its first edition in 1990, I give warm thanks and a hug
to each of my wonderful daughters: Anna, Catherine, Rebecca, and Anchitta. And, for
her friendship, spiritual support, and encouragement during the revision process, I
thank my wife, Phensri. Her ability to maintain a positive outlook while meeting life’s
inevitable challenges is remarkable; each day, she brings sunshine and joy into my life.
In addition, Michael Trevisan, Dean of the College of Education at Washington
State University; Kelly Ward, Chair of the Department of Educational Leadership, Sports
Studies, and Educational/Counseling Psychology; and the faculty, teaching assistants, and
research assistants in the department gave me much-appreciated encouragement and
support. Gail Furman, Professor of Educational Leadership, and Paul Pitre, Associate Pro-
fessor of Educational Leadership, provided invaluable ideas for this edition of the book,
as did Eric J. Anctil, Associate Professor of Education and Director for Innovation at the
University of Portland. I give a sincere thanks to students (many of them now teachers
and school administrators) in the classes I have taught at Washington State University.
Conversations with them over the years have been thought provoking and professionally
rewarding. I extend warm thanks to Ingrid Spence and her colleagues and students at the
University of Idaho for their excellent suggestions for this edition. And, for demonstrating
the power of professional inquiry, I owe a profound debt to a great teacher, mentor, and
friend, the late Herbert A. Thelen, Professor of Education at the University of Chicago.
I am also grateful to the many people throughout the United States who have
used the previous edition and provided suggestions and materials for this edition,
including my students at Washington State University. I also wish to thank the follow-
ing reviewers, who provided concise, helpful suggestions during the developmental
stages of this book: Tina Allen, University of Louisiana at Monroe; Robert A. Schultz,
University of Toledo; and Curtis Visca, Saddleback College; as well as the following re-
viewers of earlier editions: Tami Baker, East Tennessee State University; Kara Dawson,
University of Florida; Larry Froehlich, Kent State University; Lynne Hamer, University of
Toledo; Judy Jackson May, Bowling Green State University; Sandi McCann, Columbus
State University; Lois Paretti, University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Sarah Swicegood, Sam
Houston State University; and Barbara Taylor, Western New Mexico University.
State Coverage
The 10th edition of Becoming a Teacher considers educational issues and contributions
as they apply to teaching across the country. You’ll see specific state coverage through-
out the chapters.
Chapter 1: Teaching: Your Chosen Profession
California New York
Colorado North Carolina
Delaware Ohio
Florida Pennsylvania
Georgia Rhode Island
Hawaii Tennessee
Illinois Texas
Kansas Washington
Maryland Washington, DC
Massachusetts
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Chapter 2: Today’s Teachers

California Maryland
Connecticut Massachusetts
Idaho Pennsylvania
Louisiana Texas
Chapter 3: Today’s Schools
Alabama New Jersey
California New York
Florida Ohio
Hawaii Oklahoma
Illinois Pennsylvania
Massachusetts Texas
Minnesota Washington
Mississippi Washington, DC
Chapter 4: Philosophical Foundations of U.S. Education
Arkansas Ohio
California Texas
Indiana Washington
Chapter 5: Historical Foundations of U.S. Education
California Virginia
New Hampshire West Virginia
Chapter 6: Governance and Finance of U.S. Schools
Arkansas New Mexico
California New York
Colorado North Carolina
Florida Ohio
Illinois Pennsylvania
Kentucky South Carolina
Michigan Texas
Minnesota Virginia
Missouri Washington
Nebraska West Virginia
Chapter 7: Ethical and Legal Issues in U.S. Education
California New Hampshire
Florida Pennsylvania
Louisiana Virginia
Missouri
Chapter 8: Today’s Students
Alaska Minnesota
Arizona New Mexico
California New York
Colorado Oklahoma
Florida Texas
Illinois Utah
Indiana Washington
Chapter 9: Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs
California Maine
Connecticut Nevada
Florida Oregon
Illinois Texas
Indiana
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Chapter 10: Creating a Community of Learners

Kansas Virginia
Texas Washington
Chapter 11: School Curricula and Standards
Alabama New York
Alaska North Dakota
Arizona Ohio
California Oklahoma
Colorado Oregon
Connecticut Rhode Island
Florida South Carolina
Hawaii South Dakota
Maine Texas
Massachusetts Virginia
Nevada Washington
New Jersey Wyoming
Chapter 12: Assessing Student Learning
Alabama Maine
California Michigan
Connecticut North Carolina
Florida Vermont
Georgia Washington
Hawaii West Virginia
Idaho Wisconsin
Illinois
Chapter 13: Integrating Technology into Teaching
Alabama North Carolina
California Ohio
Colorado Oregon
Connecticut South Dakota
Delaware Tennessee
Florida Texas
Georgia Vermont
Indiana Virginia
Kansas Washington
Nebraska West Virginia
New Mexico Wisconsin
New York
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Brief Contents
PART 1 THE TEACHING PROFESSION 2
1 Teaching: Your Chosen Profession 4
2 Today’s Teachers 42
3 Today’s Schools 74
PART 2 FOUNDATIONS OF TEACHING 110

4 Philosophical Foundations of U.S. Education 112
5 Historical Foundations of U.S. Education 144
6 Governance and Finance of U.S. Schools 180
7 Ethical and Legal Issues in U.S. Education 224
PART 3 THE ART OF TEACHING 264

8 Today’s Students 266
9 Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs 304
10 Creating a Community of Learners 338
11 School Curricula and Standards 372
12 Assessing Student Learning 404
13 Integrating Technology into Teaching 432
Appendix Preparing for Certification: Your Guide to Licensure 470

Glossary 477
References 488
Name Index 504
Subject Index 511
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Contents
PART 1 Certification and Licensure 35
The Praxis Series 35
THE TEACHING PROFESSION 2

State Licensure Certification Requirements 37
Alternative Certification 38
How Can You Benefit from Having a Mentor? 38
C H A PT E R O N E Summary 39
Professional Reflections and Activities 40
Teaching: Your Chosen Profession 4
• READERS’ VOICES: Why do I want to teach? 5
Why Do I Want to Teach? 5
C H A PT E R T WO
Desire to Make a Difference in Students’ Lives 6 Today’s Teachers 42
A Passion for Teaching 7 • READERS’ VOICES: Who are today’s teachers? 43
Influence of Teachers 8
Who Are Today’s Teachers? 43
Desire to Serve 9
Schools and Grade-Level Designations 43
What Are the Benefits of Teaching? 11 Teachers in Nontraditional School Settings 48
Salaries and Benefits 11 Teachers in Specialized Areas 50
What Are the Challenges of Teaching? 14 What Do Teachers Do in the Classroom? 52
Long Working Hours 14 Teacher as a Role Model for Students 53
High-Stakes Testing and Increased Accountability 15 Teacher as a Spontaneous Problem Solver 54
Today’s Tech-Savvy Students 16 Teacher as a Reflective Thinker 54
What Will Society Expect of Me as a Teacher? 18 What Knowledge and Skills Do Today’s Teachers Need? 57
The Public Trust 19 Self-Knowledge 57
Teacher Competency and Effectiveness 19 Knowledge of Students 58
Teacher Accountability 19 Knowledge of Subject 58
What Is the Job Outlook for Teachers? 19 Knowledge of How to Use Educational Theory and Research 58
Teaching and the National Economy 20 Knowledge of How to Integrate Technology into Teaching 60
Demand for Teachers by Geographic Region and Specialty Area 23 Reflection and Problem Solving 60
What Can You Learn from Observing in Classrooms? 23 To What Extent Is Teaching a Full Profession? 61
Technology and Classroom Observations 23 Institutional Monopoly of Services 62
Focused Observations 24 Teacher Autonomy 62
Observation Instruments 25 Years of Education and Training 63
Why Is Your Induction into Teaching Important? 25 Provision of Essential Service 64
Problems and Concerns of Beginning Teachers 25 Degree of Self-Governance 64
Induction into the Profession 27 Professional Knowledge and Skills 65
How Can You Gain Practical Experience for Becoming a Teacher? 28 Trust in the Teaching Profession 66
Classroom Experiences 28 Prestige, Benefits, and Pay 66
Student Teaching 29 Professional Associations 66
Substitute Teaching 32 To What Professional Organizations Do Teachers Belong? 67
How Will I Become a Highly Qualified Teacher? 33 The National Education Association 68
Professional Standards 33 The American Federation of Teachers 68
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The NEAFT Partnership 69

Other Professional Organizations 70
PART 2
How Are Teacher Leaders Transforming the Profession
of Teaching? 70 FOUNDATIONS
Critical Components for Transforming Teaching 71
OF TEACHING 110
Summary 71
C H A PT E R F O U R
C H A PT E R T H R E E Philosophical Foundations
Today’s Schools 74 of U.S. Education 112
• READERS’ VOICES: What is the role of schools • READERS’ VOICES: Why is philosophy important to teachers? 113
in today’s society? 75 Why Is Philosophy Important to Teachers? 113
What Is the Role of Schools What Is the Nature of Philosophy? 114
in Today’s Society? 75
What Determines Your Educational Philosophy? 114
Schools and Prosocial Values 76
Beliefs About Teaching and Learning 115
Schools and Socialization of the Young 77
Beliefs About Students 115
Schools and Social Change 77
Beliefs About Knowledge 117
How Can Schools Be Described? 78 Beliefs About What Is Worth Knowing 117
Metaphors for Schools 78
What Are the Branches of Philosophy? 118
What Are Schools Like as Social Institutions? 80 Metaphysics 119
The School as a Reflection of Society 80 Epistemology 119
The Culture of the School 82 Axiology 120
The Culture of the Classroom 83
What Are Five Modern Philosophical Orientations to Teaching? 123
What Are the Characteristics Perennialism 124
of Successful Schools? 84
Essentialism 126
Measures of Success 84
Progressivism 126
Research on School Effectiveness
Existentialism 128
and School Improvement 85
Social Reconstructionism 130
What Social Problems Affect Schools
and Place Students at Risk? 85 What Psychological Orientations Have Influenced Teaching
Philosophies? 133
Identifying Students at Risk 86
Humanistic Psychology 134
Children and Poverty 88
Behaviorism 135
Family Stress 90
Constructivism 136
Substance Abuse 91
Violence and Crime 94 How Can You Develop Your Educational Philosophy? 137
Teen Pregnancy 99 Summary 141
Suicide Among Children and Youth 99 Professional Reflections and Activities 142
How Are Schools Addressing Societal Problems? 99
Peer Counseling/Mentoring 100 C H A PT E R F I V E
Full-Service Community Schools 100
School-Based Case Management 101 Historical Foundations of
Compensatory Education 101 U.S. Education 144
Alternative Schools and Curricula 102 • READERS’ VOICES: Why is educational history important? 145
Expanded Learning Time (ELT) Schools 103 Why Is Educational History Important? 145
How Can Community-Based Partnerships What Were the European Antecedents
Help Students Learn? 104 of American Education? 146
The Community as a Resource for Schools 104 Education in Ancient Greece 147
Schools as Resources for Communities 106 Education in Ancient Rome 147
Summary 108 From the Middle Ages to the Age of Enlightenment 148
Professional Reflections and Activities 108 Educational Thought in 18th-Century Europe 148
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What Were Teaching and Schools Like in the American Colonies Why Do You Need to Understand Educational Politics? 181
(1620–1750)? 150 Five Dimensions of Educational Politics 183
The Status of Teachers 150 How Does the Local Community Influence Schools? 183
Colonial Schools 151 Local School District 185
The Origins of Mandated Education 153 School Board 186
What Were the Goals of Education During the Revolutionary Period Superintendent of Schools 187
(1750–1820)? 154 The Role of Parents 188
Benjamin Franklin’s Academy 154 School Restructuring 189
Sarah Pierce’s Female Academy 155 School-Based Management 189
Thomas Jefferson’s Philosophy 155
What Powers and Influence Do States Have in Governing
Noah Webster’s Speller 156 Schools? 194
Education for African Americans and Native Americans 156 The Roles of State Government in Education 194
How was the Struggle Won for State-Supported Common Schools State Board of Education 198
(1820–1865)? 157 State Department of Education 198
Horace Mann’s Contributions 157 Chief State School Officer 199
Reverend W. H. McGuffey’s Readers 158
How Do Regional Education Agencies Assist Schools? 199
Justin Morrill’s Land-Grant Schools 159
How Does the Federal Government Influence Education? 200
Segregation of Schools 159
Federal Initiatives 200
How Did Compulsory Education Change Schools and the Teaching
U.S. Department of Education 202
Profession (1865–1920)? 159
What Role Do Teacher Leaders Play in School Governance? 202
The Kindergarten 160
Teacher Involvement in Teacher Education, Certification, and Staff
Schooling for African Americans 160
Development 202
Higher Education for African Americans 160
Teacher Leaders 203
The Professionalization of Teaching 161
Dimensions of Teacher Leadership Beyond the Classroom 204
What Were the Aims of Education During the Progressive Era
How are Schools Financed in the United States? 206
(1920–1945)? 162
Education Funding and the Great Recession 206
John Dewey’s Laboratory School 163
The Challenge of Equitable Funding 206
Maria Montessori’s Method 163
Sources of Funding 208
The Decline of Progressive Education 164
Local Funding 208
World War II and Increasing Federal Involvement in Education 166
State Funding 209
How Did Education Change During Federal Funding 209
the Modern Postwar Era (1945–2000)? 166
What Are Some Trends in Funding for Equity and Excellence? 211
The 1950s: Defense Education and School Desegregation 167
Tax Reform and Redistricting 212
The 1960s: The War on Poverty and the Great Society 169
Vertical Equity 212
The 1970s: Accountability and Equal Opportunity 169
School Choice 213
The 1980s: A Great Debate 171
Voucher Systems 213
The 1990s: Teacher Leadership 171
Education–Business Coalitions 215
What Are the Educational Priorities of the New Century (2000–the
How Is the Privatization Movement Affecting Equity and Excellence
Present)? 172
in Education? 217
Excellence 174
Charter Schools 217
Accountability 175
For-Profit Schools 218
Continuing the Quest for Excellence and Equity 175
Summary 220
Summary 177
C H A PT E R SE V E N
C H A PT E R S I X
Ethical and Legal Issues
Governance and Finance
in U.S. Education 224
of U.S. Schools 180 • READERS’ VOICES: Why do teachers need to know about education and
• READERS’ VOICES: Why do you need to understand educational the law? 225
politics? 181
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Why Do You Need to Know About Education and the Law? 225 Education and Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders 284
Why Do You Need a Professional Code of Ethics? 225 Education and Native Americans and Alaskan Natives 286
Ethical Teaching Attitudes and Practices 226 What Is Meant by Bilingual Education? 288
Ethical Dilemmas in the Classroom and School 227 Research and Debate on Bilingual Programs 289
What Are Your Legal Rights as a Teacher? 228 Advice for Monolingual Teachers 290
Certification 229 What Is Multicultural Education? 291
Teachers’ Rights to Nondiscrimination 229 Dimensions of Multicultural Education 291
Teaching Contracts 230 Multicultural Curricula 292
Due Process in Tenure and Dismissal 230 Multicultural Instructional Materials and Strategies 293
Academic Freedom 232 How Is Gender a Dimension of Multicultural Education? 295
Do Student Teachers Have the Same Rights as Teachers? 234 Gender Differences 296
What Are Your Legal Responsibilities as a Teacher? 236 Gender and Education 297
Avoiding Tort Liability 236 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Students 298
Reporting Child Abuse 238 Gender-Fair Classrooms and Curricula 301
Observing Copyright Laws 240 Summary 301
Teachers and Online Social Networking 242 Professional Reflections and Activities 302
What Are the Legal Rights of Students and Parents? 244
Freedom of Expression 245
Due Process in Suspension and Expulsion 247
C H A PT E R N I N E
Reasonable Search and Seizure 248 Addressing Learners’
Privacy 251
Students’ Rights to Nondiscrimination 252
Individual Needs 304
• READERS’ VOICES: Why should teachers address students’ individual
What Are Some Issues in the Legal Rights of School Districts? 252 needs? 305
Corporal Punishment 253
How Do Students’ Needs Change as They Develop? 305
Sexual Harassment 254
Piaget’s Model of Cognitive Development 306
Cyberbullying and the Law 255
Erikson’s Model of Psychosocial Development 306
Religious Expression 257
Kohlberg’s Model of Moral Development 308
Homeschooling 260
Maslow’s Model of a Hierarchy of Needs 312
Summary 261 Developmental Stresses and Tasks of Childhood 313
Professional Reflections and Activities 262 Developmental Stresses and Tasks of Adolescence 313
How Do Students Vary in Intelligence? 315
PART 3 Intelligence Testing 315
Multiple Intelligences 316
THE ART OF TEACHING 264 Learning Styles 316

How Do Students Vary in Ability and Disability? 318
Students with Special Needs 319
C H A PT E R E I G H T What Are Special Education and Inclusion? 325
Today’s Students 266 Special Education Laws 326

Meeting the Inclusion Challenge 330
• READERS’ VOICES: How is culture important in today’s schools? 267
The Debate over Inclusion 330
How Is Diversity Reflected in the Culture
of the United States? 267 How Can You Teach All Learners in Your Inclusive Classroom? 334
The Meaning of Culture 269 Collaborative Consultation with Other Professionals 334
Ethnicity and Race 273 Partnerships with Parents 335
The Concept of Minorities 275 Assistive Technology for Special Learners 335
Minority Groups and Academic Achievement 275 Summary 336

Stereotyping and Racism 276 Professional Reflections and Activities 337
Class and Socioeconomic Status 276
Religious Pluralism 278
C H A PT E R T E N
What Does Equal Educational Opportunity Mean? 279
Education and African Americans 279 Creating a Community of Learners 338
Education and Latino and Hispanic Americans 283 • READERS’ VOICES: What determines the culture of a classroom? 339
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What Determines the Culture of the Classroom? 339 What Controversies Surround the Effort to Raise Standards? 397
Classroom Climate 339 Arguments in Support of Raising Standards 398
Classroom Dynamics 342 Concerns About Raising Standards 398
How Can You Create a Positive Learning Environment? 343 Summary 401
The Caring Classroom 343 Professional Reflections and Activities 402
The Physical Environment of the Classroom 345
Classroom Organization 346
C H A PT E R T W E LV E
What Are the Keys to Successful Classroom Management? 351
The Democratic Classroom 352 Assessing Student Learning 404
Preventive Planning 353 • READERS’ VOICES: What is the role of assessment in teaching? 405
Effective Responses to Student Behavior 354 What Is the Role of Assessment in Teaching? 405
What Teaching Methods Do Effective Teachers Use? 359 Challenges of Assessing Students’ Learning 405
Methods Based on Learning New Behaviors 359 How Are Standardized Assessments Used in Education? 407
Methods Based on Child Development 361 What Are “High-Stakes” Tests and Accountability? 411
Methods Based on the Thinking Process 362 High-Stakes Testing 412
Methods Based on Peer-Mediated Instruction 364 What Methods Will You Use to Assess Student Learning? 415
How Do Teachers Help to Build Learning Communities? 364 Formal and Informal Assessments 415
Relationships with Students 365 Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment 416
Relationships with Colleagues and Staff 365 Measurement and Evaluation 416
Relationships with Administrators 365 Formative and Summative Evaluation 416
Relationships with Parents or Guardians 366 What Are Emerging Trends in Classroom Assessment? 417
How Do Teachers Participate in Teacher Collaboration? 367 How Can You Develop High-Quality
Peer Coaching 367 Classroom Assessments? 424
Professional Development 368 Scoring Rubrics 426
Team Teaching 368 Multiple Measures of Student Learning 428
Co-Teaching 369 Summary 429
Summary 369 Professional Reflections and Activities 430
C H A PT E R T H I RT E E N
C H A PT E R E L E V E N Integrating Technology
School Curricula and Standards 372 into Teaching 432
• READERS’ VOICES: What do students learn from the curriculum? 373 • READERS’ VOICES: How is technology transforming teaching and
What Do Students Learn from the Curriculum? 373 learning? 433
Kinds of Curricula 373 How Is Technology Transforming Teaching and Learning? 435
Curriculum Content and Student Success 376 Anywhere, Anytime Learning 438
How Is the School Curriculum Developed? 383 Realizing the Full Impact of Technology on Learning 440
The Focus of Curriculum Planning 384 Online Schools and Online Learning 440
Student-Centered Versus Subject-Centered Curricula 385 What Digital Technologies Can Be Integrated Into Teaching? 444
The Integrated Curriculum 385 Online Social Networking 444
What Influences the Curriculum Development Process? 386 Digital Resources for Teaching and Learning 448
Digital Resources for Different Subject Areas 449
What Role Will Standards Play in Your Classroom? 388
How Available and Frequently Used Are the Latest Technologies in
How Is Standards-Based Education Shaping School Curricula? 390
the Classroom? 452
Content and Performance Standards 390
Availability and Use of Technology in the Classroom 452
Standards Developed by Professional Associations 391
Student Use of Technology in the Classroom 454
Aligning Curricula and Textbooks with Standards and Curriculum
Frameworks 392 What Does Research Say about Technology Integration
and Student Learning? 456
How Is the Common Core State Standards Initiative Changing U.S.
Education? 394 Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow Project (ACOT) 456
The Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) 394 “Wired” Students and Their Ability to Focus 457
Early Reactions to the Common Core 395 Findings from Other Research Studies 458
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What Are the Challenges of Integrating Technology Glossary 477

into Teaching? 460
Funding for Technology and Technical Support 461
References 488
High-Quality, Continuous Training in Technology for Teachers 461
Summary 468 Name Index 504
Subject Index 511
Appendix: Preparing for Certification:
Your Guide to Licensure 470
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Special Features
TEACHING ON YOUR FEET TEACHERS’ VOICES
Walk in My Shoes
The Abolishment of “I Can’t” 9
Forrest W. Parkay 10
Opening the Gates to Empower Students 56
Lincoln Johnson 54
Lies Our Students Tell Themselves 88
Cheryl Beene 82
Reluctant Readers 124
Paul Gray 115
Worth the Struggle 153
Hal Adams 151
“We Are All Responsible for One Another. . . .” 190
Derek Boucher 200
Respect in the Classroom Is a Two-Way Street 227
Margaret Williams 229
¡Sí Se Puede! (It Can Be Done!) 295
Kevin Grover 293
Connecting with a Hard-to-Reach Student 324
Anthony Mullen 319
I See a Story in Every Learner 344
Gaetan Pappalardo 359
Confronting “Tough” Questions 380
Curtis Chandler 375
The Benefits of Peer Assessment 421
Kathy Addleman 413
Half of Teaching Is Learning 465
Tracy J. Tarasuik 451
TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION
TEACHERS’ VOICES BEING AN AGENT
Wikis in 10th-Grade Social Studies 18
E-Portfolios in 12th-Grade Industrial Arts 60
OF CHANGE
Using Video-Editing Software in Sixth Grade 76 Necessity and the Art of Differentiation 36
Web Conferencing in 11th-Grade Chinese Language Class 118 Preparing “Citizens of the World” Who Respect Cultural Differences 55
Screen-Recorder Software in 12th-Grade Calculus 176 Students Cope with Stress through Writing 91
Virtual Worlds and an Interdisciplinary Curriculum 191 Every Day Is Filled with Deep Thinking and Contemplation 120
Virtual Labs in a Ninth-Grade Biology Classroom 243 Native American Teachers Need Support 165
High-School English Teacher Earns Online Master’s Degree Teachers Need to Be Heard 184
in Multicultural Education 297 Teaching for Social Justice 253
Word-Prediction Software in the Classroom 322 Equal Educational Opportunity for All Students 281
Podcasting in Fifth-Grade Social Studies 350 “Creating an Inclusive Environment . . . Has Always Been My
Using Text-to-Speech in a Third-Grade Reading Class 397 Mission.” 333
Autograded Quizzes and Exams in Eighth-Grade Social Studies 425 Encouraging Global Citizenship in the Classroom 347
A “Techno-Librarian” Shares New Ideas Across the Globe 400
Good Teachers Don’t Shy Away from Assessment Data 424
Is Blended Learning Worth the Hype? 437
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conceive of the possibility that the soul should exist, independent of
some union with matter. He therefore invented the doctrine of the
Metempsychosis; in order to provide some receptacle of organised
matter for that imperishable intellectual principle attached to our
nature here, after its departure from the human frame; and to which
new vehicle of the vital spirit of its original but abandoned abode, the
extinguished corporeal man, its union with it should impart the
powers and faculties of animal life.
Cultivating, as Plato did, the mind-expanding science of

Astronomy, faintly even as the true principles of this branch of
science were then perceived,[10] this philosopher could not fail to
derive, from the vastness, beauty and order, manifested in the
appearances and revolutions of the heavenly bodies, a conviction of
the perpetual existence of a great intelligent First Cause. It was,
indeed, as the Abbé Barthelemy justly remarks, the order and beauty
apparent through the whole universe, that compelled men to resort
to a First Cause:[11] This, he observes, the early philosophers of the
Ionian school (which owed its origin to Thales) had acknowledged.
But Anaxagoras[12] was the first who discriminated that First Cause
from matter; and not only this distinguished pupil of Thales,[13] but
Anaximander, who, antecedently to him, taught philosophy at
Athens, with Archelaus the master of Socrates, all treated in their
writings of the formation of the universe, of the nature of things, and
of geometry and astronomy.
According to Mr. Gibbon, the philosophers of Greece deduced

their morals from the nature of man, rather than from that of God.
They meditated, however, as we are informed by this very ingenious
historian, on the Divine Nature, as a most curious and important
speculation; and, in the profound enquiry, they displayed both the
strength and the weakness of the human understanding. The Stoics
and the Platonists endeavoured to reconcile the interests of reason
with their notions of piety. The opinions of the Academicians and
Epicureans, the two other of the four most celebrated schools, were
of a less religious cast: But, continues Mr. Gibbon, whilst the modest
science of the former induced them to doubt, the positive ignorance
of the latter urged them to deny, the providence of a Supreme Ruler.
Cicero[14] denominated the God of Plato the Maker, and the God of
Aristotle the Governor, of the world.[15] It is somewhere observed,
that it is no reflection on the character of Plato, to have been unable,
by the efforts of his own reason, to acquire any notion of a proper
creation; since we, who have the advantage of his writings, nay of
writings infinitely more valuable than his, to instruct us, find it
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to conceive how any thing can
first begin to have an existence. We believe the fact, on the authority
of Revelation.
Great were, undoubtedly, the improvements in astronomy, made

by the Greek philosophers of early ages, on such of its rudiments as
were handed down to them from those nations by whom it was first
cultivated:[16] Yet it can scarcely be conceived, that, until the
celebrated Euclid of Alexandria,[17] and his followers, had reduced
the mathematics of Thales and others of those philosophers, into
regular systems of arithmetical and geometrical science, the true
principles of astronomy could be ascertained. In fact, seventeen
centuries and an half had elapsed, from the time of that great
geometrician, before Copernicus appeared: when this wonderful
genius, availing himself of such remnants of the ancient philosophy,
as the intervening irruptions of the barbarous nations of the north
upon the then civilized world had left to their posterity, opened to the
view of mankind the real system of the universe.[18]—So vast was the
chasm, during which the nobler branches of physics remained
uncultivated and neglected, that, from the age of Euclid, fourteen
centuries passed away, before Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan
friar, began his successful enquiries into experimental philosophy.—
This extraordinary man is said to have been almost the only
astronomer of his age; and he himself tells us, that there were not,
then, more than three or four persons in the world who had made
any considerable proficiency in the mathematics!
But after the appearance of Copernicus,[19] succeeded by the
ingenious Tycho Brahe[20] and sagacious Kepler,[21] arose the learned
physiologist Bacon, Viscount of St. Albans,—one of the most
illustrious contributors to the yet scanty stock of experimental
philosophy.[22] And soon after, in the same age and nation, was
manifested to the world, in the full glory of meridian splendour, that
great luminary of natural science, who first enlightened mankind by
diffusing among them the rays of well-ascertained truths; clearly
exhibiting to all, those fundamental principles of the laws of nature,
by which the grand, the stupendous system of the material universe
is both sustained and governed:—
“Nature and Nature’s Laws lay hid in night;

God said, Let Newton be,—and all was Light.”
Finally, it was reserved for our own age and country to derive
dignity and fame, from having given birth to an illustrious successor
and disciple of that immortal man, in the person of the yet recently-
departed Rittenhouse.
The objects of a genuine philosophy, are the discovery and

promulgation of the truths which emanate from a knowledge of the
laws of nature, in relation to the material world, and the inseparable
influence of those truths, consequent on an acquaintance with them,
in giving a right direction to the moral faculty of man. The intimate
connexion subsisting between natural and moral science, is
indubitable; and it is equally certain, that the accordant order, fitness
and rectitude, which unite into one glorious plan of wisdom,
goodness and power, all portions of creation, intellectual and
sensitive as well as material, must rest on the same unerring
principles. The infinite variety and boundless extent of nature’s works
constitute a sublime system; manifesting a correspondent perfection
in the design, and all-bountiful dispensation of good in its purposes.
[23]
The Almighty First Cause has founded this system on immutable
principles; wherein truth, in relation to the moral world, may be
considered as its basis,—as fitness is, when applied to the
constitution of the natural world. These are, respectively, the
correlatives of the one and the other: and the unity of design
apparent in the whole system, plainly indicates the connexion that
subsists, in the nature of things, between moral virtue, which is the
result of a right perception of truth, and the fitness and order, to
which all the operations of the material universe conform.[24]—
Towards an investigation of these things, the researches of the great
American philosopher were eagerly directed: such were the objects
of his unwearied pursuit; and such were the views entertained by
him, of the utility and importance of those sublime branches of
knowledge, which he cultivated so ardently and successfully.[25]
The enlightened part of the people have, in every civilized nation

and in all ages, very rationally valued themselves on their great men.
It is both useful and proper to commemorate the renown of such as
have approved themselves, in an eminent degree, Benefactors of
Mankind. The Life, therefore, of so distinguished a Philosopher as
Rittenhouse, must be expected to interest the feelings, as well as
the curiosity, of the good and the wise, not only of our own country
but of foreign nations.
With respect to the usefulness and importance of that majestic

science, which was the favourite study and principal object of the
pursuit of our philosopher, during a life of ordinary extent but of very
extraordinary attainments and character, something may with
propriety be said, with a view to an illustration of the subject. And
among other evidence, which, it is presumed, may not be unaptly
adduced on the occasion, the Memorialist will cite in the first place,
as well as occasionally afterwards, the sentiments of a distinguished
foreign astronomer, whose abilities and erudition rendered him
eminently qualified to decide, in a discussion of this nature: He shall
be made to speak for himself, though not in his own tongue; the
great work from which the quoted extracts are made, being written in
French.
Among the numerous and important advantages, then, resulting

from astronomy, noticed by the celebrated Lalande (in the preface to
his book, entitled Astronomie,) he remarks that it is well known, that
besides the tendency of this science to dissipate many vulgar errors
and prejudices,[26] cosmography and geography cannot go on, but by
its means: that the discovery of the satellites of Jupiter has given
greater perfection to our geographical and marine charts, than they
could have attained by ten thousand years of navigation and
voyages;[27] and, that when their theory shall become still better
known, the method of determining the longitude at sea will be more
exact and more easy.
“It is to astronomy,” says Mr. Lalande, “that we are indebted for the
first voyages of the Phœnicians, and the earliest progress of industry
and commerce: it is likewise to it, that we owe the discovery of the
New World. If there remain any thing to desire for the perfection and
security of navigation, it is, to find the longitude at sea.” In
continuation, he says:—
“The utility of navigation for the welfare of a state, serves to prove

that of astronomy. But it seems to me, that it is difficult for a good
citizen to be ignorant, now, of the usefulness of navigation; above all,
(says Lalande, feelingly,) in France. The success of the English, in
the war of 1764, has but too well shewn, that a marine alone governs
the fortune of empires, their power, their commerce; that peace and
war are decided on the ocean; and that, in fine, as Mr. Miere has
expressed it,—
“Ancient chronology deduces, from a knowledge and calculation of

eclipses, the best established periods in time, that it is possible to
obtain: and in ages anterior to regular observations, nothing but
obscurity is to be met with. We should not have in the history of
nations any uncertainty in dates, if there had always been
astronomers. We may perceive, above all, the connexions of
astronomy in The Art of verifying Dates. It is by an eclipse of the
Moon,[28] that we discover the error of date that exists in the vulgar
era with respect to the birth of Christ. It is known that Herod was king
of Judea, and that there was an eclipse of the moon immediately
before the death of that prince: we find this eclipse was in the night,
between the 12th and 13th of March, of the fourth year before the
vulgar era; so that this era ought to be removed three years back, at
least.
“It is besides from astronomy, that we borrow the division of time in

the common transactions of life, and the art of regulating clocks and
watches. We may say, that the order and the multiplicity of our
affairs, of our duties, our amusements; the attachment to exactness
and precision; in short, our habits; all have rendered this measure of
time almost indispensable, and placed it among the number of the
desiderata of human life.
“If, for want of clocks and watches, we should be under the

necessity of recurring to meridians and sundials, even this would
further prove the advantages derived from astronomical science;
since dialling is only an application of spherical trigonometry and
astronomy.
“Le Sage is displeased with good reason with those, whom an

admiration of the stars has carried so far, as that they fancied them
to be Deities:[29] but, far from condemning the study of them, he
recommends it, for the glory of the Creator.”
Adverting to such as considered “fire, or wind, or the swift air, or

the circle of the stars, or the violent water, or the lights of heaven, to
be gods which govern the world,”[30] he applies the words of
Solomon:—“With whose beauty, if they, being delighted, took them to
be gods; let them know how much better the Lord of them is: for the
first Author of beauty has created them—For, by the greatness and
beauty of the creatures, proportionably the Maker of them is
seen.”[31]
“David found also, in the stars,” continues Lalande, “means of

elevating his contemplation of the Deity:”—“The heavens declare the
glory of God;”[32] “I will view thy heavens, the works of thy fingers, the
moon and the stars which thou hast established:” and we see that
Mr. Derham has called by the name of “Astro-Theology,” a work, in
which is presented, in all their force, the singularity and grandeur of
the discoveries that have been made in astronomy; as being so
many proofs of the existence of a God. (See what Aristotle thought
on this subject, in the eighth book of his Physics.)
Such were the reflections of Mr. Lalande, on a subject with which

he was intimately acquainted.
The opinions of eminent and enlightened men have deservedly

great weight, in all those matters on which it is presumable, from the
nature of their pursuits, their thoughts have been most employed.
Notwithstanding, therefore, the fulness of the foregoing extracts, the
writer believes that the very apt and judicious observations contained
in the following passage, in support of similar sentiments, extracted
from a voluminous work of a distinguished English astronomer, of the
present day, will not be deemed to have been improperly brought
into view, on this occasion:—
“The obvious argument of the existence of a Deity, who formed

and governs the universe,” (says Mr. Vince, the author referred to,)
“is founded upon the uniformity of the laws which take place in the
production of similar effects; and from the simplicity of the causes
which produce the various phænomena. The most common views of
nature, however imperfect and of small extent, suggest the idea of
the government of a God, and every further discovery tends to
confirm that persuasion. The ancient philosophers, who scarce knew
a single law by which the bodies in the system are governed, still
saw the Deity in his works: how visible therefore ought He to be to
us, who are acquainted with the laws by which the whole is directed.
The same law takes place in our system, between the periodic times
and distances of every body revolving about the same centre. Every
body describes about its respective centre equal areas in equal
times. Every body is spherical. Every planet, as far as our
observations reach, is found to revolve about an axis; and the axis of
each is observed to continue parallel to itself. Now as the
circumstances which might have attended these bodies are indefinite
in variety, the uniform similarity which is found to exist amongst
them, is an irrefragable argument of design. To produce a
succession of day and night, either the sun must revolve every day
about the earth, or the earth must revolve about its axis: the latter is
the most simple cause; and, accordingly, we find that the regular
return of day and night is so produced. As far also as observations
have enabled us to discover, the return of day and night, in the
planets, is produced by the operation of a similar cause. It is also
found, that the axis of each planet is inclined to the plane of its orbit,
by which a provision is made for a variety of seasons; and by
preserving the axis always parallel to itself, summer and winter
return at their stated periods. Where there are such incontestable
marks of design, there must be a DESIGNER; and the unity of design
through the whole system, proves it to be the work of One. The
general laws of nature shew the existence of a Divine Intelligence,
in a much stronger point of view, than any work of man can prove
him to have acted from intention; inasmuch as the operations of the
former are uniform, and subject to no variation; whereas in the latter
case, we see continual alterations of plan, and deviations from
established rules. And without this permanent order of things,
experience could not have directed man in respect to his future
operations. These fixed laws of nature, so necessary for us, is an
irresistible argument that the world is the work of a wise and
benevolent Being. The laws of nature are the laws of God; and how
far soever we may be able to trace up causes, they must terminate
in his will. We see nothing in the heavens which argues imperfection;
the whole creation is stamped with the marks of Divinity.”—[See A
Complete System of Astronomy; by the Rev. S. Vince, A. M. F. R. S. &c.
printed at Cambridge, in 1799—vol. ii. p. 290, 291.]
None of the works of creation present to the contemplation of man

objects more worthy of the dignity of his nature, than those which
engage the attention of the astronomer. They have, interested men
of the sublimest genius, in all ages of the world: and the science of
astronomy is spoken of with admiration, by the most celebrated
sages of antiquity.
Although no astronomer of our day, how enthusiastic soever he

may be in favour of his science, will be disposed to say with
Anaxagoras, that the purpose for which he himself or any other man
was born, was, that he might contemplate the stars; yet it does
seem, as if the objects of this science more naturally attracted the
attention and employed the research of elevated minds, than those
things, within the narrow limits of this world, an acquaintance with
which constitutes the ordinary mass of human knowledge. The
disposition of man to direct his eyes frequently upwards, and the
faculty to do so, arising from his erect figure and the position and
structure of the organs of his vision, furnish no feeble argument in
proving, that this temporary lord of his fellow-beings on this globe
has nobler destinies, infinitely beyond them; being enabled and
permitted by the Author of his being, even while in this circumscribed
state of his existence, to survey those myriads of worlds which
occupy the immensity of space; to contemplate their nature, and the
laws that govern them; thence, to discern, with the eye of reason, the
Great First Cause of their being;[33] and thus having acquired, a
juster knowledge of his own nature, to grasp at an endless futurity for
its existence.
That the erect countenance and upward aspect of the human

species were his peculiar endowments by the Deity, for these
purposes among others, appears to have been the impression on
the mind of Ovid, when he said:—
“Finxit in effigiem moderantum cuncta deorum;

Pronaque cum spectent animalia cætera terram,
Os homini sublime dedit, cælumque tueri
Jussit, et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus.”[34]
Met. i. 88.
Mr. Pope has well observed, that—
“The proper study of mankind, is Man:”—
But, in order that he may be enabled to know himself, it is

indispensably necessary for him to acquire such a knowledge of
other created beings that surround him, as the limited nature of his
faculties will allow. He must attentively observe the operations of
nature in the material universe, survey with a reflecting mind its
stupendous fabric, and study its laws. Hence, he will be made
acquainted, and although in a partial, yet not an inconsiderable
degree, with the powers and extent of that intellectual principle which
he finds in the government of the moral, as well as the natural world.
And being thus enabled to know his own proper standing in creation,
and his appropriate relation to all its parts, he will by these means be
qualified to ascend to those enquiries, which will open to his mind a
just sense of the attributes of the Deity, of whose existence he will
feel a perfect conviction. In this way, will man obtain a due
knowledge of his own “being, end and aim;” and become fully
sensible of his entire dependence on his Creator: while he will
thereby learn, that he incessantly owes him the highest adoration
and the most devoted service.[35] In this way it is, that the
philosopher, more especially the astronomer,—
“Looks, through Nature, up to Nature’s God.”[36]

Pope’s Ess. on Man.
Besides the various and important uses of astronomy, here

pointed out, it is connected, by means of numerous ramifications,
with other departments of science, directed to some of the most
useful pursuits of human life. Lalande has even shewn us, in the
preface to his Astronomie, in what manner this science has a relation
to the administration of civil and ecclesiastical affairs, to medicine,
and to agriculture. A knowledge of astronomy is obviously
connected, by means of chronology, with history. It is even a
necessary study, in order to become acquainted with the heathen
mythology; and many beautiful passages in the works of the ancient
poets can neither be distinctly understood nor properly relished,
without a knowledge of the stars: nay, that finely poetical one, in the
book of Job, in which the Deity is represented as manifesting to that
patient man of affliction and sorrow the extreme imbecility of his
nature, is unintelligible without some knowledge of astronomy:—
“Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the

bands of Orion?—
Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season; or canst thou
guide Arcturus, with his sons?”
Some of the greatest poets of antiquity were in a manner

fascinated, by the grandeur of that science, (though they
accompanied it with mystical notions,) which furnishes the sublimest
objects in nature to the contemplation of the astronomer.
Ovid tells us, he wished to take his flight among the stars:
—-—-—“Juvat ire per alta

Astra; juvat, terris et inerti sede relictis,
Nube vehi, validique humeris insistere Atlantis.”[37]
Metamorph. lib. xv.
And Horace acquaints us with the objects of curiosity and

research, in the contemplation of which he envied his friend Iccius,
who was occupied in that way, on his farm:—
“Quæ mare compescant causæ, quid temperet annum;

Stellæ sponte suâ, jussæne, vagentur et errant,
Quid premat obscurum Lunæ, quid proferat orbem.”[38]
Lib. i. epist. 12, ad Iccium.
Virgil seemed willing to renounce every other study, in order that

he might devote himself to the wonders of astronomy. In the second
book of his Georgics, he says:
“Me vero primum dulces ante omnia Musæ,

Quarum sacra fero, ingenti perculsus amore,
Accipiant; cælique vias et sidera monstrent,
Defectus Solis varius, Lunæque labores;
Unde tremor terris, quâ vi maria alta tumescant
Obicibus ruptis, rursusque in se ipsa residant;
Quid tantum oceano properent se tingere soles
Hyberni, vel quæ tardis mora noctibus obstet—
Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas.”[39]
l. 475 and seq.
And, in addition to these classical writers, a modern poet (Mr.
Voltaire) appears, by a letter written in the year 1738, to have
participated in the regrets expressed by Virgil; and to have been
desirous of directing all his faculties towards the sciences. He
produced, on the philosophy of Newton, a work which has
contributed to the expansion of genius; and, in his epistle to the
Marchioness du Chatelet, he pays that great man a very exalted
compliment, in these poetic lines:
“Confidens du Tres Haut, substances eternelles,

Qui parez de vos feux, qui couvrez de vos ailes
Le trône oú votre Maitre est assis parmi vous;
Parlez: Du grand Newton n’étiez-vous point jaloux?”[40]
Astronomy has not only engaged the attention of multitudes of

illustrious men, of every age and nation, but it has been patronized
by great and enlightened princes and states; cultivated by men of
genius and learning, of all ranks and professions; and celebrated by
historians and poets.
This charming, as well as sublime and invaluable science, has

also been studied, and even practically cultivated, by many
celebrated women, in modern times. There are indeed
circumstances connected with this innocent and engaging pursuit,
that must render it very interesting to the fair sex. Some ladies have
prosecuted this object with such success, as to acquire considerable
distinction in the philosophical world. While, therefore, the
meritorious transactions of men are held in grateful remembrance
and frequently recorded in the annals of fame, it is due to justice and
impartiality, that literary, scientific, and other attainments of the
gentler sex, calculated for the benefit of civil society, should be alike
commemorated. Among such then, as examples, may be named the
following:—
Maria Cunitia (Kunitz,) daughter of a physician in Silesia,

published Astronomical Tables, so early as the year 1650.
Maria-Clara, the daughter of Eimmart and wife of of Muller, both
well-known astronomers, cultivated the same science.
Jane Dumée published, in the year 1680, Conversations (or

Dialogues) on the Copernican System.
Maria-Margaretta Winckelman, wife of Godfrey Kirch, an

astronomer of some distinction[41] who died in 1710, at the age of
seventy-one years, worked at his Ephemerides, and carried on
Astronomical Observations with her husband. This respectable
woman discovered the Comet[42] of 1702, on the 20th of April in that
year: she produced, in 1712, a Work on Astronomy; and died at
Berlin, in the year 1720. Her three daughters continued, for thirty
years, to employ themselves in Astronomical Observations, for the
Almanacks of Berlin.
Elizabeth d’Oginsky Puzynina, Countess Puzynina and Castellane

of Mscislau, in Poland, erected and richly endowed a magnificent
Observatory at Wilna, in the year 1753; and in 1767, she added to
this establishment a fund equivalent to twelve thousand (American)
dollars, for the purpose of maintaining an observer and purchasing
instruments. The king of Poland afterwards gave to this institution
the title of a “Royal Observatory.”
The wife of the celebrated Hevelius was, likewise, an astronomer.

Madame Hevelius made Observations along with her husband; and
she is represented, in the Machina Cœlestis, as having been
engaged in measuring distances.
In the century just passed, the Marchioness du Chatelet translated

Newton: Besides whom,—
Madame Lepaute and Madame du Piery were both known in the

Astronomical World.
In our own time, Miss Caroline Herschel, sister of the great

practical astronomer of the same name, in England, has not only
distinguished herself, by having discovered the Comet of 1786;
another, on the 17th of April, 1790; and a third, on the 8th of October,
1793;[43] but likewise by attending to Astronomical Observations,
along with her brother, for several years.
To these may be added the name of an illustrious female;

Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Frederick V. Count Palatine of the
Rhine and King of Bohemia, by the only daughter of James I. This
Princess (who was an aunt of King George I.) cultivated a fine
genius for the several branches of natural philosophy, and was well
versed in mathematical science. Although this excellent woman was
a Protestant, she was Abbess of Herworden in Westphalia, where
she died in 1680, at the age of sixty-two years.
Mr. Lalande, in the prefatory department of his great work on

Astronomy, after noticing the Abbé Pluche’s book, entitled Spectacle
de la Nature, says: “The freshness of the shade, the stillness of
night, the soft beams of twilight, the luminaries that bespangle the
heavens, the various appearances of the moon, all form in the hands
of Pluche a fit subject for fine descriptive colouring: it takes in view
all the wants of man, regards the attention of the Supreme Being to
those wants, and recognizes the glory of the Creator. His book is a
treatise on final causes, as well as a philosophical work; and there
are a great many young persons to whom the reading of it would
afford satisfaction and pleasure.” Observing that he himself had no
object in view, in his own work, but merely to treat of Astronomy,
Lalande recommends to his readers, Nature Displayed, Derham’s
Astro-Theology, and the Dialogues of Fontenelle on The Plurality of
Worlds. Such works as these, with some elementary books on
astronomy and those branches of science most intimately connected
with that science, would be very proper for the study of that
respectable class of females, whose minds are too elevated and
correct to derive any gratification from the trifling productions of most
of the modern novellists and romance-writers; but who, at the same
time, might not be desirous of engaging in the more abstruse and
laborious researches, which demand the attention of profound
practical astronomers.[44] The grand, the delightful views of nature,
which studies of this sort would present to the vivid imagination, the
delicate sensibility, and the good dispositions of a woman of genius
and refinement, would not only improve her understanding and
sanction the best feelings of her heart, but they would furnish her
mind with an inexhaustible fund of animating reflections and rational
enjoyments: in every respect, indeed, they would contribute to her
happiness.
Let not, then, the beauties of astronomical science, and the

captivating studies of natural philosophy in general, be exclusively
enjoyed by men; but let the amiable, the intelligent, and the improved
part of the female sex, be invited to a participation, with them, in
these intellectual pleasures.[45]
Here, perhaps, might be rested the evidence of the all-important

usefulness of that branch of knowledge, in which our American
Philosopher was pre-eminently distinguished.
But, inasmuch as astronomy forms a part of mathematical science,

more especially of those branches of it, which, under the
denomination of mixed and practical mathematics, are intimately and
inseparably interwoven, every where, with physical considerations,
the reader will, it is presumed, be gratified by a perusal of the
following admirable description of the Uses of Mathematics,
extracted from the great Dr. Barrow’s Prefatory Oration,[46] upon his
admission into the Professorship, at Cambridge. Indeed, in writing
the Life of a man so eminently skilled as Dr. Rittenhouse was, in the
several departments or various branches of natural philosophy, it
seems proper and useful to exhibit to the reader such views as have
been furnished by men of renowned erudition, of the nature and
importance of that complicated, that widely-extended science, in the
cultivation of which our philosopher held so exalted a rank.
Dr. Barrow[47] thus eulogizes the Mathematics—a science “which

depends upon principles clear to the mind, and agreeable to
experience; which draws certain conclusions, instructs by profitable
rules, unfolds pleasant questions, and produces wonderful effects:
which is the fruitful parent of—I had almost said—all arts, the
unshaken foundation of sciences, and the plentiful fountain of
advantage to human affairs: In which last respect we may be said to
receive from mathematics the principal delights of life, securities of
health, increase of fortune and conveniences of labour: That we
dwell elegantly and commodiously, build decent houses for
ourselves, erect stately temples to God, and leave wonderful
monuments to posterity: That we are protected by those rampires
from the incursions of an enemy, rightly use arms, artfully manage
war, and skilfully range an army: That we have safe traffic through
the deceitful billows, pass in a direct road through the trackless ways
of the sea, and arrive at the designed ports by the uncertain impulse
of the winds: That we rightly cast up our accounts, do business
expeditiously, dispose, tabulate, and calculate scattered ranks of
numbers, and easily compute them, though expressive of huge
heaps of sand, nay immense hills of atoms: That we make pacific
separations of the bounds of lands, examine the momentums of
weights in an equal balance, and are enabled to distribute to every
one his own by a just measure: That, with a light touch, we thrust
forward bodies, which way we will, and step a huge resistance with a
very small force: That we accurately delineate the face of this earthly
orb, and subject the economy of the universe to our sight: That we
aptly digest the flowing series of time; distinguish what is acted, by
due intervals; rightly account and discern the various returns of the
seasons; the stated periods of the years and months, the alternate
increasements of days and nights, the doubtful limits of light and
shadow, and the exact difference of hours and minutes: That we
derive the solar virtue of the sun’s rays to our uses, infinitely extend
the sphere of light, enlarge the near appearances of objects, bring
remote objects near, discover hidden things, trace nature out of her
concealments, and unfold her dark mysteries: That we delight our
eyes with beautiful images, cunningly imitate the devices and portray
the works of nature; imitate, did I say? nay excel; while we form to
ourselves things not in being, exhibit things absent, and represent
things past: That we recreate our minds, and delight our ears, with
melodious sounds; attemperate the inconstant undulations of the air
to musical tones; add a pleasant voice to a sapless log; and draw a
sweet eloquence from a rigid metal; celebrate our Maker with an
harmonious praise, and not unaptly imitate the blessed choirs of
heaven: That we approach and examine the inaccessible seats of
the clouds, distant tracts of land, unfrequented paths of the sea; lofty
tops of mountains, low bottoms of vallies, and deep gulphs of the
ocean: That we scale the ethereal towers; freely range through the
celestial fields; measure the magnitudes and determine the
interstices of the stars; prescribe inviolable laws to the heavens
themselves, and contain the wandering circuit of the stars within
strict bounds: Lastly, that we comprehend the huge fabric of the
universe; admire and contemplate the wonderful beauty of the divine
workmanship, and so learn the incredible force and sagacity of our
own minds by certain experiments, as to acknowledge the blessings
of heaven with a pious affection.”
The honours that have been rendered to celebrated men in almost

every age of the world, and by all nations concerning which we have
any historical memorials, are noticed by numberless writers, both
ancient and modern. The cultivation of astronomical science had,
doubtless, its origin in the remotest ages of antiquity,[48] through the
Chaldeans,[49] the Egyptians, the Phœnicians and Greeks, the Arabs,
and the Chinese. But the Indians of the western hemisphere appear
to have had little knowledge of astronomy, at the time of Columbus’s
discovery, yet they were not inattentive to its objects: for Acosta tells
us, that the Peruvians observed the equinoxes, by means of
columns erected before the temple of the sun at Cusco, and by a
circle traced around it. Condamine likewise relates, that the Indians
on the river of the Amazons gave to the Hyades, as we do, the name
of the Bull’s-head; and Father Lasitau says, that the Iroquois called
the same stars the Bear, to which we give that name; and
designated the Polar star by the appellation of the immoveable star.
Captain Cook informs us, that the inhabitants of Taiti, in like manner,
distinguish the different stars; and know in what part of the heavens
they will appear, for each month in the year; their year consisting of
thirteen lunar months, each being twenty-nine days.
Astronomy has been patronised by many great princes and

sovereign states. Lalande observes, that, about the year 1230, the
Emperor Frederick II.[50] prepared the way for the renewal of the
sciences among the moderns, and professed himself to be their
protector. His reign, according to the great French astronomer just
mentioned, forms the first epocha of the revival of astronomy in
Europe.
Coeval with that sovereign, was Johannes de Sacro-Bosco,[51] a

famous English ecclesiastic, who was the first astronomical writer
that acquired celebrity in the thirteenth century. Very nearly about the
same time, appeared also that prodigy of genius and learning, Friar
Bacon:[52] and from that period, down to our own day, there has been
a succession of illustrious philosophers: whose names have justly
been renowned, for the benefits they have conferred on mankind;
names which reflect honour on the countries to which they
respectively belong. Many of those benefactors of the world were
honoured with marks of high distinction, by their sovereigns and
cotemporaries; and their fame will descend to the latest posterity.
In recording these Memoirs of the Life of an American

Philosopher, whose name adds dignity to the country that gave him
birth, it is the design of the author to represent him as he truly was;
and in doing so, he feels a conscious satisfaction, that his pen is
employed in delineating the character of a man, who was rendered
singularly eminent by his genius, his virtues and his public services.
Deeply impressed with the magnitude and importance, as well as
delicacy of the subject, the writer has not undertaken the task
without some hesitation. He is sensible of the difficulties attending it,
and conscious of his inability to do justice to its merits. Arduous,
however, as the undertaking is, and since no abler pen has hitherto
attempted any thing more, on this subject, than to eulogize[53] some
of the prominent virtues and talents of our philosopher, his present
biographer will endeavour, by the fidelity with which he shall portray
the character of that truly estimable man, to atone for the
imperfections of the work in other respects. Possessing, as he does,
some peculiar advantages, in relation to the materials necessary for
this undertaking, he flatters himself it will be found, that he has been
enabled thereby to exhibit to his countrymen, and the world
generally, a portrait, which, in its more important features, may prove
deserving of some share of public regard.
Sir William Forbes, in the introduction to his interesting Account of

the Life and Writings of the late Dr. Beattie, reminds his readers, that
“Mr. Mason prefaces his excellent and entertaining Memoirs of the
Life and Writings of Gray, with an observation more remarkable for
its truth than novelty;” that “the Lives of men of letters seldom
abound with incidents.”—“A reader of sense and taste, therefore,”
continues Mr. Mason, “never expects to find, in the Memoirs of a
Philosopher or Poet, the same species of entertainment or
information, which he would receive from those of a Statesman or
General. He expects, however, to be informed or entertained. Nor
will he be disappointed, did the writer take care to dwell principally
on such topics as characterize the man, and distinguish that peculiar
part which he acted in the varied drama of society.”
Yet these observations of Mr. Gray’s biographer, though pretty

generally correct, admit of some qualification and many exceptions,
depending on a variety of circumstances. It is true, that a mere
narrative of the life of a “philosopher,” as well as of a “poet,”
considered only as such, and abstractedly, must be expected to be
devoid of much “incident” that can interest the generality of readers.
But, both philosophers and poets have, in some instances, been also
statesmen; sometimes, even generals: both have, not unfrequently,
distinguished themselves as patriots, and benefactors of mankind.
In writing the life of our philosopher, the plan of a dry recital of only
such circumstances and occurrences as have an immediate relation
to the individual, has not been pursued. Biographical Memoirs, it is
conceived, do not confine a writer to limits so narrow, but permit him
to take a much greater latitude. It is even allowable, in works of this
kind, to introduce historical facts, memorable events, proceedings of
public bodies, notices of eminent men, evidences of the progress
and state of literature, science and the arts, and the actual condition
of civil society, in the scene that is contemplated; together with
occasional reflections on those and similar subjects. Some of these
objects may not seem, perhaps, to be necessarily or very intimately
connected with the principal design, the life of the person treated of:
but such of them as should, at first view, appear to have the most
remote relation to that object, may be afterwards discovered to be
both useful and interesting in a discussion of this nature; while others
serve to elucidate the main scope of the work. A latitude of this
description, in the compilation of memoirs, seems to be quite
consistent with the genius and spirit of works of that nature; and the
modern practice of memoir-writers has been conformable to this
view of the subject.[54]
The writer of the present work has therefore ventured, with all due
deference to the public opinion, to pursue the course here described.
And in doing this, he presumes that the comprehensive range he has
allowed himself has enabled him to render his memoirs, even of a
“philosopher,” not altogether barren of incidents, nor destitute, he
trusts, either of pleasing information or useful instruction.
NOTE.—The reader is requested to substitute (with his pen) the word Earth, in
the place of “Sun,” in the sixth line of the note numbered (18), page xxxii. of the
foregoing Introduction: the error in the print is an essential one; and passed
unobserved, until it was too late to correct it in the press. At the same time the
reader will be pleased to insert the word security, in the place of “scarcity,” in the
ninth line from the top of page xlii.

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(eBook PDF) Becoming a Teacher 10th

Edition by Forrest W. Parkay

New Pedagogy and Up-To-Date Content

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Popular Features to Engage Readers

PA RT 1 DEAR KOURTNI Education is an exciting field and,

SINCERELY, ADRIENNE LEHMAN, M.ED.

TEACHERS’ VOICES BEING AN AGENT OF CHANGE

An Emphasis On Today’s Technologies

Instructor’s Resource Center

version, their hard work is deeply appreciated. Additionally, I am forever grateful to

Chapter 2: Today’s Teachers

Chapter 10: Creating a Community of Learners

PART 2 FOUNDATIONS OF TEACHING 110

PART 3 THE ART OF TEACHING 264

Appendix Preparing for Certification: Your Guide to Licensure 470

THE TEACHING PROFESSION 2

The NEAFT Partnership 69

THE ART OF TEACHING 264 Learning Styles 316

Today’s Students 266 Special Education Laws 326

Ethnicity and Race 273 Partnerships with Parents 335

Minority Groups and Academic Achievement 275 Summary 336

What Are the Challenges of Integrating Technology Glossary 477

Cultivating, as Plato did, the mind-expanding science of

According to Mr. Gibbon, the philosophers of Greece deduced

Great were, undoubtedly, the improvements in astronomy, made

“Nature and Nature’s Laws lay hid in night;

The objects of a genuine philosophy, are the discovery and

The enlightened part of the people have, in every civilized nation

With respect to the usefulness and importance of that majestic

Among the numerous and important advantages, then, resulting

“The utility of navigation for the welfare of a state, serves to prove

“Ancient chronology deduces, from a knowledge and calculation of

“It is besides from astronomy, that we borrow the division of time in

“If, for want of clocks and watches, we should be under the

“Le Sage is displeased with good reason with those, whom an

Adverting to such as considered “fire, or wind, or the swift air, or

“David found also, in the stars,” continues Lalande, “means of

Such were the reflections of Mr. Lalande, on a subject with which

The opinions of eminent and enlightened men have deservedly

“The obvious argument of the existence of a Deity, who formed

None of the works of creation present to the contemplation of man

Although no astronomer of our day, how enthusiastic soever he

That the erect countenance and upward aspect of the human

“Finxit in effigiem moderantum cuncta deorum;

Mr. Pope has well observed, that—

“The proper study of mankind, is Man:”—

But, in order that he may be enabled to know himself, it is

“Looks, through Nature, up to Nature’s God.”[36]

Besides the various and important uses of astronomy, here

“Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the

Some of the greatest poets of antiquity were in a manner

—-—-—“Juvat ire per alta

And Horace acquaints us with the objects of curiosity and